Capitulo 1 Egans - Parte 1
Capitulo 1 Egans - Parte 1
FOUNDATIONS OF
RESPIRATORY CARE
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Chapter 1
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you will be able to:
w Define respiratory care.
w Summarize some of the major events in the history of science and medicine.
w Explain how the respiratory care profession got started.
w Describe the historical development of the major clinical areas of respiratory care.
w Name some of the important historical figures in respiratory care.
w Describe the major respiratory care educational, credentialing, and professional associations.
w Explain how the important respiratory care organizations got started.
w Describe the development of respiratory care education.
w Predict future trends for the respiratory care profession.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Definitions Fellow of the American Association for
History of Respiratory Medicine and Science Respiratory Care (FAARC)
Ancient Times Board of Medical Advisors (BOMA)
Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the American Respiratory Care Foundation
Enlightenment Period (ARCF)
Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries International Council for Respiratory Care
Development of the Respiratory Care (ICRC)
Profession National Board for Respiratory Care (NBRC)
Clinical Advances in Respiratory Care Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory
Professional Organizations and Events Care (CoARC)
American Association for Respiratory Care Respiratory Care Education
(AARC) Future of Respiratory Care
Respiratory Care Week 2015 and Beyond
KEY TERMS
aerosol medications Committee on Accreditation National Board for Respiratory
airway management for Respiratory Care Care (NBRC)
American Association for (CoARC) oxygen therapy
Respiratory Care (AARC) Fellow of the American physician assistant
American Respiratory Care Association for Respiratory pulmonary function testing
Foundation (ARCF) Care (FAARC) respiratory care
Board of Medical Advisors International Council for respiratory care practitioner(s)
(BOMA) Respiratory Care (ICRC) respiratory therapist(s) (RTs)
cardiopulmonary system mechanical ventilation respiratory therapy
3
4 SECTION I • Foundations of Respiratory Care
T
he history of science and medicine is a fascinating About 75% of all respiratory therapists work in hospitals
topic, which begins in ancient times and progresses or other acute care settings.3 However, many respiratory
to the twenty-first century. Although respiratory therapists are employed in clinics, physicians’ offices,
care is a newer discipline, its roots go back to the dawn of skilled nursing facilities, cardiopulmonary diagnostic lab-
civilization. The first written account of positive pressure oratories, and public schools. Others work in research,
ventilation using mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is thought disease management programs, home care, and industry.
to have been recorded more than 28 centuries ago.1 Air Some respiratory therapists work in colleges and universi-
was thought to be one of the four basic elements by the ties, teaching students the skills they need to become respi-
ancients, and the practice of medicine dates back to ancient ratory therapists. Regardless of practice setting, all direct
Babylonia and Egypt. The progression of science and medi- patient care services provided by respiratory therapists
cine continued through the centuries, and development of must be done under the direction of a qualified physician.
the modern disciplines of anesthesiology, pulmonary med- Medical directors are usually physicians who are specialists
icine, and respiratory care during the twentieth century in pulmonary or critical care medicine.
was dependent on the work of many earlier scientists and A human resources survey conducted in 2009 revealed
physicians. This chapter describes the history and develop- that there were approximately 145,000 respiratory thera-
ment of the field of respiratory care and possible future pists practicing in the United States3; this represented a
directions for the profession. 9.3% increase over a similar study conducted 4 years earlier
in 2005. As the incidence of chronic respiratory diseases
continues to increase, the demand for respiratory thera-
DEFINITIONS pists is expected to be even greater in the years ahead.
Respiratory care, also known as respiratory therapy, has Although the respiratory therapist as a distinct health care
been defined as the health care discipline that specializes provider was originally a uniquely North American phe-
in the promotion of optimal cardiopulmonary function nomenon, since the 1990s there has been a steady increase
and health.2 Respiratory therapists (RTs) apply scientific in interest of other countries in having specially trained
principles to prevent, identify, and treat acute or chronic professionals provide respiratory care. This trend is referred
dysfunction of the cardiopulmonary system.2 Respira- to as the “globalization of respiratory care.”
tory care includes the assessment, treatment, management,
control, diagnostic evaluation, education, and care of HISTORY OF RESPIRATORY
patients with deficiencies and abnormalities of the
cardiopulmonary system.2 Respiratory care is increasingly
MEDICINE AND SCIENCE
involved in the prevention of respiratory disease, the man- Several excellent reviews of the history of respiratory care
agement of patients with chronic respiratory disease, and have been written, and the reader is encouraged to review
the promotion of health and wellness.2 these publications.1,4-6 Summaries of notable historical
Respiratory therapists, also known as respiratory care events in science, medicine, and respiratory care are pro-
practitioners, are health care professionals who are edu- vided in Tables 1-1 and 1-2. A brief description of the
cated and trained to provide respiratory care to patients. history of science and medicine follows.
TABLE 1-1
Major Historical Events in Science, Medicine, and Respiratory Care from Ancient Times to the Nineteenth Century
Dates Historical Event
Ancient Period
1550 BC What may be the world’s oldest medical document, known as Ebers Papyrus, describes an ancient Egyptian
inhalational treatment for asthma
800 BC Biblical reference to what may be the first recorded episode of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
500-300 BC Hippocrates (460-370 BC; Greece) describes diseases as “humoral disorders” and speculates that an essential
substance in air enters the heart and is distributed throughout the body
304 BC Erasistratus of Alexandria describes the pneumatic theory of respiration, in which air travels through the lungs to
the heart and then through the air-filled arteries to the tissues of the body
100-200 AD Galen (130-199 AD) in Asia Minor identifies “pneuma” as the vital substance in inspired air that enters the heart
and then the blood
Middle Ages (500-1500 AD) and Renaissance (1450-1600)
500-1500 AD The Middle Ages brings a period of little scientific progress in the West; however, this period coincides with the
Golden Age of Arabian medicine (850-1050 AD)
1400s-1500s da Vinci (1452-1519; Italy) performs human dissections and physiologic experiments on animals, learning that
subatmospheric intrapleural pressures inflate the lungs and that there is a vital substance in air that supports
combustion
History of Respiratory Care • CHAPTER 1 5
TABLE 1-1
Major Historical Events in Science, Medicine, and Respiratory Care from Ancient Times to the Nineteenth Century—cont’d
Dates Historical Event
1542 Vesalius (1514-1564; Belgium), one of the great early pioneers in human anatomy, performs a thoracotomy on a
pig, placing a reed tracheotomy tube for ventilation of the animal, and resuscitates an apparently dead person
Seventeenth Century (1600s)
1628 Harvey (1578-1657; England) describes the arterial and venous circulatory systems
1643 Torricelli (1608-1647; Italy) builds the world’s first barometer for measurement of atmospheric pressure
1648 Pascal (1623-1662) describes the relationship between altitude and barometric pressure
1662; 1666 Boyle (1627-1691; England) explains the inverse relationship between gas pressure and volume (Boyle’s law:
pressure [P] × volume [V] = k or [P1V1] = [P2V2]). Boyle also describes a mysterious substance in air that
supports combustion
1683 van Leewenhoek (1632-1723; Holland) improves the microscope and begins the science of microbiology
Eighteenth Century (1700s)
1738 Bernoulli (1700-1782; Switzerland) determines that as the velocity of a liquid or gas increases, the pressure
decreases (Bernoulli principle). Bernoulli also proposed that gases are composed of tiny particles in rapid,
random motion. This idea became the basis of the modern kinetic theory of gases, which was developed
further by Maxwell (1831-1879; Scotland) in 1860
1744 Fothergill (1712-1780; England) reports successful resuscitation methods
1754 Black (1728-1799; Scotland) rediscovers carbon dioxide, which he calls “fixed air” (prior work had been done by
van Helmot in the 1600s)
1771 Scheele (1742-1786; Sweden) makes “fire air” (oxygen) by heating magnesium oxide; Scheele’s findings are
published in June 1774
1774 Priestley (1733-1804; England), usually credited with the discovery of oxygen, publishes his work on
“dephlogisticated air” (oxygen) 3 months after Scheele’s report
1775 Lavosier (1743-1794; France) renames “dephlogisticated air” “oxygen,” or “acid maker” and shows that oxygen
is absorbed by the lungs and consumed by the body, producing carbon dioxide and water vapor, which are
exhaled
1776 Hunter (1728-1793; England) recommends use of a fireplace bellows for artificial ventilation
1787 Charles (1746-1823; France) describes the relationship between gas temperature and volume; Charles’ law:
volume (V)/temperature (T) = constant; or (V1/T1) = (V2/T2)
1794 Lavosier (1743-1794; France) describes oxygen absorption by the lungs and carbon dioxide production
1798 Beddoes (1760-1808; England) establishes the Pneumatic Institute in Bristol and uses oxygen to treat various
disorders
Nineteenth Century (1800s)
1800 Henry (1774-1836; England) determines that the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportioned to
its partial pressure (Henry’s law)
1800s Fick (1829-1911) describes a method to calculate cardiac output based on oxygen consumption and arterial
and venous oxygen content: Q T = (V O2)/(CaO2 − CvO2)
1801-1808 Dalton (1766-1844; England) describes his atomic theory and the relationship between the partial pressures and
total pressure of a gas mixture; Dalton’s law: P1 + P2 + P3 … PN = PTotal, where P = pressure
1806 de LaPlace (1749-1827; France) describes the relationship between pressure and surface tension in fluid droplets
1808 Gay-Lussac (1778-1850; France) describes the relationship between gas pressure and temperature; Gay-Lussac’s
law: pressure (P)/temperature (T) = constant; or (P1/T1) = (P2/T2)
1811 Avogadro (1776-1856; Italy) describes “Avogadro principle,” where equal volumes of all gases (at the same
temperature and pressure) contain the same number of molecules
1816 Laennec (1781-1826; France) invents the stethoscope for chest auscultation and lays the foundation for modern
pulmonology with his book Diseases of the Chest
1831 Graham (1805-1869; Scotland) describes diffusion of gases (Graham’s law)
1837 Magnus (1802-1870; Germany) measures arterial and venous blood oxygen and carbon dioxide content
1846 Hutchinson (1811-1861; England) develops the spirometer and measures the vital capacity of more than 2000
human subjects
1864 Jones (United States) patents a negative pressure device to support ventilation
1865 Pasteur (1822-1895; France) describes his “germ theory” of disease
1876 Woillez develops the spirophore negative pressure ventilator
1878 Bert (1833-1886; France) shows that low inspired oxygen levels cause hyperventilation
1880 MacEwen reports success with oral endotracheal intubation
1885 Miescher-Rusch demonstrates that carbon dioxide is the major stimulus for breathing
1886; 1904 Bohr (1855-1911; Danish) describes the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
1888 The Fell-O’Dwyer device combines a foot-operated bellows with a laryngeal tube for ventilatory support
1895 Roentgen (1845-1923; Germany) discovers the “x-ray.” A direct vision laryngoscope is introduced by Jackson in
the United States and Kirstein in Germany
TABLE 1-2
Major Historical Events in Science, Medicine, and Respiratory Care in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries
Twentieth Century
Early 1900s Bohr (1855-1911; Denmark), Hasselbach (1874-1962; Denmark), Krogh (1874-1940; Denmark), Haldane
(1860-1936; Scotland), Barcroft (1872-1947; Ireland), Priestly (1880-1941; Britain), Y. Henderson
(1873-1944; United States), L.J. Henderson (1878-1942; United States), Fenn (1893-1971; United States),
Rahn (1912-1990; United States), and others make great strides in respiratory physiology and the
understanding of oxygenation, ventilation, and acid-base balance
1904 Bohr, Hasselbach, and Krogh (1874-1940) describe the relationships between oxygen and carbon dioxide
transport. Sauerbruch (1875-1951; Germany) uses a negative pressure operating chamber for surgery in
Europe
1907 von Linde (1842-1934; Germany) begins large-scale commercial preparation of oxygen
1909 Melltzer (1851-1920; United States) introduces oral endotracheal intubation
1910 Oxygen tents are in use, and the clinical use of aerosolized epinephrine is introduced
1911 Drager (1847-1917; Germany) develops the Pulmotor ventilator for use in resuscitation
1913 Jackson develops a laryngoscope to insert endotracheal tubes
1918 Oxygen mask is used to treat combat-induced pulmonary edema
1919 Strohl (1887-1977; France) suggests the use of FVC as a measure of pulmonary function
1920 Hill develops an oxygen tent to treat leg ulcers
1926 Barach develops an oxygen tent with cooling and carbon dioxide removal
1928 Drinker develops his “iron lung” negative pressure ventilator
1938 Barach develops the meter mask for administering dilute oxygen. Boothby, Lovelace, and Bulbulian devise the
BLB mask at the Mayo Clinic for delivering high concentrations of oxygen
1940 Isoproterenol, a potent beta-1 and beta-2 bronchodilator administered via aerosol, is introduced. Most
common side effects are cardiac (beta-1)
1945 Motley, Cournand, and Werko use IPPB to treat various respiratory disorders
1947 The ITA is formed in Chicago, Illinois. The ITA later becomes the AARC
1948 Bennett introduces the TV-2P positive pressure ventilator
1948 FEV1 is introduced as a pulmonary function measure of obstructive lung disease
1951 Isoetherine (Bronkosol), a preferential beta-2 aerosol bronchodilator with fewer cardiac side effects, is
introduced
1952 Mørch introduces the piston ventilator
1954 The ITA becomes the AAIT
1958 Bird introduces the Bird Mark 7 positive pressure ventilator
1960 The Campbell Ventimask for delivering dilute concentrations of oxygen is introduced
1961 Jenn becomes the first registered respiratory therapist. Also, metaproterenol, a preferential beta-2
bronchodilator, is introduced
1963 Board of Schools is formed to accredit inhalation therapy educational programs
1964 The Emerson Postoperative Ventilator (3-PV) positive pressure volume ventilator is introduced
1967 The Bennett MA-1 volume ventilator is introduced, ushering in the modern age of mechanical ventilatory
support for routine use in critical care units
1967 Combined pH-Clark-Severinghaus electrode is developed for rapid blood gas analysis
1968 Fiberoptic bronchoscope becomes available for clinical use. The Engström 300 and Ohio 560 positive pressure
volume ventilators are introduced
1969 ARDS and PEEP are described by Petty, Ashblaugh, and Bigelow
1970 Swan-Ganz catheter developed for measurement of pulmonary artery pressures. The ARCF is incorporated. The
JRCITE is incorporated to accredit respiratory therapy educational programs
1971 Continuous positive airway pressure is introduced by Gregory. Respiratory Care journal is named
1972 Siemens Servo 900 ventilator is introduced
1973 IMV is described by Kirby and Downs. The AAIT becomes the AART
1974 IMV Emerson ventilator is introduced
1974 NBRT is formed
1975 Bourns Bear I ventilator is introduced
1977 The JRCITE becomes the JRCRTE
1978 Puritan Bennett introduces the MA-2 volume ventilator. The AAR Times magazine is introduced
1979 AIDS is recognized by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC [later, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention])
1982 Siemens Servo 900C and Bourns Bear II ventilators are introduced
1983 The NBRT becomes the NBRC
1983 President Reagan signs proclamation declaring National Respiratory Care Week
1984 Bennett 7200 microprocessor controlled ventilator is introduced
1984 The AART is renamed the AARC
1991 Servo 300 ventilator is introduced
1992, 1993 The AARC holds national respiratory care education consensus conferences
1994 The CDC publishes the first guidelines for the prevention of VAP
1998 The CoARC is formed, replacing the JRCRTE
History of Respiratory Care • CHAPTER 1 7
TABLE 1-2
Major Historical Events in Science, Medicine, and Respiratory Care in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries—cont’d
Twenty-First Century
2002 The NBRC adopts a continuing competency program for respiratory therapists to maintain their credentials
2002 The Tripartite Statements of Support are adopted by the AARC, NBRC, and CoARC to advance respiratory
care education and credentialing
2003 The AARC publishes its white paper on the development of baccalaureate and graduate education in
respiratory care. Asian bird flu appears in South Korea
2004 The Fiftieth AARC International Congress is held in New Orleans
2005 Number of working respiratory therapists in the United States reaches 132,651
2006 The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
begins national awareness and education campaign for COPD. The AARC works with government officials to
recruit and train respiratory therapists for disaster response
2007 The first AARC president to serve a 2-year term begins term of office
2008 First of three conferences held for 2015 and Beyond strategic initiative of the AARC
and Pascal showed that atmospheric pressure decreases described oxygen diffusion, oxygen and carbon dioxide
with altitude.1,4 van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), known as transport, the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, acid-
the “father of microbiology,” improved the microscope base balance, and the mechanics of breathing and made
and was the first to observe and describe single-celled other important advances in respiratory physiology (see
organisms, which he called “animalcules.”7 Table 1-2).
The eighteenth-century Enlightenment Period brought
further advances in the sciences. In 1754, Black described
the properties of carbon dioxide, although the discovery of DEVELOPMENT OF THE
carbon dioxide should be credited to van Helmont, whose RESPIRATORY CARE
work occurred about 100 years earlier.1 In 1774, Priestley PROFESSION
described his discovery of oxygen, which he called “dephlo-
gisticated air.”1,4 Before 1773, Scheele performed the labo- Clinical Advances
ratory synthesis of oxygen, which he called “fire air”; a in Respiratory Care
general description of his discovery appeared in 1774, and The evolution of the respiratory care profession depended
a more thorough description appeared in 1777.1,4 Shortly in many ways on developments in the various treatment
after the discovery of oxygen, Spallazani worked out the techniques that matured in the twentieth century. As the
relationship between the consumption of oxygen and scientific basis for oxygen therapy, mechanical ventilatory
tissue respiration.1 In 1787, Charles described the relation- support, and administration of medical aerosols became
ship between gas temperature and volume now known as well established, the need for a health care practitioner to
Charles’ law.8 In experiments performed between 1775 and provide these services became apparent. Concurrent with
1794, Lavoisier showed that oxygen was absorbed by the this need was the continuing development of specialized
lungs and that carbon dioxide and water were exhaled.1,4 cardiopulmonary diagnostic tests and monitoring pro
In 1798, Beddoes began using oxygen to treat various con- cedures, which also required health care specialists to
ditions at his Pneumatic Institute in Bristol.1,4 perform.
The first health care specialists in the field were oxygen
Nineteenth and Early technicians in the 1940s.1,4,5 The first inhalation therapists
Twentieth Centuries were oxygen technicians or oxygen orderlies who could
During the nineteenth century, important advances were haul cylinders of oxygen and related equipment around
made in physics and chemistry related to respiratory physi- the hospital and set up oxygen tents, masks, and nasal
ology. Dalton described his law of partial pressures for a catheters. The development of positive pressure breathing
gas mixture in 1801 and his atomic theory in 1808.8 Young during World War II for breathing support of high-altitude
in 1805 and de LaPlace in 1806 described the relationship pilots led to its use as a method to treat pulmonary patients
between pressure and surface tension in fluid droplets.8 and deliver aerosol medications during the 1950s, expand-
Gay-Lussac described the relationship between gas pres- ing the role of the inhalation therapist. Inhalation thera-
sure and temperature in 1808, and in 1811, Avogadro pists began to be trained in the 1950s, and formal education
stated that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature programs began in the 1960s.1,4,5 The development of
and pressure contain the same number of molecules.1,8 In sophisticated mechanical ventilators in the 1960s natu-
1831, Graham described his law of diffusion for gases rally led to a further expansion in the role of respiratory
(Graham’s law).8 therapists, who soon also found themselves responsible for
In 1865, Pasteur advanced his “germ theory” of disease, arterial blood gas and pulmonary function laboratories. In
which held that many diseases are caused by microorgan- 1974, the designation “respiratory therapist” became
isms.8 Medical advances during this time included the standard, and the respiratory therapist became the allied
invention of the spirometer and ether anesthesia in 1846, health professional primarily concerned with the assess-
antiseptic techniques in 1865, and vaccines in the 1880s.1,4,7 ment, diagnostic testing, treatment, education, and care of
Koch, a pioneer in bacteriology, discovered the tubercle patients with deficiencies and abnormalities of the cardio-
bacillus, which causes tuberculosis, in 1882 and the vibrio pulmonary system. The historical development of several
bacterium, which causes cholera, in 1883.7 Respiratory clinical areas of respiratory care is described next, followed
physiology also progressed with the measurement in 1837 by an overview of the establishment of the major profes-
of blood oxygen and carbon dioxide content, the descrip- sional organizations in the field. The evolution of respira-
tion around 1880 of the respiratory quotient, demonstra- tory care education is also described.
tion in 1885 that carbon dioxide is the major stimulant for
breathing, and demonstration in 1878 that oxygen partial RULE OF THUMB
pressure and blood oxygen content were related.1,4,9 In When looking for information about the respiratory
1895, Roentgen discovered the x-ray, and the modern care profession, the best place to look is the AARC
field of radiologic imaging sciences was born.8 Pioneering (see www.AARC.org).
respiratory physiologists of the early twentieth century
History of Respiratory Care • CHAPTER 1 9
Aerosol Medications
Aerosol therapy is defined as the administration of liquid
or powdered aerosol particles via inhalation to achieve a
desired therapeutic effect. Bland aerosols (sterile water,
saline solutions) or solutions containing pharmacologi-
cally active drugs may be administered. In 1802, the use of
inhaled Datura leaf fumes, which contain atropine, to treat
asthma was described.10 Early use of aerosol medications
dates to 1910, when the first use of aerosolized epinephrine
was reported. Later, other short-acting bronchodilators
FIGURE 1-1 Iron lung patients in a 1950s polio ward. (From
such as isoproterenol (1940), isoetharine (1951), metapro- the Associated Press and Post-Gazette.com Health, Science
terenol (1961), albuterol sulfate (1980), and levalbuterol and Environment. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05094/
(2000) were introduced, primarily for the emergency 482468.stm.)
10 SECTION I • Foundations of Respiratory Care
B
FIGURE 1-2 Bird Mark 7, introduced in 1958 by Bird (A), and Bennett PR-2, introduced in
1963 by Bennett (B), were pneumatically powered, pressure-limited positive pressure
ventilators that could provide assist-control ventilation and were used to deliver IPPB
treatments.
1990s, volume support ventilation, pressure-regulated breath was first measured in 1679, and the measurement
volume control, and adaptive support ventilation were of the lung’s residual volume was first performed in 1800.9
introduced. The commercial implementation of propor- In 1846, Hutchinson developed a water seal spirometer,
tional assist ventilation and other modes of ventilation with which he measured the vital capacity of more than
occurred in the twenty-first century. 2000 subjects.9,16 Hutchinson observed the relationship
Because traditional short-term mechanical ventilation, between height and lung volume and that vital capacity
regardless of mode, necessitates the use of an endotracheal decreases with age, obesity, and lung disease. Hering and
tube, there is always the potential for a serious infection Breuer described the effects of lung inflation and deflation
known as ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). VAP is on breathing—the “Hering-Breuer reflex”—in 1868.4 In
a deadly and very costly consequence of invasive mechani- 1919, Strohl suggested the use of forced vital capacity
cal ventilation that develops when external microorgan- (FVC), and in 1948, forced expiratory volume in 1 second
isms accidentally enter the airway. There has been a (FEV1) was suggested as a measure of obstructive lung
concerted effort to try to support inadequate ventilation disease by Tiffeneau.9
noninvasively, by using a nasal or full-face mask, to avoid Arterial and venous oxygen and carbon dioxide con-
the need for endotracheal intubation. When noninvasive tents were measured in 1837, and methods to measure
ventilation does not work and endotracheal intubation is blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels were available
necessary, respiratory therapists must be constantly vigi- in the 1920s. These early methods for measuring
lant in their efforts to prevent VAP. blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH were slow and
cumbersome. In 1967, the combined pH, Clark, and
Airway Management Severinghaus electrodes produced a rapid and practical
Airway management refers to the use of various tech- blood gas analyzer for routine clinical use.1,4 The ear oxim-
niques and devices to establish or maintain a functional eter was introduced in 1974, and the pulse oximeter was
air passageway. Tracheotomies may have been performed introduced in the 1980s. Sleep medicine became well
to relieve airway obstruction in 1500 BC.6 Galen, the Greek established in the 1980s, and polysomnography became a
anatomist, described a tracheotomy and laryngeal intuba- routine clinical test, often performed by respiratory
tion in 160 AD. Vesalius, the anatomist, described a trache- therapists.
otomy in an animal in 1555.1,6 In 1667, Hooke described a
tracheotomy and use of a bellows for ventilation.6 In 1776,
tracheal intubation was suggested for resuscitation.6 In PROFESSIONAL
1880, MacEwen reported success with oral endotracheal ORGANIZATIONS
intubation in patients.6 O’Dwyer further described the AND EVENTS
technique for endotracheal tube placement. By 1887, Fell
had developed a bellows-endotracheal tube system for American Association
mechanical ventilation, and this system was used in 1900 for Respiratory Care (AARC)
to deliver anesthesia.6 Founded in 1947 in Chicago, the Inhalational Therapy
In 1913, the laryngoscope was introduced by Jackson. Association (ITA) was the first professional association for
Additional early laryngoscopes were designed by Kirstein, the field of respiratory care.1,4,5 The purpose of the ITA was
Janeway, and others.1,6 Endotracheal intubation for anes- to provide for professional advancement, foster coopera-
thesia administration was firmly established by World War tion with physicians, and advance the knowledge of inhala-
I. After the war, Magill introduced the use of soft rubber tion therapy through educational activities.5 The ITA
endotracheal tubes, and this made blind nasal intubation provided a forum to discuss the clinical application of
possible, as described by Magill in 1930.6 In 1938, Haight oxygen therapy, improve patient care, and advance the art
advocated nasotracheal suctioning for secretion removal, and science of the field.1 There were 59 charter members
and in 1941, Murphy described the ideal suction catheter, of the ITA.1 The ITA became the American Association for
which included side holes known as “Murphy eyes.”6 The Inhalation Therapists (AAIT) in 1954, the American Asso-
double-lumen Carlen tube for independent lung ventila- ciation for Respiratory Therapy (ARRT) in 1973, and the
tion was introduced in 1940, followed by a double-lumen American Association for Respiratory Care (AARC) in
tube developed by Robertshaw in 1962. Damage to the 1982.4,5 By early 2011, membership in the AARC had
trachea by the tube cuff was reduced with the introduction reached 52,000 respiratory therapists, respiratory therapy
of low-pressure cuffs in the 1970s.6 students, physicians, nurses, and others interested in respi-
ratory care. The AARC also has a formal affiliation with all
Cardiopulmonary Diagnostics 50 state respiratory societies (known as Chartered Affiliates)
and Pulmonary Function Testing as well as with similar organizations in several foreign
Pulmonary function testing refers to a wide range of countries.17
diagnostic procedures to measure and evaluate lung func- During the 1980s, the AARC began a major push to
tion. The volume of air that can be inhaled in a single deep introduce state licensure for respiratory therapists based
12 SECTION I • Foundations of Respiratory Care
supported by a staff of more than 35 employees of the and questions pertaining to patient care. The Board of
AARC who work fulltime in the association’s executive Medical Advisors (BOMA) is the group of physicians
offices located in Irving, Texas. who provide this valuable input. The BOMA comprises
Many volunteers who have been elected to the AARC approximately 18 physicians who are appointed by their
or House of Delegates leadership positions or have been respective professional medical associations (e.g., Ameri-
asked to chair important committees started by volunteer- can College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic
ing at the affiliate level. Student members of the AARC are Society, Society for Critical Care Medicine) to serve this
always welcomed as volunteers, especially at the affiliate cause voluntarily. The BOMA meets annually, but the
level. Student members of the AARC have access to a wide chairperson of the BOMA attends all meetings of
array of resources that can greatly enhance the experience the AARC Board of Directors. Individual members of
of becoming a professional respiratory therapist. the BOMA are assigned by the AARC president to serve as
a medical liaison to each of the 10 Specialty Sections of the
Respiratory Care Week AARC. Effective medical direction at the hospital level is
In November 1982, President Reagan signed a proclama- indispensable for the practice of safe, high-quality respira-
tion declaring the third week of each October as National tory care.
Respiratory Care Week. Since then, Respiratory Care Week
has become a yearly event to promote lung awareness and American Respiratory Care
the work of respiratory therapists is all care settings. Respi- Foundation (ARCF)
ratory therapists (and students) around the United States Established in 1970 by the AARC, the American Respira-
use Respiratory Care Week to celebrate their profession tory Care Foundation (ARCF) is a not-for-profit chari-
and dedication to quality patient care. Many respiratory table foundation that helps promote and further the
care departments use the opportunity to conduct special mission of the AARC. Commonly known as the Foun
events in their hospitals to help raise awareness of the vital dation, the ARCF collects and manages contributions
role the respiratory therapist plays as a member of the from individuals, corporations, and other foundations to
health care team. Other departments plan community recognize individual achievements of excellence in clinical
activities to help the public understand the importance of practice, chronic disease management, public respiratory
good lung health and the role respiratory therapists play health, scientific research, and literary excellence. The
in diagnosing and treating breathing disorders. Respira- ARCF also provides research grants to establish the scien-
tory Care Week is also an excellent opportunity for respira- tific basis of respiratory care further. Lastly, the ARCF over-
tory therapy students to become ambassadors of the sees and distributes numerous scholarships for respiratory
profession to the rest of the student body. Some respira- therapy students who are student members of the AARC.
tory therapy classes conduct free breathing tests on The ARCF awards and scholarships are presented at the
campus, in shopping malls, or in community centers. awards ceremony held in conjunction with the annual
International Respiratory Congress of the AARC. Respira-
Fellow of the American Association tory therapy students who are interested in applying for an
for Respiratory Care (FAARC) ARCF scholarship should visit the ARCF website (see
In any given profession, there are always individuals who www.arcfoundation.org) to learn more about this great
go above and beyond what is expected of the average prac- opportunity.
titioner. To recognize respiratory therapists and physician
members who have done so in our profession, the AARC International Council for Respiratory
established the Fellow of the American Association for Care (ICRC)
Respiratory Care (FAARC) award in 1998. To be consid- The International Council for Respiratory care (ICRC)
ered for FAARC status, nominees must be either a regis- is an AARC-sponsored organization dedicated to the glo-
tered respiratory therapist or a licensed physician and have balization of quality respiratory care. As mentioned previ-
a minimum of 10 consecutive years of membership in the ously, having formally trained professionals who were
AARC. Of greater importance, nominees for FAARC must not physicians or nurses and who worked in a dedicated
show superior achievement in patient care and as a volun- department assume full responsibility for providing respi-
teer serving the profession. Individuals selected to receive ratory care was a uniquely North American phenomenon,
this prestigious award are so noted by having “FAARC” limited only to the United States and Canada. However,
appear after their name following educational degrees and during the 1970s and 1980s, when many foreign physi-
credentials. cians came to the United States to study, they became
aware of what a respiratory therapist was and the impor-
Board of Medical Advisors (BOMA) tant role the respiratory therapist played in hospitals
Because respiratory therapists can practice only under nationwide. When these physicians returned to their native
medical direction, it is essential that the AARC leadership countries, they wished to have their own specialized team
receive formal input from physicians on all matters able to provide the same level of quality respiratory care.
14 SECTION I • Foundations of Respiratory Care
However, because the health care delivery system is struc- credentialing examinations in the areas of polysomnogra-
tured differently in each country, the specially trained phy and critical care.
teams were most often nurses, physicians, or physical ther-
apists, not respiratory therapists. Committee on Accreditation
Formed in 1991, the ICRC (in close collaboration with for Respiratory Care (CoARC)
the International Committee of the AARC) began to offer In 1956, the first guidelines for respiratory care educa-
fellowships to interested foreign clinicians that provide the tional programs were published, followed by the forma-
opportunity to visit the United States for 2 weeks before tion of the Board of Schools to accredit programs in 1963.1
the annual International Respiratory Congress to observe The Board of Schools was replaced by the Joint Review
how practice respiratory care is practiced. The idea is to Committee for Inhalation Therapy Education (JRCITE) in
allow these international fellows to observe how the various 1970, led by its first chairman, Helmholtz.1,4 The JRCITE
components of respiratory care are practiced in several became the Joint Review Committee for Respiratory
cities. The international fellows can take back to their Therapy Education (JRCRTE) in 1977 and then the Com-
home countries ideas and practices that can be integrated mittee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care (CoARC)
into their unique health care delivery systems. The program in 1996 (see www.COARC.com).4 Today, respiratory care
has been so successful that many countries (e.g., Mexico, educational programs in the United States are accredited
Costa Rica, Taiwan) are starting to establish respiratory by the CoARC in collaboration with the Association of
therapy training programs similar to the American model. Specialized and Professional Accreditors.20-22
As of 2010, 135 international fellows from 54 countries
have participated in this program. RESPIRATORY CARE
EDUCATION
National Board for Respiratory The first formal educational course in inhalation therapy
Care (NBRC) was offered in Chicago in 1950.1 In the 1960s, numerous
The credentialing body for registered respiratory thera- schools were developed to prepare students to become
pists began in 1960 as the American Registry of Inhalation respiratory therapists. Early programs concentrated on
Therapists (to test and credential registered therapists), teaching students the proper application of oxygen therapy,
and a certification board was established in 1968 to certify oxygen delivery systems, humidifiers, and nebulizers and
technicians.1,4 These two groups merged in 1974 as the the use of various IPPB devices. The advent of sophisti-
National Board for Respiratory Therapy, which became cated critical care ventilators, blood gas analyzers, and
the National Board for Respiratory Care (NBRC) in monitoring devices in the 1960s and 1970s helped propel
1983.1,4 Also in 1983, the National Board for Cardio the respiratory therapist into the role of cardiopulmonary
pulmonary Technologists joined the NBRC, and the technology expert.
credentialing examinations for pulmonary function Respiratory care educational programs in the United
technology were brought in under the respiratory care States are offered at technical and community colleges,
umbrella.1,4 Since 1968, there have been two levels of clini- 4-year colleges, and universities. These programs are
cal practice credentialing examinations in the United designed to prepare competent respiratory therapists to
States: the certified technician and the registered therapist care for patients. The minimum degree required to become
(see www.NBRC.org). a respiratory therapist is an associate degree.20 There are
approximately 300 associate, 50 baccalaureate, and 3
graduate-level degree programs in the United States; 19
RULE OF THUMB programs in Canada; and a handful of respiratory care
For requirements for testing, examination schedules, educational programs in Mexico, South America, Japan,
study guides, and requirements for maintaining India, Taiwan, and other countries.22-24
your CRT or RRT credential, check with the NBRC
(see www.NBRC.org).
RULE OF THUMB
Jobs in management, education, research, or
In 1998, the NBRC renamed the lower level certified advanced clinical practice may require bachelor or
graduate level educational preparation.
respiratory therapist (CRT, or entry-level respiratory thera-
pist); the advanced level remained registered respiratory
therapist (RRT, or advanced-level respiratory therapist).19
The NBRC began offering specialty examinations for The AARC completed a Delphi study and held two
pulmonary function technology in 1984 and neonatal/ important Education Consensus Conferences in the early
pediatrics in 1991. The NBRC is considering new specialty 1990s to assess the status of respiratory care education
History of Respiratory Care • CHAPTER 1 15
and recommend future direction for the field.25-28 The first to the physician assistant. Working under the supervi-
conference suggested that major trends affecting the field sion of a physician, the physician assistant may perform
were advances in technology; demographic trends and the many medical procedures that might otherwise be per-
aging of the population; a need to provide better assess- formed by a physician. In a similar way, the respiratory
ment, outcome evaluation, problem solving, and analyti- physician extender could improve the quality of care while
cal skills; use of protocol-based care; and the need to controlling costs and minimizing unnecessary care. Many
increase the focus on patient education, prevention, and authorities believe that the critical thinking, assessment,
wellness, to include tobacco education and smoking ces- problem-solving, and decision-making skills needed for
sation.26 The conference concluded that the curriculum advanced practice in the twenty-first century require
should encompass a broad scope of clinical practice, a sig- advanced levels of education.31
nificant arts and science component, emphasis on com- In 1998, Hess32 observed that a task orientation has
munication skills, and a minimum of an associate degree coincided with a pattern of overordering and misalloca-
to enter practice. The second Educational Consensus Con- tion of respiratory care services. Therapist-driven protocols
ference, held in the fall of 1993, focused on strategies to and the increasing use of the respiratory therapist as a
implement the recommendations made at the first con consultant may allow physicians to order protocols as
ference.28 Both conferences identified the need for more opposed to specific therapies. The therapist assesses the
baccalaureate and graduate education in respiratory patient, develops a care plan, implements the plan, and
care. The view that programs should prepare students evaluates and modifies care as appropriate.32 Protocol-
better in the areas of patient assessment, care plan devel- based care has been shown to be safe and effective, while
opment, protocols, disease management, pulmonary reha- reducing misallocation of care and helping to control
bilitation, research, and geriatrics/gerontology became costs.32,33 Acceptance by physicians of respiratory thera-
well accepted.29,30 pists as consultants depends on the professionalism, edu-
In 1997, Mishoe and MacIntyre31 described a profes- cation, and skill of the therapists at the bedside.32
sion as “a calling or vocation requiring specialized knowl- In 2001, a report of the Conference Proceedings on
edge, methods, and skills as well as preparation, in an Evidence-Based Medicine in Respiratory Care was pub-
institution of higher learning, in the scholarly, scientific, lished.34 Evidence-based practice requires careful examina-
and historical principles underlying such methods and tion of the evidence for diagnosis, treatment, prognosis,
skills.” These authors noted that professional roles are and, in turn, practice using a formal set of rules.35 The best
different and more complex than technical roles, which evidence is used for clinical decision making, which should
are oriented to performing specific tasks as ordered by the lead to optimal respiratory care.35 Evidence-based practice
physician. Examples of professional roles in respiratory has been advocated for all respiratory care delivered.
care include patient assessment and care plan develop- In 2002, the AARC, NBRC, and CoARC published their
ment, ventilator management, disease management, pul- “Tripartite Statements of Support,” which suggested that
monary rehabilitation, and respiratory care consulting all respiratory therapists seek and obtain the RRT creden-
services. Technical roles may include basic task perfor- tial.36 An AARC white paper followed in 2003, which
mance (e.g., oxygen, aerosol therapy, bronchial hygiene), encouraged the continuing development of baccalaureate
routine diagnostic testing (e.g., electrocardiography, phle- and graduate education in respiratory care.37
botomy), and other routine tasks where little or no assess-
ment is required and decisions are limited to device
selection and fine-tuning therapy.31 In professional prac- FUTURE OF RESPIRATORY
tice, the therapist may function as a physician extender
who applies protocols or guidelines.31 Examples include
CARE
making protocol-based ventilator adjustments, applying In 2001, Pierson, a prominent pulmonary physician and
assessment-based care plans, and performance of advanced one of the many physician supporters of respiratory thera-
procedures such as arterial line insertion and manage- pists, set out to describe the future of respiratory care.38
ment, intubation and extubation of patients, application Among other responsibilities, Pierson predicted a much
of ventilator weaning protocols, and application of greater use of patient assessment and protocols in chronic
advanced cardiopulmonary technologies (e.g., extracorpo- disease state management in all clinical settings. He also
real membrane oxygenation, nitric oxide therapy, aortic envisioned a more active role for respiratory therapists in
balloon pumps). palliative and end-of-life care, increasing emphasis on
According to Mishoe and MacIntyre, economic, educa- smoking cessation and prevention, early detection, and
tional, and institutional forces may limit respiratory care intervention in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
in certain settings to a task-oriented, technical role. There (COPD). Pierson also predicted an increase in the use of
are many opportunities, however, for the respiratory thera- respiratory therapists acting as coordinators and caregiv-
pist to function as a physician extender, in a role similar ers in home care.
16 SECTION I • Foundations of Respiratory Care
• Five expected changes in how respiratory care services advances in treatment and technology, increases in the
would be provided (Box 1-4).40 general population, and increases in the elderly population
In the words of one conference organizer, “the take (the baby boomers). A growing population will result in
home message was that indeed the scope and depth of increases in asthma, COPD, and other chronic respiratory
respiratory care practice will increase by 2015.”39 The diseases. There will also be a continuing demand for con-
second conference was held in the spring of 2009 and built trolling costs and ensuring that care provided is evidence-
on the findings of the 2008 conference by identifying the based, safe, and effective. Respiratory care will need to be
competencies needed by graduate respiratory therapists provided using carefully designed protocols to ensure that
and the educational content and curriculum that would patients get the appropriate care at the right time and that
be needed to practice in 2015 and beyond. Conference par- unnecessary care is reduced or eliminated. Aggressive steps
ticipants agreed that there would be seven major compe- to prevent disease and control the cost of chronic respira-
tencies (Box 1-5) that future respiratory therapists would tory disease will be essential. Effective smoking cessation
need to practice effectively by 2015.40,41 The third confer- and tobacco education programs and aggressive disease
ence was held in the summer of 2010 to determine how the management and pulmonary rehabilitation for patients
educational programs for entry-level respiratory therapists with moderate to severe asthma, COPD, and other chronic
would have to be structured to accomplish the seven major respiratory disease will continue to be needed.
competencies identified during the 2009 conference. The As exemplified by the 2015 and Beyond project, the
recommendations of the third conference were published knowledge, skills, and attributes needed by respiratory
in 2011.42 therapists will continue to expand, and it will become
Although the respiratory care profession is undergoing increasingly difficult to prepare respiratory therapists for
substantial change, there will be a continuing demand for expanded practice within the credit hour limitations of
respiratory care services well into the future because of many existing programs. To alleviate this situation, associ-
ate degree programs may develop articulation agreements
with 4-year colleges and universities to allow their gradu-
Box 1-4 2015 and Beyond: Five Changes ates to complete the bachelor degree in respiratory care
Expected in Respiratory Care without leaving their home campus; distance education
1. The science of respiratory care will continue to evolve technology will play an important role and allow this to
and increase in complexity, and clinical decisions will occur at minimal cost.
increasingly be data-driven Bachelor degree programs often seek to provide stu-
2. Patient care teams will become the standard throughout dents with a foundation for leadership in the profession in
health care the areas of management, supervision, research, education,
3. New respiratory life-support technologies will be or clinical specialty areas. To meet the leadership needs
developed and deployed of the profession, some baccalaureate programs have
4. Reimbursement changes will be the most important already implemented postbaccalaureate certificates or
impetus for more recognition of the importance of health
master degree programs. Clinical areas in which more
promotion and disease state management
5. Concerns over public health issues and military and
graduate education programs could be beneficial include
disaster response will continue and require new skill sets critical care, cardiopulmonary diagnostics, clinical research,
for all respiratory care providers sleep medicine, rehabilitation, and preparation as a pul-
monary physician assistant. There will also be an increas-
From Bunch D: 2015 and Beyond. AARC Times 33:50, 2009.
ing demand for respiratory therapists with master and
doctoral degrees to serve as university faculty, educators,
and researchers.
Box 1-5 Seven Major Competencies
Required by Respiratory Therapists SUMMARY CHECKLIST
by 2015
w Respiratory therapists apply scientific principles to
1. Diagnostics prevent, identify, and treat acute or chronic dysfunction
2. Chronic disease state management of the cardiopulmonary system.
3. Evidence-based medicine and respiratory care protocols w Respiratory care includes the assessment, treatment,
4. Patient assessment management, control, diagnostic evaluation,
5. Leadership education, and care of patients with deficiencies and
6. Emergency and critical care abnormalities of the cardiopulmonary system.
7. Therapeutics w The AARC is the professional association for the field.
From Barnes TA, Gale DD, Kacmarek RM, et al: Competencies needed w Respiratory therapists work under the direction of
by graduate respiratory therapists in 2015 and beyond. Respir Care a physician who is specially trained in pulmonary
55:601, 2010. medicine, anesthesiology, and critical care medicine.
Continued
18 SECTION I • Foundations of Respiratory Care
practitioner: proceedings of a National Consensus Confer- 36. American Association for Respiratory Care: Respiratory
ence on Respiratory Care Education, Dallas, 1992, AARC. care: advancement of the profession tripartite statements
28. American Association for Respiratory Care: An action agenda: of support. http://www.aarc.org/resources/cpgs_guidelines_
proceedings of the Second National Consensus Conference statements/. Accessed April 4, 2007.
on Respiratory Care Education, Dallas, 1993, AARC. 37. American Association for Respiratory Care, Barnes, TA, Black
29. Meredith RL, Pilbeam SP, Stoller JK: Is our educational CP, Douce, FH, et al: A white paper from the AARC Steering
system adequately preparing respiratory care practitioners Committee of the Coalition for Baccalaureate and Graduate
for therapist-driven protocols? (editorial). Respir Care Respiratory Therapy Education: development of baccalaure-
39:709, 1994. ate and graduate degrees in respiratory care. Respir Care
30. Kester L, Stoller JK: Respiratory care education: current Educ Annu 12:29, 2003.
issues and future challenges (editorial). Respir Care 41:98, 38. Pierson DJ: The future of respiratory care. Respir Care 46:705,
1996. 2001.
31. Mishoe SC, MacIntyre NR: Expanding professional roles for 39. Bunch D. 2015 and Beyond, AARC Times 33:50, 2009.
respiratory care practitioners. Respir Care 42:71, 1997. 40. Kacmarek RM, Durbin CG, Barnes TA, et al: Creating a vision
32. Hess DR: Professionalism, respiratory care practice and phy- for respiratory care in 2015 and beyond. Respir Care 54:375,
sician acceptance of a respiratory care consult service (edito- 2009.
rial). Respir Care 43:546, 1998. 41. Barnes TA, Gale DD, Kacmarek RM, et al: Competencies
33. Stoller JK, Mascha EJ, et al: Randomized controlled trial of needed by graduate respiratory therapists in 2015 and
physician-directed versus respiratory therapy consult service- beyond. Respir Care 55:601, 2010.
directed respiratory care to adult non-ICU inpatients. Am J 42. Barnes TA, Kacmarek RM, Kageler WV, et al: Transitioning
Respir Crit Care Med 158:1068, 1998. the respiratory therapy workforce for 2015 and beyond.
34. Mishoe SC, Hess DR: Forward: evidence-based medicine in Respir Care 56, 2011.
respiratory care. Respir Care 46:1200, 2001.
35. Montori VM, Guyatt GH: What is evidence-based medicine
and why should it be practiced? Respir Care 46:1201, 2001.