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The Miracle Tree: Current Status of Available Knowledge: Euphorbia Tirucalli L. (Euphorbiaceae)
The Miracle Tree: Current Status of Available Knowledge: Euphorbia Tirucalli L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Euphorbia tirucalli is one of the most important tree Euphorbias known worldwide for its many uses.
Endemic to tropical Africa where it often grows wild, it is usually planted for boundary demarcation but
also as a live fence around compounds, shrines and kraals due to its ability to withstand extreme aridity
and possession of low herbivore pressure. E. tirucalli has white latex which is vesicant and rubifacient
but also known to be a remedy against many ailments. However, most of its medicinal features are
reported in folk medicine and there appears to be little medical/laboratory analysis to validate them. In
this review, we attempt to explore the current knowledge status about E. tirucalli in relation to its
classification, chemical content and functions, and the extent to which modern research has gone to
validate them. It was found that although a great deal has been done to analyze its chemical
composition (bark, roots and latex), and potential for biodiesel production, little is available on
validation of its application for medicinal purposes, yet it continues to be used in traditional and
alternative medicine on a daily basis. Empirical research is called for to achieve this.
INTRODUCTION
Kingdom: Plantae.
Division: Magnoliophyta.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Class: Magnoliopsida.
4906 Sci. Res. Essays
(a) (b)
Plate 2. E. tirucalli specimen from Morocco (closed-broom structure with a tendency for canopy
formation (a) and E. tirucalli specimen from Burundi (open-broom structure with no observable
tendencies for canopy formation (b).
More research is required to analyze more specimens cm long and 2 cm wide but broadest beyond the middle.
and using proper methodologies to establish whether They are present only at the tips of young branchlets.
there is a need to subdivide the species into its lower They have glandular, minute, dark brown stipules and are
taxonomic forms. quickly deciduous (Van Damme, 1985, 2001) (Figure 1).
According to the same author, inflorescences are
stalkless and appear as yellowish heads in clusters of 2
Plant description to 6 cymes (Plate 3). The cymes produce a dense cluster
of Cynthia that develop only male flowers and
Morphology of E. tirucalli has been extensively studied by occasionally a few female flowers but in some plants,
Van Damme (1985, 1990, 2001). According to the latter Cynthia are few and only female flowers develop. Cynthia
author, E. tirucalli is an unarmed shrub or small tree that have cup-shaped single sex involucres. Male involucres
can grow 4 to 12 m high and about 15 to 20 cm in trunk have bracteoles which are linear with plumose apices.
diameter. Its branches are evergreen, longitudinal, Stamens are usually single per stalk and are about 4.5
succulent, about 7 mm thick and usually produced in mm long. Occasionally, an aborted female flower is
whorls, rarely single, giving it a broom- like structure. present. In female involucres, the perianth is distinct and
Branches usually end in smaller pencil-like twigs, dull 3-lobed existing below a tomentose ovary which is lobular
green to red green in colour, with fine white striations and and about 0.5 mm long. The ovary is joined at the base
produced in whorls of 2 to 6. Its young stem is green, with thickened bifid apices. Occasionally, a female flower
photosynthetic with grooves which in fact are small canal- exists within the involucres. Each involucre bears five
like structures containing stomata protected from extreme independent nectaries that produce nectar and therefore
conditions. The stem stomatal frequency is estimated at flowers are insect-pollinated.
2
12 per mm in grooves on older stem parts, while it may Fruits are glabrescent capsules on a tomentose
2
reach 40 per mm on a smooth younger part of the stem. pedicel, yellowish red when ripe and fall off easily. Seeds
Older stems become rough, brown and lose their are ovoid, 3.5 × 2.8 mm in size, smooth, buff-speckled
photosynthetic ability with age. Leaves are few, simple, and with a dark brown ventral line. A caruncle exists
scattered, entire, alternate, oblanceolate, about 1.3 to 2.5 which is about 1 mm across (Van Damme, 1985).
4908 Sci. Res. Essays
Chemical composition
reports that a combination of Meloidogyne spp. and 1), medical folklore literature of different parts of the world
Botrytis spp. infestations can wipe out a whole field in a (especially tropical and subtropical areas where it is
short time. endemic) is tainted with its curative ability. According to
Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim (2008) and Van Damme
(1989), in East Africa, latex is used against sexual
Uses of E. tirucalli impotence, warts, epilepsy, toothache, hemorrhoids,
snake bites, extraction of ecto-parasites and cough
Traditional medicine: Possibly due to a great variety of among others. In Peninsular Malaysia, a poultice of the
chemical substances found in E. tirucalli tissues (Table roots or stems is applied to nose ulceration, hemorrhoids
4910 Sci. Res. Essays
and swellings. Root scrapings mixed with coconut oil are as an ornamental plant. Potted plants are placed in
taken for stomach-ache. In India, Kumar (1999) notes offices (Plate 4) and homes but can also be grown in
that it is an unavoidable plant in most traditional lawns. It is preferred for its ease of maintenance and
homesteads and used as a remedy for ailments such as: beautiful evergreen pencil-like branches which factors
spleen enlargement, asthma, dropsy, leprosy, have increased its international trade resulting into a wide
biliousness, leucorrhoea, dyspepsia, jaundice, colic, distribution in areas where it was not endemic. An extract
tumors and bladder stones. He further says that although of a report of the 17th meeting of the Convention on
the latex of vesicant and rubifacient is emetic in large International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna
doses, it is purgative in small doses and applied against and flora (CITES) plants’ committee held in Geneva
toothaches, earaches, rheumatism, warts, cough, (Switzerland), 15 to 19 April 2006 (Table 2) shows that E.
neuralgia and scorpion bites. The same author points out tirucalli trade is booming. Possibly for a similar reason,
that its branch and root decoctions are administered for the same report classifies it as an endangered species
colic and gastralgia while ashes are applied as caustic to which should be protected. However, the latter
open abscesses. Duke (1983) and Van Damme (1989) conclusion was challenged by Van Damme and the
mention that, in Brazil, E. tirucalli is used against cancer, Belgian CITES committee members (Van Damme, pers.
cancroids, epitheliomas, sarcomas, tumors and warts, comm.). Probably in recognition of this challenge, E.
although they argue that this has no scientific basis since tirucalli is presently listed among the ‘least concerned’
the same tree is known to be co-carcinogenic. In Malabar category of the International Union for Conservation of
(India) and the Moluccas, latex is used as an emetic and Nature (IUCN) red-list of threatened species 2010.3
anti-syphilitic while in Indonesia, the root infusion is used (www.iucnredlist.org).
for aching bones while a poultice of roots or leaves is
used to treat nose ulcers, hemorrhoids and extraction of Source of energy: Duke (1983) and Calvin (1978, 1979)
thorns. Wood decoctions are applied against leprosy and report that latex of E. tirucalli is composed of petroleum-
hands and feet paralysis following childbirth (Duke, like hydrocarbons largely C30 triterpenoids (Table 1),
1983). The same author states that in Java, the plant which on cracking yield high-octane gasoline. They
latex is used to cure skin ailments and bone fractures. estimate a crude gasoline yield between 4 and 8 barrels
per hectare from an E. tirucalli-planted field per year; and
Ornamental: E. tirucalli has increasingly become popular calculated at about three dollars per barrel, it is three
Mwine and Damme 4911
Plant part Source/country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Extract (g) Vietnam 36
Leaves (g) USA 4000
Leaves (g) Madagascar 3
Plants Kenya 32 12
Plants Belgium 23
Plants Brazil 4950 10000 2000 10000 10000
Plants Canada 204
Plants China 220
Plants USA 7481 10240 9163 20296 12935 14677 19396
Plants Denmark 5000
Plants Dominican Repub. 2500 1270 4200 3000 14239
Plants Spain 165 331 80
Plants Haiti 108
Plants Netherlands 12500 6500 3000 100
Plants Madagascar 30 2
Plants Poland 1750 3040 3770 6450 17400 1100
Plants Thailand 5
Plants Zambia 6 3 1 80
Totals All sources 27499 29788 17426 34251 34124 35441 39735
Source: CITES convention report on Euphorbias (2006).
times cheaper than normal crude oil. These postulations (1989, 2001) names the provision of charcoal and
were validated by Calvin (1980) and although they were fuelwood among its traditional uses. He further explains
found to be true, extraction projects to this time have that the plant’s ability to grow in semi-arid areas, devoid
never materialized. However, E. tirucalli is still looked at of forests, makes it one of the few alternatives for
as a potential source of biodiesel as it can produce a high fuelwood production in such situations.
biomass and grow in marginal areas unfit for production For the same reason, it has been recommended for
of other crops. Of late, there has been increasing commercial fuelwood production projects for purposes of
attention on biodiesel production in order to reduce over- woodlot restocking in semi-arid parts of Kenya (Mahiri,
dependence on fossil fuel (Prusty, 2008). While agreeing 2002). Mahiri (1998) points out that E. tirucalli is preferred
with such a venture, Eshel et al. (2010) warn that for this purpose due to its fast growth rate, high
emphasis should be put on non-food sources (such as E. productivity, quick acclimatizion to an area and ease with
tirucalli) to avoid hunger that can result from the use of which it dries.
food crops as a source of biodiesel. Associated with
biodiesel production is methane and biogas generation; Source of rubber: E. tirucalli is reported for possessing
Rajasekaran et al. (1989) and Van Damme (1990), hydrocarbon polymers that are used for manufacturing
considering its reported high biomass production and rubber substitutes. Several researchers point out that its
ease with which it ferments, note that it is a potential latex is an emulsion of terpenes and resins in water
source of methane and biogas. Sow et al. (1989) which can easily be transformed into rubber at low cost
experimentally demonstrated that E. tirucalli produces (Calvin, 1979; Uzabakiliho et al., 1987; Van Damme,
suitable biomass for biogas generation especially through 1990). The same authors further report that during the
chopped material under thermophilic conditions which Second World War, its latex was used in South Africa to
can yield 1.06 l/day of biogas in just 19 days. Based on develop a rubber substitute which proved unprofitable
estimations from research carried out near Lake Baringo and due to high resin content, could not yield high quality
(Kenya), with 80,000 plants per hectare yielding 20 dry rubber. Also, due to the strong fixative power of the resin,
metric tons per year, they estimated E. tirucalli’s potential it has for long been used on the East African coast in
annual methane production (with a continuous digester), local gum manufacture for fastening knife-blades to wood
3
at around 3,000 m per year, equivalent to approximately handles and spear-heads to shafts (Van Damme, 1989).
3,000 1 of fueloil. The same authors estimated production In the same view, Murali (1998) notes that the resin
of about 100 metric tons of compost per year as a produces comparably good wood-based glue and
byproduct. Other forms of energy associated with high E. adhesives whereas with a few modifications, it would
tirucalli biomass are fuelwood and charcoal. Van Damme compete favourably with other commercial resins.
4912 Sci. Res. Essays
Conservation and agroforestry: Due to its favourable days but can also result into permanent blindness. They
agronomic features such as drought resistance, E. advise that it should be handled with caution. Research
tirucalli is used in semi-arid areas to carry out also shows that E. tirucalli is co-carcinogenic. Roe (1961)
afforestation and re-forestation for purposes of achieving observed that papillomas and malignant tumors were
soil conservation. Van Damme (2001) in the book elicited in mice treated with acetone extracts of
‘combating desertification with plants’ points out that such Euphorbia lattices. Mizuno (1986) reports a high
plants can be used as a soil cover in places where other incidence of Burkitt's lymphoma - a latent Epstein-Barr
plants (even grasses) cannot grow. Involvement of E. virus (EBV) malignancy in East Africa where E. tirucalli is
tirucalli has been mentioned in successful reforestation endemic. EBV causative factors were detected in soil and
and conservation programs in: Tanzania (Smith et al., drinking water (where E. tirucalli grows) implying that
1996), Kenya (Macharia, 2004; Mahiri, 2002) and Sri people living in such areas run a high cancer risk. The
Lanka (Melvani, 2009) among others. It has also featured findings have been further clinically validated in rats
in agroforestry programs (Jama et al., 2003; Long and (Fürstenberger and Hecker, 1985; Imai et al., 1994;
Nair, 1999; Mbwambo, 2004) as a hedge plant or as an MacNeil et al., 2003; Silva et al., 2007); some of which
intercrop. Other related uses of E. tirucalli include: developed full blast lymphomas. However, folklore
boundary demarcation (Kindt et al., 2006; Van Damme, reports anti-cancer treatment by the latex (Cataluna and
1989), live fencing around compounds and kraals Rates, 1999), and there are scientific indications that it
(Nascimento et al., 2009; Simons et al., 2004; Van may modulate myelopoiesis and enhance resistance
Damme, 1989), cultural connotations for example as a against tumor bearing (Valadares et al., 2006), both of
sign of starting a new home in Luo culture of East Africa which are suggestive of a cancer cure. E. tirucalli is
(Mahiri, 1998) and as a windbreak in semi-arid areas known to be an irritant to herbivores and due to its nasty
(Jama et al., 2003). Simons (2004) points out that the and acrid features, most herbivores learn to avoid it.
plant plays these roles due to its latex toxicity and hence Howes (1946) and Simons et al. (2004) point out that this
low herbivore pressure. is one of the reasons why it is a good live fencing
material. Conclusively, E. tirucalli is a miracle tree. This is
Pesticides: E. tirucalli latex has been reported to have undoubtedly expressed by the vast number of uses cited.
pesticidal features against such pests as aphids Evidently, quite a lot has been done on exploration of its
(Brevicoryne brassicae) (Mwine and Van Damme, 2010), chemistry and evaluation of its potential as an energy
mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus) plant. However, most of the medicinal uses mentioned
(Rahuman et al., 2008), micro-organisms such as have been left to folklore and need validation. For
bacteria (Staphylocococcus aureus) (Lirio et al., 1998) example, in spite of the vast number of ailments it is
and molluscs (Lymneae natalensis) (Vassiliades, 1984) reported to cure, to our knowledge, no substance of
and Biomphalaria gabrata (Tiwari, 2006) among others. pharmaceutical importance has so far been obtained
Siddiqui et al. (2003) report a dose-dependent latex from it. Also scanty literature has been cited on validation
toxicity to parasitic nematodes such as Haplolaimus of other functions like the reported insecticidal,
indicus, Helicotylenchus indicus and Tylenchus filiformis nematicidal, piscicidal and molluscicidal features. This
in vitro, with increasing exposure period, although some calls for more research/laboratory investigation, in order
nematodes like Meloidogyne spp. are known to attack the to establish scientific authenticity of these important
plant. The latex is also reported to be a hunters’ tool functions and to ascertain with confidence that E. tirucalli
applied in local fishing and arrow poisoning in tropical is a wonder plant for modern science.
Africa (Neuwinger, 2004). Piscicidal feature has been It remains a research issue whether people should
validated by Kumat (1995) and Tiwari (2006). Although continue to use E. tirucalli for the mentioned uses but as
the plant is generally mentioned as a pesticidal plant; it were, many societies have always applied it and will
scanty experimental work has been performed to confirm continue to do so until its effects are scientifically proved
this. dangerous. Table 2 indicates that most of the exporting
countries are not countries of E. tirucalli endemicity which
reveals how widespread and widely grown it has become.
Disuses
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