Azad Jammu & Kashmir Public Service Commission

(AJ&K PSC)
Kashmir Studies & English Portion

Developed By Muhammad Naseer Awan District Poonch

Rawalakot AJ&K
Subject Specialist English B-17 AJ&K E&SE Dept.
M.A English Linguistics & Literature
B.Ed, M.Ed
(Whatsap 03229310761)
Without continual growth and progress, such words as
improvement, achievement, and success have no meaning.
The path from dreams to success does exist. May you have the
vision to find it, the courage to get on to it, and the
perseverance to follow it. Just pray for me….

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 Azad Jammu & Kashmir Public Service Commission (AJK PSC)

Kashmir Studies Question Bank

Headmistress Paper 17-01-2018 AJK PSC Kashmir Studies Portion Solved.
1. The book ―Raj Trangi‖ was written in:
a. Sanskrit b. Persian
b. Urdu d. None of these
2. Samarkand was renowned for its:
a. Carpets b. Silk products
b. Cotton Fabrics d. None of these
3. Who was known as ―Nightingale of Kashmir‖?
a. Habba Khatoon b. Keta Rani
b. Lalla Arifa d. None of these
4. Which Mughal Emperor construct network of roads in Kashmir?
a. Jahangir b. Shah Jahan
b. Aurangzeb d. None of these
5. The ―Moi e Muqaddas‖ The hair of Nabi Pak SAW was shifted to Kashmir by:
a. Khawaja Noor ud Din Eshal b. Khawaja Zahir ud Din
b. Ahmed Shah Abdali d. None of these
6. Young Men’s Muslim association was founded in:
a. 1906 b. 1907
b. 1908 d. 1909
7. Who was the first president of Muslim Conference?
a. Ch Ghulam Abbas b. Sheikh Abdullah
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. None of these
8. Who was the first prime minister of Azad Jammu and Kashmir?
a. Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan b. Khan Abdul Hamid Khan
b. K.H Khurshid d. None of these
9. The Government of Kashmir sent proposal of standstill agreement on:
a. 11th August 1947 b. 12th August 1947
b. 13th August 1947 d. None of these
10. The cease fire line was converted into Line of Control under:
a. Simla Agreement b. Tashkent Agreement
b. Karachi Agreement d. None of these

Assistant 2016 AJK PSC Kashmir Studies Portion Solved.

1. Who wrote the first authentic history of Kashmir?
a. Pandit Premnath b. Pandit Kalhana
b. Pandit Brijkaul d. Pandit Ravi Shankar
2. Who is credited with spreading Islam in Kashmir?
a. Peeray Shah Ghazi b. Sheikh Noor Din Wali

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 b. Syed Ali Hamdani d. Syed Bulbul Shah

3. Which is the longest of the rivers which flow through Kashmir?

a. Jhelum b. Shyok
b. Ravi d. Chenab
4. Who was the last Muslim ruler of Kashmir?
a. Sultan Zain ul Abideen Bud Shah b. Sultan Shams ud Din Sha Mir
b. Sultan Yusuf Shah Chak d. Sultan Yakub Shah Chak
5. When was the treaty of Amritsar between British Government and Mahraja
Gulab Singh was signed?
a. 16 March 1846 b. 16 May 1846
b. 26 May 1846 d. 26 March 1846
6. Who wrote the book ―Aatish e Chinaar‖?
a. Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah b. Ch. Ghulam Abbas
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. Syed Ali Shah Gilani
7. Installed capacity of Neelum Jhelum hydro power project is:
a. 663 MW b. 1135 MW
b. 767 MW d. 969 MW
8. What is the significance of Article 35-A of Indian Constitution?
a. It allows Kashmiris to travel to Line of Control without passport
b. It safeguards the religious sites of the Muslims
c. It restricts the ownership of property in IOK to permanent residents
d. Provides subsidized electricity to permanent residents in IOK
9. What does the acronym AKLASC stand for?
a. Azad Kashmir logistic and supply corporation
b. Azad Kashmir Legal Assistance Company
c. Azad Kashmir Literacy and Secondary Education Company
d. Azad Kashmir Logging & Saw-Mills Corporation.
10. CPEC entails the following infrastructure projects in Azad Kashmir
a. Mirpur MZD Mansehra Road b. Mangla Dam Upraising Project
b. Azad Kashmir Tourism Corridor d. All of the above
11. After the enactment of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Interim Constitution
(Thirteenth Amendment) Act 2018, the number of members of Legislative
Assembly will be:
a. 59 b. 58
b. 53 d. 51
12. What did UN Security Council resolution 47 say about Jammu and Kashmir?
a. Ans: Right of self determination of the people of Jammu and Kashmir
13. The Reading Room Party was established in 1930, what was its aim?
a. Ans: Create Socio Political awakening among the people of Kashmir
14. When was Maqbool Butt martyred? (Tihar Jail New Dehli)
a. 11 Feb 1984 b. 16 Feb 1983

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 b. 13 Jul 1984 d. 5 Feb 1984
15. When was the first legislative assembly of Jammu and Kashmir established?
a. 1846 b. 1934
b. 1944 d. 1925

Research Officer, Planning Officer, 14-10 2016 AJK PSC Kashmir Studies
Portion Solved.
1. When was Kargal war started?
a. May 08, 1999 b. June 08, 1999
b. July 08, 1999 d. None of these
2. Who was arrested on October 19, 1946?
a. Farooq Abdullah b. Ibrahim Khan
b. Sheikh Abdullah d. Ch. Ghulam Abbas
3. No Tax campaign was launched in 1932 in:
a. Mirpur b. Srinagar
b. Jammu d. Poonch
4. All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference was established in:
a. 1931 b. 1932
b. 1933 d. 1934
5. Syed Khadim Hussain Shah, a Kashmiri leader, belonged to:
a. Kotli b. Bagh
b. Plandri d. Mirpur
6. Mountbatten visited Hari Singh on:
a. June 14, 1947 b. June 15, 1947
b. June 16, 1947 d. June 17, 1947
7. In 1819, the Sikh army entered Kashmir under the command of:
a. Pertab Singh b. Hari Singh
b. Ranjeet Singh (Kharak Singh also) d. None of these
8. Stand Still Agreement was offered by:
a. Hari Singh b. Nehru
b. Ibrahim Khan d. Sheikh Abdullah
9. Who was known as the Raja of Uri?
a. Sardar Ghulam Ali b. Raja Sarfraz Khan
b. Raja Zabardast Khan d. Muzaffar Khan
10. Where is fort Baghser located?
a. Mung b. Sharda
b. Smahni d. Mangla
11. Name the Kashmiri leader who died in a road accident:
a. Sheikh Abdullah b. Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. K.H Khurshid
12. Earthquake memorial bridge is located in?
a. Bagh b. Muzaffarabad
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 b. Neelum d. Balakot
13. Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan was born in:
a. 1924 b. 1925
b. 1926 d. 1927
14. Where is radio Trarkhel operational?
a. Trarkhel b. Islamabad
b. Muzaffarabad d. Rawalpindi
15. Who is the Chief Justice of Supreme Court of Azad Kashmir.
a. Mustafa Mughal b. Azam Khan
b. Ibrahim Zia ________________

Secondary School Teacher General Line AJK PSC Paper 28-01-2018

Kashmir Studies Portion Solved.
1. The book ―Rajtrangi‖ was written by:
a. Rentchen Shaw b. Pandit Kalhana
b. Muhammad Din Farooq d. None of these
2. According to 1947 census, the total area of Kashmir is?
a. 84,258 sq. miles b. 84,432 sq. miles
b. 84,471 sq. miles d. None of these
3. Bukhara was famous for its:
a. Carpets b. Silk Products
b. Cotton Fabrics d. None of these
4. Muhammad Bin Qasim conquered Sindh in:
a. 811 A.D b. 712 A.D
b. 713 A.D d. None of these
5. Kashmir was known for its:
a. Saffron b. Rubies
b. Silk d. None of these
6. Rinchin embraced Islam and adopted the name of:
a. Shah Mir b. Sultan Sadruddin
b. Bulbul Shah d. None of these
7. All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference was established in:
a. October 1932 b. October 1933
b. October 1934 d. None of these
th
8. In the history of Kashmir, 13 July, 1931 observed as:
a. Martyr Day b. Solidarity Day
b. Freedom Day d. None of these
9. The book Kashmir Saga was written by:
a. Ch. Muhammad Ali b. Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. None of these
10. Who was the first elected president of Azad Jammu and Kashmir through Adult
Franchise:
a. Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan b. K.H Khurshid

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 b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. None of these

Revenue Officer Paper AJK PSC 2016 Kashmir Studies Portion Solved.
1. Where precious stone ruby is found in AJK?
a. District Neelum b. District Havely
b. District Bagh d. District Poonch
2. How many degree colleges were there in AJK in 1947?
a. 3 b. 4
b. 6 d. None
3. Sultan Zain ul Abideen Bud Shah passed away in the year:
a. 1470 b. 1475
b. 1477 d. 1479
4. Srinagar-Muzaffarabad bus service started in:
a. 2004 b. 2005
b. 2006 None of these
5. Delhi Accord was signed by Indra Gandhi and:
a. Abdul Qayyum Khan b. Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. K.H Khurshid
6. Mir Waiz Molana Muhammad Yousuf Shah joined Muslim Conference in:
a. 1930 b. 1934
b. 1938 d. 1942
7. When Muzaffarabad was made the capital of AJK?
a. 1947 b. 1948
b. 1949 d. 1950
8. Who was the second president of AJK?
a. Ali Ahmed Shah b. K.H Khurshid
b. Ibrahim Khan d. Sher Khan
9. Liberation League was established in:
a. Mirpur b. Rawalpindi
b. Muzaffarabad d. Islamabad
10. How far is Kohala bridge from the capital of AJK?
a. 28 KM b. 30 KM
b. 35 KM d. 40 KM
11. A well known book ―Mata-e-Zindagi‖ was written by:
a. Sheikh M. Abdullah b. Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. K.H Khurshid d. Sardar Ibrahim Khan
12. How many women seats are there in Legislative Assembly of AJK?
a. 5 b. 6
b. 7 d. _______
13. The state of AJK is divided into how many divisions?
a. 3 b. 5
b. 7 d. 10
14. What is the power generating capacity of Neelum Jhelum Hydro Power Project?

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 a. 950 b. 955
b. 960 d. 969
15. Who is the chief justice of supreme court of AJK?
a. Mustafa Mughal b. Azam Khan
b. Ibrahim Zia d. _______

Assistant Director Paper AJK PSC 2016 Kashmir Studies Portion Solved.
1. Who signed Jammu and Kashmir instrument of Accession?
a. Hari Singh b. Gulab Singh
b. Ranjeet Singh d. None of these
2. How many districts are there in AJK?
a. 7 b. 8
b. 9 d. 10
3. What is the total area of Siachin Glacier square miles?
a. 450 b. 475
b. 525 d. 550
4. Kishan Ganga was the old name of the river?
a. Jhelum b. Neelum
b. Sindh d. Sutlaj
5. Afghans ruled Kashmir for?
a. 60 years b. 66 years
b. 70 years d. 75 year
6. National Conference was established in :
a. 1931 b. 1934
b. 1938 d. 1939
7. How many Kashmiris were killed on July 13, 1931?
a. 17 b. 19
b. 22 d. 27
8. K.H Khurshid was born in?
a. Srinagar b. Bara Mula
b. Muzaffarabad d. Sialkot
9. Death anniversary of Ch. Ghulam Abbas is observed on:
a. 16 December b. 18 December
b. 21 December d. 25 December
10. Persian was official language in Kashmir till?
a. 1918 b. 1922
b. 1924 d. 1930
11. A well known book ―Aatish-e-Chinar‖ was written by:
a. Sheikh M. Abdullah b. Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. K.H Khurshid d. Sardar Ibrahim Khan
12. University of AJK was established in:
a. 1978 b. 1980
b. 1982 d. 1984

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 13. Who was the first elected prime minister of AJK?
a. Khan A. Hamid Khan b. Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. None of these
14. How many languages are spoken in Jammu and Kashmir?
a. 60 b. 64
b. 68 d. 72
15. Radio Azad Kashmir was established in:
a. 1947 b. 1948
b. 1949 d. 1950

History of Jammu & Kashmir, (Governments, Politics)

General Information

 Sultan Mehmood Gheznavi attacked on Kashmir in 1015.

 When he attacked on Kashmir, at that time there ruled Raja Sangram Singh.
 After the defeat of Raja Sehdio, Rinchin Shah captured the throne.
 On a peak near Srinagar, Suleman‘s (Tekht) landed, the peak is called ―Tekht-e-
Suleman‖.
 India ended Shahi Raj and joined Kashmir to the Indian Union on 24 July 1956
 Budhism remained the official religion of Kashmir for 300 years.
 During Rinchin Shah‘s era, the official language of Kashmir was Sanskrit.

Ariya Family:

 The real motherland of Ariya was Khuwarzam Bukhara

 Some of Ariya and Mongol families are residing in Muzaffarabad Kail
 When Ariya entered Kashmir, they settled near River Jhelum
 Ariya family entered in Kashmir 800 BC

Kashmir Social and Political Organizations:

1. Anjaman e Islamia Jammu was establish in 1892
2. Anjaman e Kashmiri Muslims Lahore was established in 1896 and its first president
was Kareem Bekhsh and Secretary General was Allama Iqbal
3. Anjaman Nusrat ul Islam was estalblished in 1897
4. Young Men Muslims Association was established in 1809
5. Anjaman e Islamia Poonch was established in 1911
6. Reading Room Party was established on 12th April 1930
7. All India Kashmir Committee was established in 1931

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 8. All Jammu & Kashmir Muslim Conference was established on 14,15,16 October 1932
at Pathar Masjid Srinagar where a huge crowed of at least three hundred thousand
people gathered, a stage was set above 15 feet high from the ground where 200 people
could sit. Sheikh Abdullah was elected as President and Chaduary Ghulam Abbas as
Secretary General.
9. Azad Party Muslim Conference was established in 1933
10. National Conference was established in 1939 and All Jammu & Kashmir Muslim
Conference was merged in it.
11. Anjaman e Azad e Poonch was established in 1939
12. Jammu & Kashmir Muslim League was established in 1940 due to merging of All
Jammu & Kashmir Muslim Conference.
13. Muslim Students Union was established in 1940
14. Kisan Mazdoor Conference was established in 1945

Agreements Concerning State of Jammu & Kashmir

Amritsar Agreement:

Amritsar Agreement was made between British government and Gulab Singh on 16 March,
1846, Gulab Singh had to pay 75 Lac (50 Lac at once and 25 lac before October of the same
year) Nanak Shahi to British Government and in return he was made the Mahraja of Kashmir.

Gilgat Agreement:

This agreement was made on 26 March 1935 between Hari Singh and British Resident
Kashmir Colonel L.E Ling, according to which, the defense was handed over to British
government for 60 years.

Stand Still Agreement:

This agreement was made on 12 August 1947 between Jammu and Kashmir Prime Minister
Jang Singh and Pakistan In charge State Affairs Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar. It was a
temporary agreement which soon became ineffective.

Kashmir Annexation/Accession to India Agreement

Mahraja Hari Singh wrote a letter to Lord Mountbatten on 26 October 1947 and requested
him for Annexation of Kashmir to India.

Ceasefire Agreement:

This agreement was made between Pakistan and India due to the interference of United
Nations on 1st January 1949. Due to this agreement both of the countries agreed to ceasefire
in Kashmir.

Karachi Agreement:

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This agreement was made on 28 April 1949 between Minister Kashmir Affairs and Pakistan,
according to this agreement the affairs of Gilgat Baltistan were handed over to Pakistan
temporary and Pakistan was not to declare G.B as its territorial area in anyway.

Dehli Agreement 1952.

Just as Karachi agreement, IOK government held talks with India government

Pak China Border Agreement:

2 March 1963, according to this agreement, State of Jammu and Kashmir and Chinese border
was fixed.

Tashkand Agreement 10 January 1966

This agreement was made after the tense situation due to war of 1965 between Pak and India.
On Russian invitation, Pak President General Ayub and India PM Lal Bahadar Shastri met at
Tashkand in Masco and made an agreement.

Kashmir Political and Social Movements

Kashmir Chalo Movement 11 July 1931

Movement of Adm-e-Adaigi Malia 25th December 1931 Sardar Gohar Rehman

Quit Kashmir Movement Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah 19 February 1946

Kashmir Liberation Movement 1st January 1949

Moe-e-Mubarak Movement: Moe-e-Mubarak was placed in Mesjid Hazrat Bel near

Naseem Bagh. It was stolen on 26, 27 December 1963. It was placed back by some one and
was put in the Dargah on 11 January 1964

Resistance Movement 1988

Kashmir Committees and Resolutions

Dallal Commission: 13 July 1931, it was made by Hari Singh after the murder of Kashmiri
Muslims

Glanci Commission: 12November 1931, it was made by British government

Franchise Committee: 31 May 1931, A committee which set the assembly seats

Ganganath Commission: 12th July 1943

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New Kashmir: 29,30 September 1944 National Conference under Sheikh Muhammad
Abdullah.

Free Kashmir Resolution: 8,9 June 1946, It was National Conference Resolution

Resolution of Accession/ Annexation of Kashmir to Pakistan: 19 July 1947, this

resolution was presented by Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan , the leader of Muslim
Conference

 UNO Commission for India and Pakistan: 21 April 1948 in United Nations a
resolution was presented and on 7 May 1948, a committee was set under the title
UNCIP

Azad Jammu and Kashmir Public Service Commission

Poems and Writers Names

1. William Blake’s Poems. 1757-1827

Songs of Innocence The Lamb
A poison Tree The Divine Image
Chimney Sweepers Holy Thursday
Songs of Experience The Sick Rose
The Tyger The Human Abstract
A Song of Liberty The Echoing Green
The Little Girl Found The Little Girl Lost
The Fly Spring
2. William Wordsworth’s Poems: 1770-1850:
Tin tern Abbey We are Seven
It’s a Beauteous Eve London 1802
The world is Too Much With us I wondered Lonely as a Cloud
Ode on Intimation of Immortality The Solitary Reaper
The Prelude Daffodils
To the Cuckoo The Sun Has Long Been Set
Lines Written in Early Spring, The Two April Mornings
Character of the Happy Warrior
3. Samuel Taylor Coleridge:1772-1834:Poems:
Frost at Midnight Kubla Khan
Dejection an Ode The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

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 Cristobel Youth and Age
Water Ballad
4. Percy Byshe Shelley: 1792-1822Poems:
Ozymandias, England in 1819
Ode to the West Winds The Cloud
To a Sky Lark The Triumph of Life
Time
5. John Keats: 1795-1821 Poems:
La Balle Dame Sans Merci Ode to a Nightingale
Ode on a Gracian Urn Bright Star
When I have Fears Hyperion
6. Robert Browning: 1812-1889 Poems:
My Last Duchess, Meeting at Night
Parting at Morning One Way of Love
Patriot Into Traitor
7. T.S Eliot 26 September 1888 – 4 January 1965
Departure and Arrival The Hollow Men
The Waste Land Love Songs of J Alfred Prufrock
Four Quartets
8. Emily Bronte Poems:
Lines I am the Only Being
9. Robert Frost Poems:
Fire and Ice Nothing Gold could stay
Mending Wall Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Eve The
Road not Taken After Apple Picking
10. Night Mail W.H Auden
11. O Where are you going? W.H Auden
12. This City has Ten Million Souls W.H Auden
13. He wishes for the clothes of Heaven W.B Yeats
14. Politics W.B Yeats
15. The Rose Tree W.B Yeats
16. Lady of Shallot written by: Alferd Lord Tennyson
17. Blessing of God Poem: Cecil Alexander
18. A Nation’s Strength Poem: Ralph Waldo Emerson

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19. The Character of Happy Life: Henry Wotton
20. A Fragment: Henry Wordsworth Longfellow
21. My Mother: Ann Taylor
22. Rubaiyat of Umar Khayam Edward Fitzgerald
23. Break Break Break Alferd Tennyson
24. The Snare James Stephen
25. I like to See it lap the miles Emily Dickinson
26. Leisure William Henry Davies
27. Tartary Walter De La Mare
28. New Year Resolution Elizabeth Sewell
29. Woman Work Maya Angelou
30. The Rebel Dennis Joseph Enright
31. The Huntsman Edward Low bury
32. One Art Elizabeth Bishop
33. All the World is a Stage William Shakespeare
34. Lights Out Edward Thomas
35. Because I could not Stop for Death Emily Dickinson
36. The Vanishing Village Sarah Dixon
37. Hawk’s Monologue Ted Hughes
38. Snake D.H Lawrence
39. Images and Impressions George Villiers
40. The Canterbury Tales Geoffrey Chaucer
41. Casablanca Felicia Hemans
42. A Divine Comedy Dante
43. The Rain W.H Davies
44. Loveliest of the Tree Cherry A.H Housman
45. In the Street of Fruit Stalks Jan Stall worthy
46. The Feed Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi
47. A Tale of Two Cities John Peter
48. A Man of words and not of deeds Charles Perrault
49. In Broken Images Robert Graves
50. Sonnet: A poem of fourteen lines
51. Old man the Sea written by: Earnest Hemingway

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Figures of Speech

Figure of Speech: A word or phrase that means something more or something other than it
seems to say.

Alliteration: The repetition of an initial consonant sound i.e. She sells seashells by the
seashore.

Apostrophe: Directly addressing a none existent person or an inanimate object though it

Were a living being. i.e. Oh, you stupid car, you never work when I need you to. Or to speak
to a dead person.

Antithesis: When two opposites are introduced together for contrasting effect i.e. It was the
best of times, it was the worst of times.

Anaphora: The use of words referring back to a word used earlier in a text or conversation to
avoid repetition i.e. pronoun he she, it or….. Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning
of successive clause i.e. I am awoke, I am strong, I am ready,. Mom, we will not run, we will
not scream, We will not be late.

Assonance: Similarity in sounds between vowels in neighboring words i.e. how, now, brown
cow

Consonance: It is repetitive sound produced by consonants in a sentence.

Euphemism: A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too
harsh or blunt i.e. when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing e.e. passed away
instead of died, on the street instead of homeless, between jobs instead of unemployed.

Hyperbole: An extravagant statement, the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of
emphasis or heightened effect i.e. I have tons of things to do when I get home. I am so
hungry, I could eat a horse. It was so cold, I saw a polar bear wearing hats and jackets.

Irony: The use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning i.e.
Looking at her son‘s messy room, mom says, ―Wow, you could win an award for
cleanliness‖.

Litotes: It is an understatement in which a positive statement is expressed by Negating its

opposite i.e. ―not bad‖ , you won‘t regret it. Etc

Understatement: Understatement is a form of speech or disclosure which contains an

expression of lesser strength than what would be expected. It is the opposite of an
embellishment. The rhetorical form of understatement is litotes in which understatement is
used for emphasis and irony.

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Metaphor: A metaphor states that one thing is another. It is an implied comparison between
two dissimilar things that have something in common i.e. ―All the world is a stage‖. ―The
curtain of night fell upon us‖.

Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name
of something else with which it is closely associated i.e. ―The crown‖ is used to refer to
power or authority. ―England‖ decides to keep check on immigration. ―England refers to the
government. ―Pen is mightier than sword‖. Pen refers to written words. Let me give you a
hand. Hand refers to help.

Meronym: A term which denotes part of something but which is used to refer to the whole of
it, e.g. faces when used to mean people in I see several familiar faces present.

Synecdoche: It refers to a thing by the name of one of its parts i.e. calling a car a wheel. The
wheel stands for the whole car. The phrase ―Gray hair‖ refers to an old man.

Eponym: An eponym is a person, place, or thing after whom or after which something is
named, or believed to be named. The adjectives derived from eponym
include eponymous and eponymic. For example, Elizabeth I of England is the eponym of
the Elizabethan era

Onomatopoeia: Language is arbitrary, that is there is no logical link between any gjven
feature of a language and its meaning. The only exception is in the case of onomatopoeia,
where the words imitate the sounds of their referents. Here, cuckoo is the sound made by the
bird which is how the bird got its name. It is the process of creating a word that phonetically
imitates or resembles the sound i.e. splash, drizzle, drip, growl, thunder, cuckoo etc.

Oxymoron: A combination of two contradictory or opposite words i.e. open secret, tragic
comedy, wise fool, foolish wisdom, original copies etc.

Paradox: It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly but which may include
latent truth i.e. All animals are equal but some are more equal than others (Animal Farm by
George Orwell) I must be cruel to be kind. The child is the father of man.

Personification: A figure of speech in which an inanimate object is given human qualities.

Whole thing, an idea or an animal is given the human qualities i.e. The wind whispered
through grass. Time and tide wait for none.

Pun: A pun is a play on words. It produces a humorous effect by using a word that suggests
two or more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding words that have different meanings.
i.e. It is an unkindest tied that every any man tied. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles,
I have a sole of lead.

Simile: A stated comparison usually formed with ―like‖ or ―as‖ between two fundamentally
dissimilar things i.e. Robert was as white as snow.

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Allusion: An allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing, idea of
historical, cultural or literary or political significance i.e. ―Don‘t act like Romeo in front of
her‖. The place is like garden of Eden.

Allegory: An allegory is a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand
for an abstract idea or event i.e. Animal Farm by George Orwell.

Autobiography: It tells the life story of its author. It comes through a person‘s own pen.

Antagonist/Protagonist: In literature, an antagonist is a character who stands in opposition

to protagonist which is the main character.

Antecedent: Antecedent is an earlier clause, phrase or word to which a pronoun, noun or

another word refers i.e. when children are happy, they clap. They is the antecedent.

Anecdote: Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story or an amusing event to make
the audience laugh.

Aphorism: A tersely, memorable phrased statement of a truth or opinion; an adage.

Example: He's a fool who cannot conceal his wisdom.

Adage: An aphorism that has that has gained credit through long use. Example: Where
there's smoke, there's fire.

Biography: It is simply an amount or detailed description about the life of a person.

Epigram: A concise, clever, often paradoxical statement, thought or observation; sometimes

expressed as a short, witty poem. Example: The only way to get rid of temptation is to yield
to it.

Connotation: It refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing it
describes. Word carry cultural or emotional associations or meanings. A connotation is a
commonly understood cultural or emotional association that some word or phrase carries, in
addition to its explicit or literal meaning, which is its denotation. A connotation is frequently
described as either positive or negative, with regard to its pleasing or displeasing emotional
connection.

Characterization: Introducing characters with noticeable emergence

Pathetic fallacy: The phrase pathetic fallacy is a literary term for the attribution of human
emotion and conduct to things found in nature that are not human. It is a kind of
personification that occurs in poetic descriptions, when, for example, clouds seem sullen,
when leaves dance, or when rocks seem indifferent

Epigraph: An inscription on a building, statue, or coin. A short quotation or saying at the

beginning of a book or chapter, intended to suggest its theme. In literature, an epigraph is a
phrase, quotation, or poem that is set at the beginning of a document, monograph or section
thereof.

16
Couplet: Couplet has two successive rhyming lines in a verse and same meter.

Foil: In fiction, a foil is a character who contrasts with another character, usually the
protagonist, to highlight qualities of the other character. In some cases, a subplot can be used
as a foil to the main plot. This is especially true in the case of meta fiction and the "story
within a story"

Parallel Structure: A repetition of sentences using the same structure

Conflict: It is struggle between two opposing forces.

Conceit: When two objects are linked together with the help of similes or metaphors.

Colloquialism: It is use of informal words, phrases or even slang in literature.

Catastrophe: It brings the story to a logical end.

Coherence: Logical connections to link together. Semantic connectedness that we expect to

find in a story.

Critique: It means to critically evaluate a piece of literary work.

Dialect: A particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social group

Hamartia: A fatal flaw leading to the downfall of a tragic hero or heroine. "there's supposed
to be an action that reveals the protagonist's hamartia"

Hubris (/ˈhjuːbrɪs/, from ancient Greek ὕβρις) describes a personality quality of extreme or
foolish pride or dangerous overconfidence, often in combination with (or synonymous with)
arrogance.

Denotation: It is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word.

Diction: It is defined as style of speaking or writing determined by the choice of words.

Epithet: Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing or a person in
such a way that it helps in making its characteristics more prominent.

Stream of Consciousness: A literary style in which a character's thoughts, feelings, and

reactions are depicted in a continuous flow uninterrupted by objective description or
conventional dialogue. James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Marcel Proust are among its
notable early exponents.

Epilogue: It is the chapter at the end of a work.

Fable: Concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end.

Fantasy: Literary genre in which a plot can not occur in real world.

Homograph: Words have the same spellings but different meanings.

17
Homophone: Words having same sound but different spellings and meanings.

Juxtaposition: Two ideas, characters and places etc placed together for comparison and
contrast.

Idiom: Mean something quite different to what individual words imply.

Imagery: Represent objects, actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our senses.

Myth: It is legendary or traditional story involving historical events or supernatural beings.

Monologue: It means a speech made by a single character to express his/her thoughts.

Poetic Justice: Ideas Ideal form of justice, good characters are rewarded and bad are
punished.

Parody: Imitation of a particular writer, artist or genre or famous piece of literature for
humorous effect.

Flat Character: A flat character is a type of character in fiction that does not change too
much from the start of the narrative to its end.

Round Character: A round character is a major player in a work of fiction—often referred

to as the star of the story—who encounters conflict and is changed by the conflict that falls
upon them. Round characters tend to be more fully developed and fully described than the
flat, or static, characters

Parable: It represents a short story with a moral lesson at the end.

Proverb: Popular saying or advice.

Prologue: Opening of a story that establishes the setting and gives background details.

Rhetoric: It is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or

written form.

Slang: A type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very
informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular
context or group of people

Satire: Technique employed by writers to explain expose and criticize individuals or society.

Symbolism: Use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic meanings
i.e. A chain may stand for union.

Wit: It makes the readers laugh, clever expression of thoughts.

Vernacular: It is writing and speaking of public. It is different from written works.

Tone: The attitude of the writer towards a subject or an audience. Choice of words or view
point of writer.

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Theme: Main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work.

Rhyme: Correspondence or similarity in the final sounds of two or more lines.

Meter: Pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.

Stanza: A grouping of two or more lines of a poem in terms of length, metrical form or
rhyme scheme.

Couplet: Two rhymed lines that are together and may or may not stand alone in a poem.

Rhythm: Arrangement of words create an audible pattern or beat when read aloud.

Consonance: Repeated consonant sounds at the end of words placed near each other i.e.
beats into the past… t sound.

Rhyme Scheme: Pattern established by the arrangement of rhymes in a stanza.

Blank Verse: Unrhymed work

Free verse: Lines with no prescribed pattern or structure.

Couplet: A pair of rhymed lines. Short stanza

Quatrain: It is a type of stanza or complete poem consisting of four lines.

Ballad: A narrative poem written as a series of quatrains. Wide range of subjects.

Limerick: It is a form of verse, usually humorous and frequently rude, in five lines, Scheme
AABBA

Lyric: Lyric poetry expresses personal emotions or feelings, for the purpose of singing.

Ode: Intense expression of elevated thoughts praising a person or any object.

Trio let: A stanza poem of eight lines. Or seven or nine lines.

Haiku: Ancient form of poems, composed of three lines.

Narrative: A narrative poem tells the story of an event in the form of a poem.

Epic: A lengthy narrative poem in grand language celebrating the adventures and
accomplishments of a legendary or conventional hero.

Ballade: It has three stanzas of seven, eight or ten lines.

Burlesque: Poetry that treats serious subject as humor.

Pastoral: A poem that depicts rural life in a peaceful way.

Sestina: Six line stanzas.

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Foreshadowing: When author hints at events to come.

Verisimilitude: Being believable or having the appearance of being true.

Vernacular: Language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people.

Competence: Abstract ability of an individual to speak a language he has learned in his

childhood.

Context: Environment in which a word, phrase occurs.

Diachronic: The way in which a language has developed through time.

Synchronic: A reference to one point of time in language. The term Synchronic and
Diachronic is given by Saussure. Linguistics is a scientific study of language. It can be
divided into three types namely: Historical or Diachronic Linguistics, Synchronic Linguistics
and Comparative Linguistics.

Lay Speaker: Ordinary speaker who doesn‘t know language structure.

Onomastic: Study of names, personal and places.

Rhetoric: Technique of speaking effectively in public.

Root: Un alterable core of a word.

Stress: Acoustic prominence of syllable in a word.

Syllable: A single unit of speech in English usually containing a vowel. There are two
syllables in water i.e. wa-ter

Transcription: A system of representing sounds in writing.

Stem: Part of a word to which prefixes and suffixes can be added.

Suffix: Any element attached to the right hand side of the stem.

Lexeme: The smallest unit which is semantically independent i.e. walk is lexeme and it has
various forms i.e. walks, walking etc

The Lemma: The lemma is the form used in dictionaries as an entry's headword. Other
forms of a lexeme are often listed later in the entry if they are uncommon or irregularly
inflected forms.

Lexical/Lexicon: Vocabulary of a language or related to dictionary meanings.

Thesaurus: A kind of dictionary which consists of words grouped according to similarity in

meanings.

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Syntax: In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the
structure of sentences (sentence structure) in a given language, usually including word order.
The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

Noun Phrase: Any part of a sentence which has a noun as its head.

Connotation: An additional meaning which arises due to the association a word has.

Denotation: The relationship between a word and non-linguistic outside world.

Homograph: Any two or more words which are written in the same way but pronunciation
may be different i.e. lead verb lead noun read. Read

Homonym: Any set of words which share their form but have different meanings i.e. bar
legal profession and bar public house.

Lexical meanings: Dictionary meanings

Sociolinguistics: The study of how language is used in society.

Bilingualism: The ability to use two languages with native like competence

Lingua Franca: A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose
native languages are different.

Dialect: Geographically distinct variety of a language. There are urban and rural dialects

Ethnography of Communication: The study of the cultural differences in acts of

communication.

Sociolect: A variety of a language which is typical of a certain class.

Speech Community: Group of speakers who use a more unified type of language.

Vernacular: The language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular country or
region.

Psycho linguistics: The study of language in relation to our cognition and to the way we
acquire a language.

Etymology: An area of historical linguistics which is concerned with development of forms

and meanings of words

Typology: The description of the grammatical structure of language.

The first objective of teaching English Language is to: Develop listening skill

Kinds of sounds are: Consonant sounds, vowel sounds

Articulators: Tongue, Teeth, Lips

21
Uttering with force of breath is: Stress

The highest level in linguistics is: Phonetics not phonology

The number of vowels in English are: Five

The number of consonants in English are: Twenty One

Conversion of spoken words to written language is: Transcription

Transcription is also known as: Notation

Arthrography means: Writing system

Number of Sounds: Vowel Twenty and Consonant sounds are Twenty Four

The no. of phonemes in standard British Language: Forty four

The letters which are written not spoken are: Silent

Language, expression of feelings: Functional view

How language is structured is: Structural view

Arbitrariness means: Chosen without reason

In listening….. is involved: Ear and mind

The first step in listening is: Perception and decoding

STM stands for: Short Term Memory

LTM stands for: Long Term Memory

According to Rivers and Temper lay: 45% is: Time devoted to listening in communication
activities

Time devoted to speaking in communication is: 30%

Time devoted to reading activities is: 16%

Time devoted to writing activities is: 9%

Global listening is also called as: Extensive Listening

Discrete/ separate listening is also known as: Intensive listening

Listening amusing radio program is: Extensive Listening

Listening public announcement at railway is: Intensive Listening

Dictation means: Test for writing

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Cloze means: Missing part

Which one is authentic material: books, library, magazines, real life

Reading means: Recognition and Comprehension

Intonation is the use of: Tunes

Skimming is reading quickly to know: What it is about

Scanning is reading quickly to know: Specific piece of information

Which of title fits the text best is the example of: Skimming

See the time table and tell the break time is example: Scanning

Reading question paper in examination hall is: Intensive Reading

Novel reading is an example of: Extensive Reading

3 Rs stand for: Read, Recall, Review

SQ stand for: Survey, Question

Punctuation is: Marks

Analogy is: Comparison between two things. An analogy compares two things that are
mostly different from each other but have some traits in common. By showing a connection
between two different things, writers help to explain something important about one thing by
using a second thing you already know about. moon : night :: sun : day good : bad :: black :
white feather : bird :: fur : dog gray : black :: pink : red hot : oven :: cold : refrigerator

Monograph: A monograph is a specialist work of writing on a single subject or an aspect of

a subject, often by a single author, and usually on a scholarly subject.

Dialogue: Dialogue is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more

people

The picaresque novel: The Picaresque novel is a genre of prose fiction that depicts the
adventures of a roguish, but "appealing hero", of low social class, who lives by his wits in a
corrupt society.

Conversation: A talk, especially an informal one, between two or more people, in which
news and ideas are exchanged.

Haptic: Haptic technology or kinesthetic communication recreates the sense of touch by

applying forces, vibrations, or motions to the user

Malapropism: A malapropism is the use of an incorrect word in place of a word with a

similar sound, resulting in a nonsensical, sometimes humorous utterance. An example is the

23
statement by baseball player Yogi Berra, "Texas has a lot of electrical votes", rather than
"electoral votes".

Invective: insulting, abusive, or highly critical language.

Iambic Pentameter: A line of verse with five metrical feet, each consisting of one short (or
unstressed) syllable followed by one long (or stressed) syllable, for example Two households,
both alike in dignity.

Heroic Couplet: (in verse) a pair of rhyming iambic pentameters, much used by Chaucer and
the poets of the 17th and 18th centuries such as Alexander Pope.

Forensic linguistics: Forensic linguistics, legal linguistics, or language and the law, is the
application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the forensic context of law,
language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. It is a branch of
applied linguistics.

Forgery: Forgery is a white-collar crime that generally refers to the false making or material
alteration of a legal instrument with the specific intent to defraud anyone

Scripture: Religious texts are texts which religious traditions consider to be central to their
practice or beliefs

Sermon: A sermon is an oration or lecture by a preacher. Sermons address a scriptural,

theological, religious, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law, or behavior
within both past and present contexts.

Oracy: The ability to express oneself fluently and grammatically in speech.

Literacy: Dictionaries traditionally define literacy as the ability to read and write. In the
modern world, this is one way of interpreting literacy. One more broad interpretation sees
literacy as knowledge and competence in a specific area.

Numeracy: Numeracy is the ability to reason and to apply simple numerical concepts. Basic
numeracy skills consist of comprehending fundamental arithmetic‘s like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Prophecy: A prophecy is a message that is claimed by a prophet to have been communicated

to them by a god. Such messages typically involve inspiration, interpretation, or revelation of
divine will concerning the prophet's social world and events to come.

Father of linguistics: Noam Chomsky is known as the father of modern linguistics

Rhotic Consonants: Rhotic consonants, or "R-like" sounds, are liquid consonants that are
traditionally represented orthographically by symbols derived from the Greek letter rho,
including ⟨R⟩,

Assimilation: In phonology, assimilation is a sound change where some phonemes

(typically consonants or vowels) change to be more similar to other nearby sounds. It is a

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common type of phonological process across languages. For an English example, "handbag"
(canonically /ˈhænd.ˌbæɡ/) is often pronounced /ˈhæmbæɡ/ in rapid speech. This is because
the [m] and [b] sounds are both bilabial consonants and their places of articulation are
similar;

Ellipsis: In linguistics, ellipsis ("omission") or an elliptical construction is the omission from

a clause of one or more words that are nevertheless understood in the context of the
remaining elements.

Trochee: In poetic metre, a trochee, choree, or choreus, is a metrical foot consisting of a

stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one, in English, or a heavy syllable followed by a
light one

American Realism: It was a style in art, music and literature that depicted contemporary
social realities and the lives and everyday activities of ordinary people. The movement began
in literature in the mid-19th century, and became an important tendency in visual art in the
early 20th century.

Accommodation: In linguistics, accommodation is the process by which participants in a

conversation adjust their accent, diction, or other aspects of language according to the speech
style of the other participant. Also called linguistic accommodation, speech accommodation,
and communication accommodation.

Semiotics: Semiotics (also called semiotic studies) is the study of sign process (semiosis). ...
The semiotic tradition explores the study of signs and symbols as a significant part of
communications. Common examples of semiotics include traffic signs i.e. stop sign.

Kinesics: Kinesics is the study and interpretation of nonverbal communication related to the
movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole; in layman's terms, it is the study
of body language.

Haptic communication: It is a branch of nonverbal communication that refers to the ways in

which people and animals communicate and interact via the sense of touch. Touch or haptics,
from the ancient Greek word haptikos is extremely important for communication; it is vital
for survival.

Non-verbal communication: It includes facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice,
gestures displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the
communicators (proxemics).

Neurolinguistics: It is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the
comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

Language pathology: Neurolinguistic techniques are also used to study disorders and
breakdowns in language, such as aphasia and dyslexia, and how they relate to physical
characteristics of the brain

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Psycholinguistics or psychology of language: is the study of the interrelation between
linguistic factors and psychological aspects. The field is concerned
with psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use,
comprehend and produce language. The discipline is mainly concerned with the mechanisms
in which languages are processed and represented in the brain. The development of
psycholinguistics covers the whole span of life.

Grapheme: In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest unit of a writing system of any given
language. An individual grapheme may or may not carry meaning by itself, and may or may
not correspond to a single phoneme of the spoken language

Slang: A type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very
informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular
context or group of people.

Supplement: A thing added to something else in order to complete or enhance it.

Colloquial: (of language) used in ordinary or familiar conversation; not formal or literary.

Tag Question: A question tag is a grammatical structure in which a declarative or an

imperative statement is turned into an interrogative fragment. For example, in the sentence
"You're John, aren't you?"

Generative Grammar: Generative grammar is a linguistic theory that regards grammar as a

system of rules that generates exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical
sentences in a given language. Noam Chomsky first used the term in relation to the
theoretical linguistics of grammar that he developed in the late 1950s

Universal Grammar: Theory proposing that humans possess innate faculties related to the
acquisition of language.

Aspirated Sounds: Aspirate, the sound h as in English ―hat.‖ Consonant sounds such as the
English voiceless stops p, t, and k at the beginning of words (e.g., ―pat,‖ ―top,‖ ―keel‖) are
also aspirated because they are pronounced with an accompanying forceful expulsion of air.

Filler: "A filler: word is an apparently meaningless word, phrase, or sound that marks a
pause or hesitation in speech. Also known as a pause filler or hesitation form. Some of the
common filler words in English are um, uh, er, ah, like, okay, right, and you know.

Prosody: the patterns of stress and intonation in a language.

Language Acquisition: The system of organized speech sounds by which we share our
ideas, thoughts and emotions with other individual TO make a relationship in our society is
called language.

The language Acquisition Start: Foetus can hear the sound of mother‘s voice from around
six months after the conception so we may say that language acquisition starts in the womb.

26
Paralanguage: The non-linguistic aspects of speaking. Use of strictly non-linguistic
variables like pitch, loudness, tempo, timbre and voice quality. Our use of these things
conveys information about our mood and attitude: about whether we are angry, amused,
nervous, excited, impa‗tient, tired or whatever. These aspects

onomastics—the study of the origins of names.

Lingo: The special language used for a particular activity or by a particular group of people,
the special vocabulary of a particular field of interest.

Stylistics: Is a branch of applied linguistics concerned with the study of style in texts,
especially, but not exclusively, in literary works. Also called literary
linguistics, stylistics focuses on the figures, tropes, and other rhetorical devices used to
provide variety and a distinctness to someone's writing

Language instinct: The powerful tendency of children to acquire language. Any physically
normal child who is adequately exposed to a language will learn it perfectly,

Language Areas: Broca’s area: provides the grammatical structure for utterances and sends
instructions to the speech organs, while Wernicke’s area handles comprehension of speech
and access to vocabulary. Both of these areas are usually located on the left side of the brain.

Lexicography: The writing of dictionaries.

Lexicology: Any group of words which makes sense but not complete is called

Graphology: Graphology in its linguistic sense studies the writing system of a language or
languages. We also study about the spellings in Graphology. Graphology is the analysis of
the physical characteristics and patterns of handwriting claiming to be able to identify the
writer, indicating the psychological state at the time of writing, or evaluating personality
characteristics. It is generally considered a pseudoscience

Graphetics: is a branch of linguistics concerned with the analysis of the physical properties
of shapes used in writing. It studies the way humans make marks on a surface in order to
write.

Cherology: The study of structure of deaf signing

Arbitrariness: Absence of connection between words meanings and its sound or form.

Black English: The distinctive varieties of English used by many native speakers of African
or Caribbean origin. Several important English-speaking countries have sizeable populations
of black people whose ancestry lies largely in Africa or the Caribbean; most prominent here
are Britain and the USA. For various historical reasons, the majority of British and American
blacks speak varieties of English which are quite distinctive, differing from other varieties in
vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and modes of discourse.

27
Displacement: The ability to speak about things other than the here and now. With just a
single known exception (see below), every signal used by a nonhuman creature to
communicate pertains wholly and directly to the immediate time and place of signaling.

Signifier and Signified: In the words of Ferdinand de Saussure—of a signifier and a

signified. We prefer to call the signifier the exponent and the signified the meaning. For
example, in English the string /dog/ is a signifier, and its signified is, say, doghood, or the set
of all dogs.

Duality of patterning: It is basically sounds and meanings. A type of structure in which a

small number of Meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful
units. Duality of patterning refers to the ability of human language, both signed and spoken,
to form discrete meaningful units. In speech production, we have a physical level at which we
can produce individual sounds, like n, b and i. As individual sounds, none of these discrete
forms has any intrinsic meaning. In a particular combination such as bin, we have another
level producing a meaning that is different from the meaning of the combination in nib. So, at
one level, we have distinct sounds, and, at another level, we have distinct meanings. This
duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language because,
with a limited set of discrete sounds, we are capable of producing a very large number of
sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning."

Linguistics: The word linguistics is combination of two Latin words Lingua language Istics
scientific The scientific study of any language is called linguistics.

Langue and parole: Langue and parole are more than just 'language and speech' (although
this is a useful quick way of remembering them). This linguistics concept Was given by
Ferdinand De Saussure.

Langue: La langue is the whole system of language that precedes and makes speech
possible. A sign is a basic unit of langue. Learning a language, we master the system of
grammar, spelling, syntax and punctuation. These are all elements of langue. Langue is a
system in that it has a large number of elements whereby meaning is created in the
arrangements of its elements and the consequent relationships between these arranged
elements.

Parole: Parole is the concrete use of the language, the actual utterances. It is an external
manifestation of langue. It is the usage of the system, but not the system.

Competence and Performance: Noam Chomsky‗s concept of competence and performance

is some what similar to Saussure‗s concept of langue and parole. Competence is the speaker
‗s knowledge of his language, the system of rules, he had mastered, his ability to produce and
understand a vast number of new sentences competence is the study of the system rules and
performance is the study of actual use of language in real life situation. So the speakers
knowledge of the structure of a language is his linguistic competence and the way in which
he uses, is his linguistic performance. Competence and Performance of an individual is

28
different from other individual. Communicative competence can be of four types.: a man
would be aware.

Linguistics competence: knowledge of grammar and language

Sociolinguistics competence: knowledge of norms of society

Aesthetic Sense: It describes our sense of what is beautiful or ugly in a language.

Discourse competence: knowledge of meanings of lexis

Strategic Competence: knowledge to over the misunderstanding of meanings during

discussion.

Copula: A specialized grammatical item, often a verb, which serves only to express identity
or class membership. The English copula is be,

Corpus: A body of spoken or written texts in a language which is available for analysis.

Mentalist Theory: This school of thought arguing on the crucial matter of first language
acquisition in children is the mentalists‘ school of thought which is led by Noam Chomsky.
He and his followers claim that a child learns his first language through cognitive learning.
He also acquires it by natural exposure. Both ―nature and nurture‖ influence the acquisition
of language in children. Chomsky regards linguistics as a sub field of psychology, more
especially the cognitive psychology.

Behaviorist Theory: The behaviorists‘ school of thought has argued that learning is entirely
the product of experience and that our environment affects all of us in the same way. In other
words we may say that language learning is like behavior learning.

The Language Acquisition Device( LAD) Chomsky argues that language is so complex that
it is almost incredible that it can be acquired by child in so short time. He further says that a
child is born with innate mental capacity which helps the child to process all the languages
which he hears. This is called the language acquisition device. Babbling starts at 06 months
to 01 year Holophrastic or One Word 01 to 02 years Two Words 02 Years (two words convey
meanings) More than two words, Two to three years

Aphasia: is an impairment of language, affecting the production or comprehension of speech

and the ability to read or write. Aphasia is always due to injury to the brain-most commonly
from a stroke, particularly in older individuals. To be diagnosed with aphasia, a person's
speech or language must be significantly impaired in one (or several) of the four
communication modalities following acquired brain injury

Broca's aphasia: results from damage to a part of the brain called Broca's area, which is
located in the frontal lobe, usually on the left side. It's one of the parts of the brain
responsible for speech and for motor movement. ... Broca'saphasia is also referred to as
expressive aphasia

29
Dyslexia: also known as reading disorder, is characterized by trouble with reading despite
normal intelligence. Different people are affected to varying degrees. Problems may include
difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, "sounding out" words in the
head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads

Metalanguage: A form of language or set of terms used for the description or analysis of
another language

Linguistic determinism: Linguistic determinism is the idea that language and its structures
limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as
categorization, memory, and perception. The term implies that people who speak different
languages as their mother tongues have different thought processes.

The Setting: The setting is the social or physical context.

The Emotive Function: The emotive function is defined as communicating the inner states
and emotions of the addresser such as Fantastic! Oh no! Ugh!

The Directive Function: The directive function is seeking to affect the behavior of the
addressee. For example, ‗Please help me‘, ‗Shut up‘, ‗I‘m warning you‘

The Phatic Function: It is opening the channel or checking that it is working either for
social reasons (‗Hello‘, ‗Do you come here often?‘, ‗Lovely weather‘) or for practical reasons
(‗Can you hear me?‘, ‗Are you still there?‘)

The Poetic Function: It is that function in which the particular form chosen is the essence of
the message.

Emblems: Signals through parts of body

Oralism: The method to teach kids the language as early stage.

Historical linguistics: Also called the diachronic linguistics, deals with the language change.

Glossogentics: is used in linguistics to refer to the study of the origins and development of
language, both in the child and in the human race.

Saussure: Term language was first time was used by Saussure.

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis: The hypothesis of linguistic relativity, part of relativism, also

known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism is a principle claiming that the
structure of a language affects its speakers' world view or cognition, and thus people's
perceptions are relative to their spoken language

Pictogram: a way of writing in which a picture/ drawing of one object is used to represent
the object.

Ideograms: a way of writing in which symbols represent some concepts.

Logograms: a way of writing in which each symbol represent a word.

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Rebus Writing: a way of writing in which a pictorial representation of an object is used to
indicate the sound of the word for that object.

Subject writing: a way of writing in which each symbol represent a syllable.

Alphabetic: a way of writing in which each symbol represent a specific sound or phoneme.

English arthograph: the orthography of English allows for a variation, how each sound is
represented.

Diagraph: combination of two letters representing a single sound. Ph /f/

Cognates: words in different languages having similar form and meaning.

Earliest period of writing: 5-10 thousands years ago.

Sociolinguistics: Scientific study of language in its social context. Sociolinguistics is the

branch of linguistics which deals with the relationship between language and society.

Ethnography of speaking: The study of the norms of communication in a speech

community, including verbal, non-verbal and social factors. Every society has its own norms
for communicative behavior.

Question: Which accent is mostly heard in the British call centers: Answer: Scotish

Question: Which feature of language is referred to as when talking about accent?

Answer: Pronunciation

Question: Roughly how many languages are there in the world? Answer: 6000

Question: What factor chiefly influences the character of our linguistic likes or dislikes?

Answer: How were we taught in school

Question: Roughly what proportion of the world population is bilingual? 75%

Question: The word best describes individual preferences during speech. : Style

Question: Where are mother in law languages spoken? : Australia

Question: Which professional people work with patients who have language disability?

Answer: Language therapists

Question: Who said that poets ―bend and break‖ language rules? Robert Graves

Question: What is another term for language play?: ludic language

Language change: Change in Social Conditions, Class, Gender, Regional Groups

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Dialect Dialect refers to varieties differentiated by grammar and vocabulary. Dialect is a
geographical based language variety with distinct form syntactic and vocabulary items. For
example English has two types British and American.

Accent: In sociolinguistics, an accent is a manner of pronunciation peculiar to a particular

individual, location, or nation.

Pidgin: A pidgin language is a means of communication that develops between two or more
groups that do not have a language in common.

Creole: A term used to describe a pidgin after it has become a mother tongue of a certain
people.

Register: In linguistics, the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently
in different circumstances. ... These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation, are
known as registers in linguistics. They are determined by such factors as social occasion,
context, purpose, and audience. i.e. legal register, scientific register etc

Monoglottism: (monos, "alone, solitary", glotta, "tongue, language") or, more commonly,
monolingualism or unilingualism, is the condition of being able to speak only a single
language.

Multilingualism: is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by
a community of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual
speakers in the world's population.

Bilingualism: Bilingualism is the ability of an individual or the members of a community to

use two languages effectively.

Code Switching: Code switching is the practice of moving back and forth between two
languages, or between two dialects orregisters of the same language. Also called code-mixing
and style shifting.

Diglossia: In sociolinguistics, a situation in which two distinct varieties of a languageare

spoken within the same speech community. Adjective: diglossic ordiglossial.

Bilingual Diglossia: is a type of diglossia in which one language is used forwriting and
another for speech.

Zoosemiotics: The study of animal communication is called Zoosemiotics.

Polyglots: People who speak several languages are also called polyglots..

The Setting: The setting is the social or physical context.

The Emotive Function: The emotive function is defined as communicating the inner states
and emotions of the addresser such as Fantastic! Oh no! Ugh!

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The Directive Function: The directive function is seeking to affect the behaviour of the
addressee. For example, ‗Please help me‘, ‗Shut up‘, ‗I‘m warning you‘

The Phatic Function: It is opening the channel or checking that it is working either for
social reasons (‗Hello‘, ‗Do you come here often?‘, ‗Lovely weather‘) or for practical reasons
(‗Can you hear me?‘, ‗Are you still there?‘)

The Poetic Function: It is that function in which the particular form chosen is the essence of
the message.

The Referential Function: It is carrying information.

The Metalinguistic Function: It is focusing attention upon the code itself in order to clarify.

The Contextual Function: The contextual function is defined as creating a particular kind of
communication e.g. ‗Right, let‘s start the lecture‘, ‗it‘s just a game‘.

Idiolect: The language of an individual as opposed to that of a group.

Heterogeneous Speech Community: Having one specific language

Metalinguistic: Is the branch of linguistics that studies language and its relationship to other
cultural behaviors.

Metalinguistic: is the branch of linguistics that studies language and its relationship to other
cultural behaviors

Lingua Franca: A lingua franca also known as a bridge language, common language, trade
language or vehicular language, is a language or dialect systematically (as opposed to
occasionally, or casually) used to make communication possible between people who do not
share a native language or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from
both native languages.

Creolization: It is the process in which Creole cultures emerge in the New World. The
mixing of people brought a cultural mixing which ultimately led to the formation of new
identities

Jargon: It is a type of language that is used in a particular context and may not be well
understood outside of it. The context is usually a particular occupation (that is, a certain trade,
profession, or academic field),

Argot: is a secret language used by various groups—e.g., schoolmates, outlaws, colleagues,

under world, gay people (Polari) among many others—to prevent outsiders from
understanding their conversations

Ebonics may refer to: African American Vernacular English, a distinctive lect, or variety, of
English spoken by African Americans, sometimes called Ebonics. Ebonics (word), originally
referring to the language of all descendants of enslaved Black Africans, but later coming to
mean African American Vernacular English

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Standard Language: a variety of language treated as the official language used in public
broadcasting, publication and education.

Dialectology: the study of dialects

Isoglosses: a line on map separating two areas in which a particular linguistics features
dialects are used.

Dialect continuam: The gradual merging of one regional variety of a language into an other.

Morphology: The level of word formation is called morphology. In this level, we study, how
words are formed and how smaller units combine to make a word. So in morphology we
study all those rules by which we form a word and their relation to other words, stem, root,
affixes etc. In linguistics, morphology is the study of words, how they are formed, and their
relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and parts
of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes.

Phoneme: Any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that
distinguish one word from another, for example p, b, d, and t in the English
words pad, pat, bad, and bat.

Morpheme: The smallest unit in grammar which caries meanings. i.e. ri in re write or a
lexical word house, tree, sick etc. Morpheme is not further divisible. If we divide it then we
will fall back to the level of phonology.

Morphs: an actual form of word representing one version of a morpheme. Good---good+s

(two morphs)

Allomorph: one of the close related set of morphs( s, es), (d,ed) any of two or more actual
representations of a morpheme, such as the plural endings s (as in bats ), z (as in bugs ), and
ɪz (as in buses )

Hyponymy: when a meaning of a form included to other. Carrot/vegetable

Onset: An onset is the part of the syllable that precedes the vowel of the syllable.

Examples: Here are some examples of syllables divided into onsets and rimes

Word Onset Rime

I I

it it

sit s it

spit sp it

split spl it

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 spoil sp oil

pie p ie

Affixes: An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word
form ness, pre etc

Free Morphemes: The morphemes which can exist independently and have their own
meanings, i.e. book, work, room etc. they are also called root morphemes. There are two
types of free morpheme;

Full words: Full words have their own meanings. These words give complete sense and hace
laxical meanings. i.e talk, cook, and work etc.

Empty Words: Empty words are those words wich have not their own meanings. They have
only grammatical meanings and they get complete meanings when thy are used with words or
sentence. i.e the, an, hurrah.

Bound Morphemes: The morphemes which can not be exist independently because these
has not their own meanings. We attach morphemes root morphemes with bound morphemes
to construct a meaningful word i.e ness, un, d , ed etc. if we remove all bound morphemes
from a word then the morpheme that is left is called root morpheme. Bound morphemes have
three types and these types are called affix.Prefix , Surfix, Infix The affix which are used in
root of free morphemes are called infix. i.e. man men, foot feet etc

Inflection: The process by which affixes combine with roots to indicate basic grammatical
categories such as tense or plurality (e.g. in 'cat-s', 'talk-ed', '-s' an d'-ed' are inflectional
suffixes). Inflection is viewed as the process of adding very general meanings to existing
words, not as the creation of new words.

Derivation the process by which affixes combine with roots to create new words (e.g. in
'modern-ize', 'read-er', '-ize' and '-er' are derivational suffixes). Derivation is viewed as
using existing words to make new words.

Inflectional morphemes: Make minor grammatical changes necessary for agreement with
other words.

Derivational morphemes create new words.

Lexical morphemes carry the substance of the message.

Functional morphemes: are also called the grammatical/close morphemes.

Derivational Suffix: This suffix may or may not allow the word for further attachment or
suffixation. They are class maintaining or class changing.

Neologism: study of new words

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Etymology: study of history and origin of words.

Coinage: is the word formation process in which a new word is created either
deliberately or accidentally without using the other word formation processes and often
from seemingly nothing.

Eponyms: new word based on the name of a person or place e.g. jeans(Italian city of
Genoa)

Borrowing : new word from other language (sofa-Arabic)

Compounding : making a word by joining tow separate words, class + room=classroom

Blending : combination of two forms by taking the parts from mother ords.

Clipping: shortening the syllable. Ad(advertisement), Cab( Cabriolet)

Hypocorism: type of reduction in British, Australian English Movie( Moving picture)

Paradigm: The set of forms belonging to a particular word-class or member of a word-

class is called paradigm. (linguistics) A set of all forms which contain a common
element, especially the set of all inflectional forms of a word or a particular grammatical
category. The paradigm of "go" is "go, went, gone."

Backformation: reducing a word (typically a noun) to make a new word (verb). Donate
(Donation), Televise (Television)

Conversion: changing of function of a verb without reduction. Take over ---takeover,

bottle, water etc.

Acronyms: new word formation by initial words. CD (Compact Disk)

Affixes (Derivation): By adding a syllable before or end of the word. Mis+ understand=
---men)

Prefix: addition before root word( un+ pleasant= unpleasant

Suffix: addition at the end of the word( heart+less= heartless), it is of two types.

Inflexational : class maintaining, boy +s---boys

A lemma: is a word that stands at the head of a definition in a dictionary. All the head
words in a dictionary are lemmas. Technically, it is "a base word and its inflections".[1]A
lemma is the word you find in the dictionary. A lexeme is a unit of meaning, and can be
more than one word. A lexeme is the set of all forms that have the same meaning,
while lemma refers to the particular form that is chosen by convention to represent the
lexeme. In English, for example, run, runsand running are forms of the same lexeme,
but run is the lemma.

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Difference between stem and lemma: In computational linguistics, a stem is the part of
the word that never changes even when different forms of the word are used. A lemma is
the base form of the verb. For example, from "produced", the lemma is "produce", but
the stem is "produc-". This is because there are words such as production.

Phonetics: Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of human speech,

Phonology: The study of sound system of language or more. Phonology studies the
systematic relationships between sounds within the grammar of a language. studies also
the patterns of stress we use in speaking and the variations of pitch or tone.

Acoustic Phonetics: Acoustic phonetics is the study of the acoustic characteristics of

speech, including an analysis and description of speech in terms of its physical
properties, such as frequency, intensity, and duration.

Articulatory Phonetics: Studies the processes by which we articulate speech sounds

and describes them in terms of the organs involved in their production: tongue, teeth,
lips, lungs etc. (Place of articulation, manner of articulation, voice)

Auditory Phonetics: Is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.

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The sounds with a given place features are listed in the columns, and can be read

off the table. However, I shall give them here for convenience:

[PLACE : bilabial] = {/p/, /b/, /m/,w/}

[PLACE : labiodental] = {/f/, /v/}

[PLACE : dental] = {/T/, /ð/}

[PLACE : alveolar] = {/t/, /d/, /s/, z/, /n/, /l/, /ô/}

[PLACE : palatoalveolar] = {/tS/, /dZ/, /S/, /Z/}

[PLACE : palatal] = {/j/}

[PLACE : velar] = {/k/, /g/, /-/}

[PLACE : glottal] = {/h/}

The manner feature is encoded in the row labels.

[MANNER : stop] = {/p/, /b/, t/, /d/, /tS/, /dZ/, /k/, /g/}

[MANNER : fricative] = {/f/, /v/, T/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /S/, /Z/}

[MANNER : nasal] = {/m/, /n/, -/}

[MANNER : l approx] = {/l/}

[MANNER : c approx] = {/w/, /j/, /ô/}

[VOICE : +] ={/b/, /d/, /g/, /dZ/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /Z/, /m/, /n/, /-/,

/w/, /l/, /ô/, /j/}

[VOICE : −] ={/p/, /t/, /k/, /tS/, /f/, /T/, /s/, /S/}

Articulators involved

Bilabial the two lips, both active and passive

Labiodental active lower lip to passive upper teeth

Dental active tongue tip/blade to passive upper teeth

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Alveolar active tongue tip/blade to passive front part of alveolar ridge

Post alveolar active tongue blade to passive behind alveolar

Retroflex active tongue tip raised or curled to passive post alveolar (difference between
postalveolar and retroflex: blade vs. tip)

Palatal tongue blade/body to hard palate behind entire alveolar ridge

Velar active body of tongue to passive soft palate (sometimes to back of soft palate)

Uvular active body of tongue to passive (or active) uvula

Pharyngeal active body/root of tongue to passive pharynx

Glottal both vocal chords, both active and passive

Schwa: A vowel sound used in unstressed syllables, for example the sound of ‗a‘ in
‗above‘. Its symbol is ə.

SIBILANT: FORMAL making a sound like the letters ‗s‘ or ‗sh‘

Phonemics: The study of the phonemes of a language

Open Vowel: A vowel that you pronounce with your tongue on the bottom of
your mouth

IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet: a system of symbols used for representing

speech sounds

A Mora: (plural morae or moras; often symbolized μ) is a unit in phonology that

determines syllable weight, which in some languages determines stress or timing. Long
or heavy syllables are distinguished from short or light syllables.

Open Syllable: An open syllable occurs when a vowel is at the end of the syllable,
resulting in the long vowel sound, e.g. pa/per, e/ven, o/pen, go & we. Open
syllable words are open because they are not closed by a consonant.

Closed Syllable: A syllable that has a consonant at its end

ASPIRATION: LINGUISTICS the sound produced when you pronounce something

by breathing air out through your mouth

Adaptation: The process by which a speaker consciously adjusts her/his speech

towards a different variety perceived as more desirable, as when a speaker of a regional
accent attempts to produce something approximating to Received Pronunciation

Airstream Mechanism: Any of the various ways in which a stream of moving air can
be produced within the vocal tract. The three principal mechanisms are pulmonic

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(involving lung air), glotta1ic (involving pharynx air) and velaric (involving mouth air).
Each of these may produce an egressive (moving outward) or an ingressive (moving
inward) airstream, resulting in six possible airstreams. Of these, the pulmonic egressive
mechanism is by far the most widespread, but the glottalic egressive and glottalic
ingressive mechanisms are also well attested, and the velaric ingressive mechanism
occurs in some languages. There is also the highly unusual oesophagic egressive
airstream mechanism.

Adam's apple: a projection at the front of the neck formed by the thyroid cartilage of
the larynx, often prominent in men

Diphthong: a sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, in

which the sound begins as one vowel and moves towards another (as in coin, loud,
and side ).a digraph representing the sound of a diphthong or single vowel (as in feat ). a
compound vowel character; a ligature (such as æ ).

Trip thong: In phonetics, a triphthong is a monosyllabic vowel combination involving

a quick but smooth movement of the articulator from one vowel quality to another that
passes over a third. While "pure" vowels, or monophthongs, are said to have one target
articulator position, diphthongs have two, and triphthongs three.

Phone: It is the smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of speech that is able to
transcribed with an IPA symbol. International Phonetic Alphabet.

Allophone: Any of various phonetic realizations of a phoneme in a language which do

not contribute to distinctions of meanings for example in English an aspirated p in pin
and un aspirated p in spin are allophones.

Alphabet: A system of letters intended to represent the sound of a language in writing.

Diphthong: A vowel which is articulated with the change in tongue position i.e (ai)

Monophthong: The word monophthong shows that a vowel is spoken with exactly one
tone and one mouth position. For example, when you say "teeth", then while you are
creating the sound of the "ee", nothing changes for that sound. A monophthong can be a
lexeme of a language and as such it can as well be a syllable. Monophthongs are also
called ‗pure vowel sounds‘ and they are 12 in number. They include:

Homophone: The words that are pronounced in the same way i.e. four, fore, pore, pour

Morph: Item of language which can‘t be broken down further without losing meanings.

Intonation: Use of pitch to convey information, the rise and fall of the voice in
speaking. At around 9 months age do babies first use some of the rhythm and intonation
patterns of the language they are learning

Minimal Pair: when two words with same patterns occur and have only one different
phoneme---bat,cat etc. sailing, railing, different sounds in a single position.

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Prosody: A term which refers to all supra segmental features of language i.e. pitch,
loudness, tempo and rhythm.

Grammatical words: are words that help us construct the sentence but they don't mean
anything: articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, etc.

These words have no stress, and so they are weakened.

That weakened form: is called "weak form" as opposed to a "strong form", which is the
full form of the word pronounced with stress. The strong form only happens when we
pronounce the words alone, or when we emphasize them. Weak forms are very often
pronounced with a schwa, and so are very weak and sometimes a bit difficult to hear
properly. Sometimes weak forms are easy to spot, because we use contractions in the
spelling to show it: I am French (strong form) I'm French (weak form)

Place of Articulation:

Place of articulation is the point in the vocal tract where the speech organs restrict the
passage of air producing distinctive sounds and is particularly important for the
production of consonants. Consonant sounds are referred to by their place of articulation:

Labial/Bilabial: The difference between bilabial and labial is that bilabial is (phonetics)
articulated with both lips while labial is of or pertaining to the lips or labia. Bilabial is
(phonetics) a speech sound articulated with both lips while labial is (linguistics) a labial
consonant. / b /p /m /w

Labio-Dental labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lip and the upper
teeth / f / v

Dental: A dental consonant is a consonant articulated with the tongue against the upper
teeth, such as /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ in some languages.

Alveolar / t /d /s /z /l /n/ (tongue touching the alveolar ridge behind the upper teeth)

Post-alveolar / r / (tongue curled behind the alveolar ridge)

Palato-alveolar /dʒ / tʃ/ (tongue touching both the hard palate and the alveolar ridge)

Palatal/ ʃ / ʒ / j (middle of the tongue against the hard palate)

Velar / k / g / ŋ (back of the tongue against the soft palate or velum)

Glottal / h / (formed in the space between the vocal folds or glottis)

In vowels air is manipulated by the shape of the oral cavity and the position of the
speech organs. Thus you can have:

Vowel A speech sound that is produced with an open airway or vocal tract. The air is
shaped by the lips, tongue and jaw to produce the different vowel sounds. Vowels form
the centre of each syllable.
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Consonant A speech sound that is produced with some form of constriction or
obstruction to the air that flows through the vocal tract from the lungs.

Frontal vowels : / i (need) / I (name) / ɛ (bed) / æ (cat)/ (front of the tongue + palate)

Middle vowels : / ʌ (cup) / ɜ (bird) / ə (mother)/ (middle of the tongue + palate)

Back vowels: / a(car) / ɒ(not) / ɔ (ball) / ʊ (book) / ʊ (blue) / (back of the tongue +
palate)

Manner of Articulation: In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the

configuration and interaction of the articulators when making a speech sound.

Plosives (stops) : / p / b / t / d/ k / g / (airstream is stopped by a brief closure using the

lips, teeth, or palate, followed by a sudden release of air)

Fricatives : / f / v/ θ / ð /s / z / ʃ / ʒ / h / (friction occurs as air passes through)

Affricates: /dʒ / tʃ/ (airstream is stopped as for a plosive and then released slowly with
friction)

Nasals: / m / n / ŋ/ (airstream is diverted through the nasal cavity by lowering the soft
palate)

Gliding consonants: a semivowel or glide, also known as a non-syllabic voiced, is a

sound that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable
boundary, rather than as the nucleus of a syllable. Examples of semivowels in English
are the consonants y and w, in yes and west, respectively.

Liquid: in phonetics, a consonant sound in which the tongue produces a partial closure
in the mouth, resulting in a resonant, vowel-like consonant, such as English l and r.

VOICE: Voicing occurs when the vocal folds or chords situated in the larynx vibrate.

Voiced sounds : ex. / b / z / v / Voiceless sounds: ex. / p / s / f /

Voiceless sounds: when there is no vibration in vocal cords.

Elision : The process of not pronouncing a sound segment that might be present in the
deliberately careful pronunciation ----/wiəstəm/

Semantics: Semantics is the study of meanings in a language.

Semantic role (thematic roles): role of words to illustrate the meanings. a. simple b.
complex

Agent and theme: the performer of action is a

boy (agent) kicked the ball(theme).

Instrument and experience: if an agent use an entity to perform an action, that is called

42
instrument. If a noun phrase is used to designate an entity as the person who has a
feeling, perception or state, it fills the role of experience.

Prototypes: characteristics of one object of other( animal---dog—horse---cow)

Homophones: different written form but same pronunciation. Bare/bear, meat/meet.

Homonyms: In linguistics, homonyms, broadly defined, are words which sound alike or
are spelled alike, but have different meanings i.e. bank (of river), Bank( money saving
place)

Polysemy: one form having multiple meanings. head( head of state, head of team.)

Metonymy: different forms for a concepts. King/crown, house/roof

Homonymy: In linguistics, homonyms, broadly defined, are words which sound alike or
are spelled alike, but have different meanings.

Denotative meanings often based on the dictionary definitions.

Connotative Meaning. Connotative meaning An individual's perception suggested by

or associated with a word. is the idea suggested by or associated with a word.

Polysemy: The same lexical item has different meaning is called polysemy.

Sememe: The unit of meaning carried by a morpheme.

False Friends: words that look like same but whose meanings are different?

Componential analysis

Componential analysis: (feature analysis or contrast analysis) is the analysis of

words through structured sets of semantic features, which are given as "present",
"absent" or "indifferent with reference to featureman = [+ MALE], [+ MATURE]
or woman = [– MALE], [+ MATURE] or boy = [+ MALE], [– MATURE] or girl = [–
MALE] [– MATURE] or child = [+/– MALE] [– MATURE]. In other words, the
word girl can have three basic factors (or semantic properties): human, young,
and female. Another example, being edible is an important factor by which plants may
be distinguished from one another (Ottenheimer, 2006, p. 20). To summarize, one word
can have basic underlying meanings that are well established depending on the cultural
context. It is crucial to understand these underlying meanings in order to fully
understand any language and culture.

Collocation: other concept with in concept. Table—chair

Discourse: denotes written and spoken communications: In semantics and discourse

analysis: Discourse is a conceptual generalization of conversation within each modality
and context of communication.

Discourse analysis: is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the

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sentence'.

Cohesion: The arrangement of text in a sentence. Cohesion is the grammatical and

lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning

Coherence: in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful. It is especially

dealt with in text linguistics.

Hudges: lacking of surety about uttered phrases or sentences.

Implicature: an additional meanings conveyed by a speaker adhering to the cooperative

principle.

Schema: conversational knowledge exist in memory (fixed)

Script: series of conversational actions that take place.

Animacy (antonym: inanimacy) is a grammatical and semantic feature, existing in some

languages, expressing how sentient or alive the referent of a noun is. Widely
expressed, animacy is one of the most elementary principles in languages around the
globe, and is a distinction acquired as early as six months of age.

Anomaly: is the phenomenon that a sentence, though grammatical, is meaningless

because there is an incompatibility in the meaning of the words.

Antecedent: In grammar, an antecedent is an expression that gives its meaning to a

proform. A preform takes its meaning from its antecedent, e.g. "John arrived late because
traffic held him up". The pronoun him refers to and takes its meaning from John, so John
is the antecedent of him

Autonomy: An autonomous portion of the meaning of a word is one which can function
independently of other meanings associated with the same word form

Cliché: a phrase or opinion that is overused and betrays a lack of original thought. "that
old cliché ‗a woman's place is in the home‘"

Constatives: In his early work on speech acts, the philosopher Austin drew a distinction
between constative utterances, like The cat sat on the mat, which had a purely
descriptive (statement-making) function and which could be treated in terms of truth and
falsehood, and performative utterances, like I promise it will never happen again,

Dysphemism: A term or expression that expresses negative feelings or attitude towards

the referent, such as bitch for ‗woman‘, or rag for ‗newspaper‘.

Entrenchment: (also called establishment) This refers to the degree to which something
(form or meaning) is permanently recorded in some sort of mental store.

Facets: These are aspects of the meaning of a word belonging to different ontological
types that sometimes behave in an independent way and thus give an appearance of

44
ambiguity.

Gestural deixis: This refers to the use of a deictic expression in a situation where,
prototypically, speaker and hearer are together and the hearer can see what the speaker is
doing.

Listeme: Any item in an ideal lexicon of a language whose meaning cannot be predicted
on compositional principles, and which must be learned individually. Thisincludes
morphemes, lexemes (including idioms) and, for some linguists, phonesthemes. This
corresponds roughly to what lexicographers call a ‗lemma‘.

Uptake: This is sometimes suggested as an essential feature of a fully successful speech

act. It refers to the hearer‘s acceptance of the validity of the speech act. Take the case of
a promise – I’ll do it tomorrow. Suppose the speaker sincerely intends to put themself
under an obligation to carry out the act.

Zeugma: a figure of speech in which a word applies to two others in different senses
(e.g. John and his driving licence expired last week ).

Broadening; Where a lexical item expands in meaning

Collocation: an arrangement of words that commonly occur together, eg. ‗dead serious‘

Pejoration: The downgrading or depreciation of a word's meaning, as when a word with

a positive sense develops a negative one

Semantic Bleaching: The reduction in the meaning of a word as a result of semantic

change

Semantic Narrowing: When a word becomes less general than its earlier meaning

Pragmatics: is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which
context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory,
conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior
in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology. It is language use in social
contexts.

Question: What pragmatic ability do children acquire through their feeding routines in
the first year of life? Ans: How to take turns in conversation

Question: What do people do to their lips while baby talk? Ans. Round them

Question: What is sign of linguistic deterioration during old age? Weak voice quality

Utterance: Any stretch of spoken speech.

Context: the set of words used in the same phrase or sentence.

Deixis: The pointing or specifying function of some words (as definite articles and
demonstrative pronouns) whose denotation changes from one discourse to another.
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deixis refers to words and phrases, such as "me" or "here", that cannot be fully
understood without additional contextual information—in this case, the identity of the
speaker and the speaker's location.

Proxemics: The branch of knowledge that deals with the amount of space that people
feel it necessary to set between themselves and others.

Vocalics: It is how people express themselves through voice. The voice has different
vocal properties. These properties are: rate, or speed at which the person speaks, pitch,
inflection and variety in the voice, volume, being loud or soft, and articulation and
pronunciation, or how correctly and clearly the person speaks.

Chronemics: It is the study of the role of time in communication. It is one of several

subcategories to emerge out of the study of nonverbal communication. Other prominent
subcategories include haptics (touch), kinesics (body movement), vocalics
(paralanguage), and proxemics (the use of space).

Ad hoc concept: In relevance theory, a concept formed on one occasion, for that
occasion, is called an ad hoc concept. Relevance theory appeals to ad hoc concepts in its
explanation of metaphor, loose use, hyperbole and other issues in lexical pragmatics.

Inference: Additional information used by listener to create a connection between what

is said and what must be meant. The term "inference" refers to the process of using
observation and background knowledge as well as other known premises to determine a
conclusion that makes sense.

Anaphora: Use of pronouns (it) and noun phrases with the objects to refer back
something already mentioned.

Presupposition: An assumption by a speaker or writer about what is true or already

known by the listener/reader.

Speech acts: Expressions; a type of action performed by a speaker with the utterance,
requesting, commanding, questioning, or informing. It is of two types: Direct: Questions
(sentence start with helping verb) Indirect: normal sentence

Abuse: In Austin‘s work on speech acts, an abuse is one of two ways in which a speech
act can be infelicitous. Abuses result from a failure to meet felicity conditions that
require of participants in a speech act certain attitudes or certain subsequent behaviour.
For example, it is an abuse if a speaker utters ‗I promise to paint your house,‘ with no
intention of subsequently painting the house, or if she has the intention but does not
subsequently carry out the action.

Accessibility: In relevance theory, and in cognitive science more generally, the degree to
which it is easy to recall a stored piece of information or other item from memory, or to
derive information from a stimulus by processing it.

Accommodation: When an utterance presents some information as part of the

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background, but this information is not already known to the hearer, the hearer is
expected to accommodate that information. For example, if a speaker says ‗My aunt‘s
parrot is ill‘ the speaker will expect the hearer to take it from her (if she does not already
know it) that she does in fact have an aunt with a parrot. In this case the speaker has told
the hearer something by, in a sense, proceeding as though the speaker already knows it.

Adjacency pair: In Conversational Analysis, an adjacency pair is two utterances

immediately after the other in sequence, where one is a response (‗second pair part‘) to
the other (‗first pair part‘). The illocutionary force of the response or even the words
used may be guided or mandated by social convention. For example, For example, in
English there are many choices for the response to being thanked, including, ‗Don‘t
mention it‘; ‗It‘s nothing‘; ‗You‘re welcome‘ and ‗My pleasure‘, and there is no social
obligation to say anything.

Ambiguity: Ambiguous expressions are expressions that have more than one meaning in
the language,

Anaphora and Cataphora: Broadly speaking, an anaphor is a word that refers back to
a previous word. So, for example, the pronouns in the following sentences are anaphors:
The student studied really hard for her test. So if an anaphor refers back to something
previously mentioned, what happens when you refer to something not yet mentioned?
Cataphor! Because she studied really hard, Nancy aced her test. So the first thing to
notice here is that the pronoun comes first. That‘s what differentiates an anaphor from a
cataphor. In fact, cataphors are sometimes called ―backward anaphors‖ because of the
direction of reference within the sentence or utterance.

Assertion: A type of speech act. An assertion puts forward a proposition as true.

Assertions differ from questions and orders (roughly) in that they provide information
rather than requesting it or requesting that something be done.

Behabitive: In Austin‘s classification of speech acts, behabitives are speech acts such as
apologies, greetings, congratulations, criticisms and curses: all these are speech acts in
which the speaker expresses an emotion or attitude, often towards the hearer. According
to Austin, in making a behabitive speech act the speaker is ‗reacting to other people‘s
behaviours and fortunes‘.

Commissive: In Austin‘s classification of speech acts, commissives are the class of

speech acts which involve the speaker promising or otherwise making a commitment.
Examples include vowing to give up smoking, promising to attend a party, making the
vows required to enter a religious order, taking the Hippocratic Oath, and taking the
marriage vow.

Compositionality: The principle that the meaning of a phrase (or sentence) depends
only on the meanings of the parts (words, morphemes) and the way that they are put
together

Echoic use. In echoic use of language speakers merely repeat utterances made by other
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speakers in order to achieve a specific communicative effect, typically to convey a
specific attitude towards the relevant utterance such as surprise, pleasure, scepticism,
mockery, disbelief.

Entailment: Linguistic entailments occur when one may draw necessary conclusions
from a particular use of a word, phrase or sentence. Entailment phrases are relations
between propositions, and are always worded as, "if A then B," meaning that if A is true,
then B must also be true.

Etiolation: is sometimes seen as equivalent to non-serious or ‗playful‘ use of language.

The technical term etiolation usefully sidesteps the question whether fiction, plays,
poetry and so on are necessarily non-serious.

Exercitive: In Austin‘s classification of speech acts, exercitives are the class of speech
act concerned with giving a decision in favour of or against a particular course of action,
or with advocating a course of action.

Exhibitive utterance: In Grice‘s work, a purely exhibitive utterance is one that is aimed
at showing the hearer that the speaker has a certain belief.

Explicature: Explicature is a technical term in pragmatics, the branch of linguistics that

concerns the meaning given to an utterance by its context. The explicatures of a sentence
are what is explicitly said, often supplemented with contextual information

Felicity conditions: In speech-act theory, felicity conditions are the conditions that must
be satisfied for a speech act to come off successfully.

Free Enrichment: In free enrichment, the output sense is more specific than the input
sense. Free enrichment typically works by narrowing down the extension of an
expression through the contextual addition of a component to its meaning.

Hedge: In pragmatics (a sub-field of linguistics), a hedge is a mitigating word, sound or

construction used to lessen the impact of an utterance due to constraints on the interaction
between the speaker and addressee, such as politeness, softening the blow, avoiding the
appearance of bragging and others.

Heuristic: A heuristic is a rule or method that helps you solve problems faster than you
would if you did all the computing. It sounds fancy, but you might know a heuristic as a "rule
of thumb."

Illocutionary act:

In speech-act theory, an illocutionary act is the act performed in making an utterance, such as
promising, asserting, requesting or naming, in contrast to the locutionary act (the act of
saying a certain sentence, with a particular meaning) and the perlocutionary act, which is
concerned with the effects of the utterance.

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Implicature: the action of implying a meaning beyond the literal sense of what is explicitly
stated, for example saying the frame is nice and implying I don't like the picture in it.

Literal use: When the words used by a speaker are used with their basic, linguistically
encoded meaning we say that they are used literally, or equally that they are used with their
literal meaning.

Misfire: In Austin‘s work on speech acts, a misfire is one of the two ways in which a speech
act can be unsuccessful. According to speech-act theory, there are felicity conditions on
speech acts. If certain of these conditions are not met, then no speech act is performed

Ostensive act: Speaking literally, an ostensive act is an act of showing, or of pointing

something out.

Parody: A term borrowed from literary criticism and theory of art where ‗parody‘ means an
exaggerated imitation of the style of a certain artist/writer/musician

Phatic expression: In linguistics, a phatic expression is communication which serves a social

function, such as social pleasantries that don't seek or offer any information of value.[1] Phatic
expressions are a socio-pragmatic function and are used in everyday conversational exchange
typically expressed in situational instances that call for social
[2]
cues. In speech communication the term means "small talk" (conversation for its own sake)
and has also been called "grooming talking. For example, greetings such as "hello", "how are
you?" (in many contexts), and "good afternoon" are all phatic expressions.[4] In phatic
expressions, speech acts are not communicative, since no content is communicated.

Plug: In work on presuppositions, a plug is a linguistic item that blocks presuppositions. For
example, utterances of ‗It was John who ate all the cake‘ are said to presuppose that someone
ate the cake, and that there was cake. Embedding this sentence under the verb ‗say‘ gives:

Polysemy: The coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or phrase.

Saturation:Saturation is the provision of values from the context for variables or empty slots
in the linguistic logical form of the utterance

Semantic innocence: This is the idea that the contribution to meaning made by a linguistic
expression should be the same on every occasion. For example, the name ‗London‘ refers to
the same thing in both the examples below.

Unarticulated constituent: A part of the proposition expressed by an utterance which does

not correspond to any part of the linguistic material uttered. For example, an utterance of this
sentence might convey the italicized proposition below:

I have been to their parties, but I haven‘t eaten anything I have been to their parties, but I
haven’t eaten anything {there}

Tense–aspect–mood: Tense–aspect–mood ) is a group of grammatical categories that covers

the expression of tense (location in time), aspect (fabric of time – a single block of time,

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continuous flow of time, or repetitive occurrence), and mood or modality (degree of
necessity, obligation, probability, ability)

Tense: Tense is the expression of location in time of an action or state. Grammatical tense
only roughly relates to time. English has only two verb tenses: present and past.

Aspect: Aspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in
English expresses ongoing actions or states with or without distinct end points. English has
four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-progressive.

Verbal Mood: Verb mood is to the "attitude" of the verb. More specifically, "mood" refers to
the degree of necessity, obligation, or probability. Is it a statement of fact? Is it a command?
Mood can be expressed in any verb tense. The three main moods used in English
are indicative, subjunctive, imperative.

Gradable Opposites: The relationship between opposites is known as opposition. ... Graded
(or gradable) antonyms are word pairs whose meanings are opposite and which lie on a
continuous spectrum (hot, cold). Complementary antonyms are word pairs whose meanings
are opposite but whose meanings do not lie on a continuous spectrum (push, pull).

Anachronism: Something such as a word, an object, or an event that is mistakenly placed in

a time where it does not belong in a story or movie etc. A person or thing that seems to
belong to past and not to fit to the present.

Bildungsroman: A novel about the moral and psychological growth of the main character.

Avant Grade: A group of people who develop new and often very surprising ideas in art,
literature etc.

Motif: Something such as an important idea or subject that is repeated throughout a book or
story etc. A single repeated design or pattern.

In Medias Res: Into the middle of a narrative or plot

Gothic Novel: An English genre of fiction popular in the 18th to early 19th centuries,
characterized by an atmosphere of mystery and horror and having a pseudo-medieval setting.

Question: What major change occurred in middle English Period?

Answer: The great Vowel Shift.

Question: What period defines the old English Period?

Answer: 6th to 11th century.

Question: What is meant by dialect leveling?

Answer: The tendency of dialects to become more similar.

Question: What is meant by pejoration?

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Answer: The process by which words acquire more negative meanings.

Question: Which term describes irregular plurals men and oxen?

Answer: Inflection

Question: What is meant by the idea of natural sound source?

Answer: The idea that early civilizations imitated naturally occurring sounds.

Corpus linguistics: is the study of language based on large collections of "real life"
language use stored in corpora (or corpuses)--computerized databases created
for linguistic research. Also known as corpus-based studies.

Corona: with the front edge of the mouth some sounds are made as t/th which are called
corona sounds.

Dorsum: With the back edge of the mouth, some sounds are made that are called dorsum i.e.
k/g/ sounds.

Lexis is a term in linguistics for the vocabulary of a language. Adjective: lexical. The study
of lexis and the lexicon (a collection of words) is called lexicology. The process of adding
words and word patterns to the lexicon of a language is called lexicalization.

Language for Philosophers: To a philosopher, language is means to interpret human

experience.

Discreteness is a concept going back (at least) to the structuralists. General idea. The idea is
that a linguist representation can be broken down into small, discrete units that can then
recombine with other small, discrete units to create new linguistic representations.

Question: Firstly, to which of these language groups does English belong? Answer:
Germanic

Conjugation: changing of the form of a verb in order to reflect person, number, tense and
mood?

Empirical: It refers to the view that linguistics knowledge is based on experience.

Ferdinand De Saussure: Born in 1857 in Switzerland. Known as father of linguistics. He

gave the comparative philosophy of linguistics. He holds that language should be concerned
itself with the investigation of the nature of language rather than about the language.
Language should be studied as a system. He differentiated between the following:

Signifier and signified, Langue and Parole, Synchrony and Diachronic

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Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic,

Syntagmatic Relationship:

Words become a sentence because they are chained together. Syntagmatic relationship
explains the relation between linguistics units at each level. For example in this sentence: He
may go out. It is pronoun>>>Auxiliary>> Verb>> Adverb>> The above words have
relationship with each other because ―he‖ has a specific relationship with ―may‖ and with
―go‖ with ―out‖. Any change in the linear order will change the meaning of the sentence. So
the order can not be changed.

Paradigmatic Relationship/ Choice:

Paradigmatic Relationship is constructive or choice relationship. It means that the words or

units can be changed with words or units of the same class or category. It is also called
associative relationship. He>> may>>> go>> out. Here ―He‖ may be changed or replaced by
―you‖ ―they‖ ―she‖ etc.

Meaning of Morpheme: Shape, so we may say that morphology studies the shapes of the
words. How the words form, where they originate from, what are their grammatical forms
etc.

Functional Morphemes: These morphemes are used to express grammatical relationship

between words and their content such as plurality or past tense. These are elements like
preposition, article, conjunction etc.

Coinage: It is the invention of totally new terms or words i.e. trade names etc.

Conversion: A change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be
used as a verb without any reduction is generally known as conversion. It is also called
category change or functional shift. Have you buttered the toast? They are vacationing in
France. We bottled the home.

Finite State Grammar: The simplest grammar discussed by Chomsky that is capable of
generating an infinite set of sentences by means of finite number of rules over a finite
vocabulary is called the finite state grammar.

Phrase Structure Grammar: The second grammar introduced by Chomsky is more

satisfactory than finite state grammar. New sentences can be generated by the use of phrase
structure rules.

Transformational Generative Grammar: It deals with all aspects of human language. It

was also developed by Chomsky. It has three components, syntactic, semantic and
phonological.

Meta Language: The language used to analyze or describe a language e.e. English, the
phoneme /b/ s voiced, bilabial, stop in meta language.

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Object Language: it is the language used for communicative purposes.

Use and Mention: The language itself is ―Mention‖ and its use when we are communicating
using the language for practical purpose.

Gradable Opposites: Assertion of one means denial of others e.g. big, small

Converse ness: It means opposite ness i.e. boy, girl

Per locutionary: A per locution is carried out by a speaker making an utterance. The effect
we want to create on the listener.

Dommisive: A speech act that commits the speaker to do something in future. Such as
promise, threat etc e.g. If you don‘t stop fighting, I ‗ll call the police (threat)

Directive: A speech act that has the function of getting the listener to do something e.e.
suggestion, request, command etc. Please sit down, shut the door.

Declarative: A speech act which changes the state of affairs i.e. ―I now pronounce you man
and wife‖.

Cortex: The nerve cells or gray matter form the surface of the brain, which is called cortex. It
covers cerebrum and is the outer layer of any part of the organ.

White Matter: White matter is always under the cortex, consists of connecting fibers.

Cerebral cortex: It is the decision making organ of the body. It receives message from all
the sensory organs. It initiates all voluntary actions. It is also called the store house of human
memory.

Corpus Callosum: Two parts of the brain, left and right hemisphere are connected by
Corpus Callosum. It is a pathway leading from one side to another. It permits the two brains
communicate with each other.

Cerebral Hemisphere: The brain is divided into two parts called cerebral hemisphere. One
on the right, one on the left, connected by corpus callosum. The left hemisphere controls the
movement of right side of body and right hemisphere controls the movement of the left side
of body.

Cerebellum: It is located under the cerebral hemisphere. It is also divided into two parts and
is responsible for equilibrium.

Brain Stem: It is found at the bottom of brain and it connects brain to the spinal cord.

Broca’s area: One area in the left hemisphere is known as Broca‘s area or the speech center.
Because it is an important area involved in speech. Damage to this area of brain leads to
different type of aphasia.

Wernick’s area: Wernick‘s area is thought to be involved in the understanding of language.

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Wernik’s Aphasia: Wernik‘s aphasia patients are fluent speakers but have difficulty in
comprehension and producing semantically utterances. This problem is associated with
damage in the back part of the left hemisphere.

Broca’s aphasia: It is speech production breakdown due to damage on the front part of the
left side of brain.

Anomia: it is that type of aphasia in which the patient has difficulty in finding words
although speech is fluent. This problem is associated with damage towards the center of left
hemisphere.

Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic Loss: The patient with this kind of aphasia can‘t arrange
words in sentences. There is loss of contiguity.

Jargon’s Aphasia: In this, utterances are long an long but it is difficult to find semantic
meanings.

Loss of Reading Habit: There is another kind of aphasia in which a person can write but
can‘t read.

Behaviorism: J.B Watson was the founder of this theory. Pavlov a Russian psycholinguist is
a great proponent of this theory. B.F Skinner an American linguist wrote a book ―Verbal
Behavior‖ in 1957 in which he argues in favor of this theory.

Operant Conditioning: Operant mean voluntary behavior. It is the result of a learner‘s own
free will and is not forced by any outside person or anything. Stimulus, response,
reinforcement and repetition.

Mentalist: The behaviorist‘s view of language acquisition was extremely challenged from
the 60s onward under the influence of Noam Chomsky. He says that child learns first
language through cognitive learning. Humans have innate capability of learning a language
that was named as LAD Language Acquisition Device by Chomsky. It is also called
Chomsky‘s theory of innateness.

Code: By code, we mean the language in which communication takes place.

Code Mixing: A fluent bilingual talking to another fluent bilingual changes language without
any change at all in the situation. This kind of alteration is called code mixing.

Spatial deixis. Forms used to point to location e.g. here there etc.

Person deixis: is deictic reference to the participant role of a referent, such as. the speaker.
the addressee, and. referents which are neither speaker nor addressee. Me, you etc

Temporal: Forms used to point to location in time, e.g. now, then

Adjacency Pair: Definition: An adjacency pair is a unit of conversation that contains an

exchange of one turn each by two speakers. The turns are functionally related to each other in

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such a fashion that the first turn requires a certain type or range of types of second turn. A
greeting–greeting pair. A question–answer pair.

Tautology: Tautology is the repetitive use of phrases or words that have similar meanings. In
simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea, or saying, two or more times.
Apparently meaningless expression in which one word is defined as itself e.g. business is
business.

Deictic Projection:  Deictic projection = speakers being able to project themselves into
other locations, time or shift person reference. Eg. via dramatic performances, when using
direct speech to represent the person, location and feelings of someone else.

Deixis and distance. 2. ...  The word 'deixis' is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the
most basic things we do with utterances, which means 'pointing' via language.' 
Any linguistic form used to accomplish 'pointing' is called a deictic expression.

Content Condition: In order to count as a particular type of speech act, an utterance must
contain certain features e.g. a promise must be about a future event.

Contrastive Pragmatics: The study of culturally different ways of using language.

Mitigating Device: Expression used to soften an imposition e.g. please

Projection Problem: The problem of the presupposition of a simple structure not surviving
when part of a more complex structure.

Proximal: Near speaker e.g. this, here

Schema: A pre existing knowledge structure in memory.

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