GROUP 2

DEVELOPMENT OF WATER
SOURCES
WATER SOURCES
▸ Rainwater
▸ Springs
▸ Infiltration Wells
▸ Surface Water Supplies
DEVELOPMENT OF WATER
SOURCES

RAINWATER
RAINWATER

▸ Rainwater can be utilized as an important source of

water supply in areas were rain is well distributed
throughout the year and where surface and groundwater
are scarce.
RAINWATER HARVESTING

▸ Defined as the process of collecting and storing rainwater

in a scientific and controlled manner for future use.

▸ Rainwater can be collected from roofs of buildings,

houses, and other catchments from which it can be
channeled to a cistern or storage tank.

▸ Cisterns are applicable only for Level I service. Any fibro-

cement roof should be excluded as the material has been
identified as a
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RAINWATER HARVESTING BENEFITS INCLUDE THE FF:

▸ Environment-friendly, easy approach for water

requirements;

▸ Increases ground water level and improves quality;

▸ Mitigates the effects of drought;

▸ Reduces the runoff, which otherwise would flood storm

water drains

▸ Reduces soil erosion;

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RAINWATER HARVESTING BENEFITS INCLUDE THE FF:

▸ Cost-effective and easy to maintain;

▸ Reduces water and electricity bills;

▸ Because rainwater is soft, little soap is needed when used

for laundry purposes.
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▸ Special provisions should be made

to bypass the first 5 to 10 minutes
of rainwater and to filter the
collected water.

▸ It is recommended that the cistern

be treated after every rain with
chlorine compound of at least
5mg/l chlorine.
COMPUTING FOR AMOUNT
OF WATER COLLECTED
TEXT

DETERMINING COLLECTED WATER

▸ The average annual rainfall and the collecting area

determine the amount of water which can be collected.
One millimeter of rain falling on one square meter of roof
will yield 0.80 to 0.90 liters of water depending on the
type of roof.
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EXAMPLE
▸ If the annual rainfall is 2360mm
and the available collecting surface
has the dimension of 5m x 10m,
what will be the amount of water
which can be collected in a year?
DEVELOPMENT OF WATER
SOURCES

SPRINGS
TEXT

B. SPRINGS

o Springs are outcrops of groundwater that often

appear as small water holes or wet spots at the foot of
hills or along river banks.

o To obtain satisfactory water, it is necessary to find the

source, properly develop it, eliminate surface water
intrusion, and prevent animals from gaining access to
the spring. There should be no immediate upstream
settlements, as these would pose the risk of biological
contamination.
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B. SPRINGS

o In all cases, a spring should be protected from

surface-water pollution by the construction of a
deep diverting ditch or equivalent above and
around it.
o The spring and the collecting basin should have a
watertight top, preferably concrete, and water
obtained by gravity flow. Covers for inspection
manholes, when provided, should be tightly fitted
and kept locked.
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1. STEPS IN DEVELOPING SPRINGS

o Enlarge the eye of the spring to increase the

quantity of water yield. This is accomplished by
digging out the area around the hole down to the
impervious layer to remove silt, mineral matter and
rock fragments. During excavation, avoid disturbing
the underground rock formation to prevent the
deflection of the spring to another direction or rock
formation.
o Against the eye of the spring, pile stones that will
serve as the foundation of the spring box.
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1. STEPS IN DEVELOPING SPRINGS

• Construct a spring box around the enlarged eye of

the spring. This is to protect the spring water from
contamination.

• If there are several small springs located in the

same area, construct a silt trap to serve as the
reservoir collecting from the springs.
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2. BASIC DESIGN FEATURES OF A SPRING BOX

▸ Although there are many different designs for

spring boxes, they all share common features.
Primarily, a spring box is a watertight collecting box
constructed of concrete, clay, or brick with one
permeable slide. The idea behind the spring box is
to isolate spring water from surface contaminants
such as rainwater or surface runoff. All spring boxes
should be designed with a heavy, removable cover
in order to prevent contamination from rainwater
while providing access for disinfection and
maintenance.
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2. BASIC DESIGN FEATURES OF A SPRING BOX

▸ Spring box design should include an overflow pipe

that is screened for mosquito and small animal
control. It is also important to provide some
measure of erosion prevention at the overflow pipe.
Approximately 8 meters upslope from the spring
box, a diversion ditch should be constructed
capable of diverting surface runoff away from the
spring box.
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2. BASIC DESIGN FEATURES OF A SPRING BOX

▸ There are two basic spring box design that could be

modified to meet local conditions and
requirements. The first design is a spring box with a
single permeable side for hillside collection and the
second design has a pervious bottom for collecting
water flowing from a single opening on a level
ground.
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2. BASIC DESIGN FEATURES OF A SPRING BOX

▸ Because each spring site is unique and every

community has individual water supply needs, there
is not a particular a particular spring box design that
will fit all circumstances. It is up to the designer and
the community to decide what will work best
depending on local conditions.
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2. BASIC DESIGN FEATURES OF A SPRING BOX

▸ One thing to remember in designing a spring box is

that the overflow pipe should not be higher than the
natural elevation of the spring. If the subjected to
back pressure from the stored spring water in the
box, it is possible for a spring to divert its flow
elsewhere.
DEVELOPMENT OF WATER
SOURCES

INFILTRATION
WELLS
INFILTRATION WELLS

▸ Also called as interception wells, infiltration wells are

shallow wells which put (or draw) water into (or from) a
natural aquifer outside of a riverbed, but which have a
partial lining. They can be used to either drain a catchment
area or recharge groundwater, especially where recharge
of the aquifer is low due to low rock/soil permeability (the
well penetrates through this).
INFILTRATION WELLS

▸ Infiltration wells do not have to have a direct inlet

(although they can have one). Without an inlet, they can
become a larger hole and be filled with porous natural
materials to increase the ground's infiltration capacity and,
in most cases, have a coiled drain between the soil surface
and the underground piping. This coiled drain is
perforated to allow water inside where it can flow more
quickly out of the drain. It acts as a security for high
rainstorm runoff events that might rain too much water to
effectively infiltrate into the well or aquifer
SUITABLE CONDITIONS FOR INFILTRATION WELLS

▸ Site where water table is within 5 metres of ground

surface, and where soils are stable.

▸ Site where water demand is low, e.g. for small

communities.

▸ Do not install in areas where water drainage is rapid. Since

infiltration wells have a low infiltration capacity, the
drainage rate will be insufficient and will not make it
possible to reduce the risk of erosion.
SUITABLE CONDITIONS FOR INFILTRATION WELLS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

- Lower cost than making a fully lined - Not much water is available for
well due to less lining needed extraction (as compared with a
- traditional well)
- Speedier construction compared to
-
fully lined well
- Cannot easily access intake for
-
maintenance or in case of problems
- Good for low-yielding aquifers
-
-
- Since it's a lower tech option, villagers -  No possibility to line as you dig,
can participate easier, therefore less therefore more safety concerns if soil
supervision required is not stable
DEVELOPMENT OF WATER
SOURCES

SURFACE WATER
SOURCES
TEXT

SURFACE WATER

▸ an extremely important natural resource. From the water

we drink, give to our pets, and use for recreation, we are
dependent on its various uses. Surface water is
continuously being threatened by anthropogenic activities.
It’s extremely difficult and costly for municipal treatment
facilities to keep up with new contaminants that are
polluting waterways every single day. Additionally, federal
regulations don’t reflect the large scope of surface water
pollution. This blog post discusses the various threats to
surface water and why humans should care
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WHAT IS SURFACE WATER?

▸ Lakes, oceans, streams, rivers, ponds, reservoirs, and

wetlands are the various types of surface water. Freshwater
sources are responsible for providing potable drinking water
to 84% of the nations population. Surface water is different
from groundwater because it has the ability to disperse and
become diluted as it travels throughout a body of water.
Groundwater aquifers are essentially holding tanks for
highly concentrated contamination. There’s less room for
contaminants to move around, and less volume for the
contamination to become less concentrated.
HOW DOES SURFACE
WATER BECOME
POLLUTED?
TEXT

▸ Surface water is extremely susceptible to pollution

because it occupies such a large portion of the earth’s
surface. Surface water pollution is almost entirely the result
of human activities. Agriculture, mining, factory effluent,
landfills, human/animal waste and localized pollution are
just some of the most common sources of surface water
pollution. Topography and geological formations create
natural surface water runoff, but human manipulation of
the land increases flow rates and overall contamination.
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▸ Point source pollution comes from an easily identifiable

source, like a factory or sewage treatment plant.
Point source pollution is discharged through a
pipeline, ditch, or any “discrete conveyance” that
directly or indirectly enters a body of water. Point
sources are typically regulated by National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits.
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▸ Non-point source pollution is much harder to regulate

because the source is not easily identifiable.
Agricultural and stormwater runoff are the two most
common types of nonpoint source pollution. Heavy
rain events cause contaminants to runoff from roads
and fields, collecting debris and pollution as it travels
into a body of water.
HOW DO YOU MITIGATE
SURFACE WATER
POLLUTION?
TEXT

It’s expensive and nearly impossible to mitigate a contaminant once

it has entered surface water. For some contaminants, the solution is
typically self-mitigating. A contaminant will become diluted to
extremely small concentrations after it has traveled and dispersed
throughout a body of water. Additionally, some contaminants are still
extremely toxic at very small concentrations. There are also several
persistent contaminants that never fully decompose in nature (PCBs,
DDT and Dioxin), or take hundreds of years to degrade. As we’ve
seen in Wilmington, North Carolina, and Maplewood, Minnesota,
municipal water treatment facilities are only equipped to remove
certain types and quantities of surface water contamination.
WHAT IS THE CURRENTLY
BIGGEST THREAT TO
SURFACE WATER?
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Man-made compounds are one of the largests threats to drinking water

sources. Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) are a category of man-made
“emerging contaminants,” which means they have been detected in the
environment but the risk to human health is not well-understood. Chemicals
such as GenX, PFOA, and PFOS are all common contaminants that fall under
the category of PFAS. DuPont, Chemours, and 3M have been using variations
of these chemicals in industrial and consumer products since the early 1950’s.
Scotchgard, Teflon, firefighting foam, metal plating, heat/water repellent
chemicals, and stain resistant fabrics are common uses of PFAS. They are
extremely persistent in the environment, which means they do not readily
degrade. PFAS effluent is either directly dumped from a factory into surface
water or a dug ditch, which will then percolate into groundwater. This is
allowed because PFAS are unregulated by the federal government.
HOW CAN I PROTECT
SURFACE WATER?
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Protecting surface water from contamination will not only improve

drinking water quality, but also valuable habitats. Here are some
tips for local level surface water management:
▸ Watershed Management: Municipalities should look
at watersheds as an entire system, rather than exclusively a
water resource. Watershed management surveys the land
surrounding a body of water to determine the natural flows and
influxes.
▸ Eliminating Pesticides, Herbicides, and Fertilizers: What’s
bad for plants and animals, is also bad for humans. This category
of surface water pollution runs-off directly into surrounding
bodies of water and effects fragile surface water ecosystems.
Reducing or eliminating the use of pesticides, herbicides, and
fertilizers will reduce the amount of necessary additives by
municipal water treatment facilities to eliminate contaminants.
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▸ Reduce Impervious Surfaces: Impervious surface is any type of

ground cover that prevents water from infiltrating into the ground.
Pavement or asphalt is the best example. Impervious surface
increases runoff flow rates into surface water, and prevents
groundwater from naturally filtering contaminants. Next time you’re
thinking about paving your driveway, consider a pervious
alternative such as porous asphalt or pervious concrete.

▸ Hold Municipalities Accountable: Stay current with commercial

and industrial development within your community. Public comment
periods are required prior to development and prior to obtaining
a NPDES permit. Companies are required to address each question
and concern individually, so if development plans raise personal
concern, don’t be afraid to utilize the public comment period.