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Sarah Neil

Professor Malcolm Campbell

UWRT 1103

25 November 2019

Police Militarization: Law Enforcement Officers or Community Soldiers?

This year, I attended a football game at Clemson University. As I approached the

stadium, I took note of the abundance of police officers, especially those wearing SWAT gear

and holding high powered rifles. These officers had a tense and watchful presence compared to

their peers standing next to them in regular uniform. This scenario compares the appearance of

SWAT officers and patrol officers. The intense presence caused by the actions and tools used by

SWAT officers introduces the concept of police militarization. According to the Charles Koch

Institute, police militarization is defined as the adoption of military equipment, strategy,

thinking, or culture by civilian police forces (Mosteller). In recent years, the appearance of police

officers has begun to shape how community members view and interact with law enforcement.

Law enforcement agencies have acquired military-grade weapons and supplies through

the Department of Defense’s Excess Property Program 1103 (Mosteller). The 1103 program

grants lethal and non-lethal surplus military supplies to local and federal law enforcement

agencies (Katel). It can be argued that this program has led to the militarization of police forces

across America.

In the article, “Police Tactics: Has U.S. Law Enforcement Become Militarized” by Katel,

Mark Lomax, the executive director of the National Tactical Officers Association, argues that the

appearance of militarized police units has a negative effect on trust towards law enforcement.

The militant appearance of law enforcement officers can lead citizens to feel like they are the
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enemy instead of fellow community members (Katel). Mark Lomax acknowledges that police

departments receive military supplies and sometimes receive little-to-no training on when to

properly use them. The apathetic attitude towards proper training can lead to the misuse of newly

implemented equipment.

Are SWAT Teams Overused?

According to Frederic Lemieux, a criminologist at Georgetown University, SWAT team

presence has increased in everyday police operations (Akpan). Lemieux explains that the

intended use of SWAT teams was to barricade armed suspects and face hostage situations

(Akpan). It is common for police departments to explain their goals and reasoning for deploying

special operations teams. The Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department in North Carolina

defines SWAT as Special Weapons and Tactics team. The goal of the Charlotte Mecklenburg

Police Department’s SWAT team is to protect people in high risk situations using specialized

weaponry and skill to boost community confidence (“Special Weapons and Tactics Team

(S.W.A.T.)”). However, not all police departments across America increase community

confidence using their SWAT team’s presence.

In 2008, a Maryland SWAT team raided the home of Cheye Calvo that was supposedly

involved in a drug trafficking scheme . After a 32-pound drug shipment was delivered to the

address, a SWAT team raided the home; they killed Calvo’s two dogs and interrogated him and

his wife on the scene. Calvo and his wife were later found innocent in a court of law. This event

led to the implementation of a Maryland statute requiring state agencies to report their SWAT

team deployments (Akpan). The raid of Cheye Calvo’s home inspired Jonathan Mummolo, a

political scientist at Princeton University, to research the pros and cons of militarized policing

and its effect on communities (Akpan). Mummulo found that African American communities
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witnessed more SWAT team deployments than areas with a predominately white population.

Surprisingly, this was still the case in areas with low crime rates (Mummolo). These findings

may cause African American communities to feel like they are subject to violent and militarized

police response due to the unethical stereotypes that were placed on their communities in the

past.

The Use of Force Continuum

When considering the role of militarized police forces, it is important to understand the

use of force continuum. According to the National Institute of Justice, this sequence describes

escalating levels of force and action that officers can use in certain situations. For example, an

officer may decide to use verbal commands to gain compliance, but, if the situation escalates, the

officer may decide to pull out a taser to gain better control over a subject. The National Institute

of Justice explains that the mere presence of an officer in uniform can deter crime and diffuse

situations. Officer presence is listed as the lowest level of force an officer can inflict (“The Use-

of-Force Continuum”). If misused, this position of authority can be used to take advantage of

citizens and violate their rights. One example of the misuse of force would be an officer using

deadly force to stop a fleeing subject that is a low risk to the officer or public safety. If a law

enforcement officer in a traditional uniform has a forceful presence, an officer in militarized gear

is likely to have an even greater effect.

The Visual Effect of Police Uniforms

Mummolo conducted a survey of 6,000 people regarding their support of increasing

funding for law enforcement after showing them two different images of police officers (Akpan).

The first image shown to respondents was of an officer in standard uniform and the other was of

an officer who had a militant appearance. The survey found that the militant appearance of police
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officers decreased the respondents support for law enforcement funding by four percent (Akpan).

However, the militarized police image had an increased effect on African American respondents

who showed a 21 percent decrease in support (Akpan). Mummolo concluded that there was no

overwhelming evidence that the use of SWAT teams lowered violent crime rates or a decrease in

the rate of officer deaths or assaults. Mummulo’s study provided evidence that the militarization

of police forces has begun to erode public trust. The use of militarized police force threatens to

increase tensions between police officers and their community; this is especially true in African

American communities, where trust in law enforcement is already weakened by historical

tensions (Mummulo).

In his article “Police Militarization in a Democratic Society”, published in the FBI Law

Enforcement Bulletin, Dr. Jay Fortenbery explains that the modern distinction between police

officers and military personnel was influenced by the discontent colonists felt toward British

troops that took on policing roles in colonial America. Jay Fortenbery is a former police officer

and police chief who is currently an assistant professor of criminal justice at Elizabeth City State

University in North Carolina. When looking at the role of police officers, it is important to

consider the ideas of English Philosopher Sir Robert Peel; law enforcement officials should be

connected with citizens and should enforce the law using the least amount of force necessary. Sir

Robert Peel is referred to as the father of modern policing for his Metropolitan Police Act of

1829 that helped shape modern policing in the United Kingdom. Fortenbery contradicts the

finding and opinions of Mummolo by arguing that the militarization of police departments tends

to correlate with a community’s crime rate. The militarization of police can be justified through

the concept that certain geographical locations face unique challenges and law enforcement

agencies should be allowed to respond using appropriate measures (Fortenbery).

Benefits and Responsibilities Associated with Police Militarization

An argument can be made in support of the militarization of police departments. Dr. Jay

Fortenbery explains that lawless individuals and groups have acquired increasingly lethal

weapons throughout time. Therefore, law enforcement officials need advanced equipment and

training to address modern threats. Police equipment being modified to defend against the threats

of the time can be traced back to the 1920’s. Police departments began upgrading their weaponry

in the 1920’s to face mobs and gangsters who had access to high capacity weapons. The trend

continued throughout the 1960’s as police departments began to implement the use of less lethal

weapons, such as tear gas to disperse large and violent crowds. The use of SWAT teams

expanded to numerous agencies across America in the 1990’s during the War on Drugs. Modern

threats to society, like terrorist threats and mass shootings, have sparked the adoption of assault

rifles and military techniques in modern policing (Fortenbery).

Although the use of advanced weapons and training can be justified, there is a level of

responsibility that must be acknowledged. Fortenbery warns readers that the overuse of

specialized force can lead community members to question the training of specialized officers

and the way officials interpret threat levels. The use of specialized force should be limited to

high-risk situations and scenarios where lives are on the line. Specialized force should not be

used to increase officer safety against low risk subjects. Comparisons to the military can be

illustrated by the rigorous fitness requirements and high level of weapons training demanded of

specialized police forces. It is important to understand that these qualifications can make law

enforcement officials less aware of the consequences of their actions and more likely to oppose

demilitarization efforts (Fortenbery).

Considerations for Law Enforcement Officials

Former chief of police Dr. Jay Fortenbery offers several considerations for law

enforcement agencies regarding the use of military resources. He explains that is important for

high-ranking law enforcement officials to consider how the overuse of militarized force can

counteract relationship building efforts. Many officers on foot patrol make a conscious effort to

get to know community members (Fortenbery). They do this by presenting themselves as

approachable and visible. If community members notice that law enforcement agencies are

overusing specialized force, they may begin to question the intentions of the department. This

could lead community members to wonder if police departments place a higher value on officer

safety than the fair treatment of their communities.

It is important to consider the role of the Black Lives Matter and the Blue Lives Matter

movements when discussing police militarization and police-community relationships.

According to the class lesson plan intitled “Black Lives Matter: From Hashtag to Movement”,

published by the Anti-Defamation League, the Black Live Matter movement was formed after

George Zimmerman fatally shot Trayvon Martin in July of 2013. Zimmerman was employed by

a local police department at the time of the shooting. Black Lives Matter began as a hashtag used

on social media to spark conversation and awareness. Black Lives Matter has evolved into a

movement with activists and protestors worldwide (“Black Lives Matter: From Hashtag to

Movement”). According to Frank Leon Roberts, who is an activist and author of several books

regarding the Black Lives Matter movement, the mission of the Black Lives Matter movement is

to challenge police corruption.

The Blue Lives Matter movement is sometimes considered the countermovement of

Black Lives Matter. According to the Washington Post article entitled “Blue lives’ do matter —
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that’s the problem” by race historian Matthew Guariglia, the movement was formed after

Louisiana became the first state to enact a “Blue Lives Matter” law that considered targeting an

individual because of their perceived or actual employment as a law enforcement officer as a

hate crime. The movement argues that police officers can adopt a unified identity, regardless of

race. This movement strives to protect the identities and interests of police officers while they are

on and off duty (Guariglia). Although the two movements often take opposing sides, they both

feel that members of their communities are undervalued (Stoughton).

Former police officer and law professor at the University of South Carolina, Seth

Stoughton, remains optimistic about police-community relations. Public distrust of the police can

lead to violent crime, resistance, and the rejection of information regarding high profile cases.

When police officers distrust their communities, the probability of officer misconduct, lowered

tolerance for minor infractions, and the excessive use of force increases. Stoughton believes, if

military personnel serving in Iraq and Afghanistan can implement community policing strategies

and experience positive outcomes, then it is possible for local law enforcement agencies to do the

same.

American police forces use community policing strategies to fight the War on Terror.

According to Dr. Stevan Weine, a professor of psychiatry at the University of Illinois at Chicago,

radical communities are often composed of immigrants and refugees from countries where police

officers were feared, causing citizens from these countries to naturally be apprehensive towards

police presence. Community policing strategies may help ease the resentment these community

members feel toward law enforcement. In the essay “How Local Law Enforcement Uses

Community Policing to Combat Terrorism”, Weine argues that outreach efforts should be

prioritized in communities that are at a high risk for terrorism recruitment. These efforts can ease
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the fear of terrorist threats among all community members and encourage intelligence sharing

between citizens and law enforcement officials. Trust building exercises, civic engagement, and

educational efforts should be implemented in all communities at a high risk for terrorism

involvement to address all types of ideologically inspired violence (Weine). The editor’s note

explains that terrorism should be fought on the local level because terrorists who may appear as a

lone wolf can usually be traced back to a community with similar goals or targets.

Community Policing

Community-building efforts from residents and officers can help minimize the

repercussions of police militarization. In the academic article “Assessing the Relationship

Between Police-Community Coproduction and Neighborhood-Level Social Capital”, Jason Scott

explains that, the implementation of community policing ideals is one method that law

enforcement can use to build a connection to the people they serve . Scott holds multiple degrees

in criminal justice from the University at Albany and has conducted research studies on

community policing, social capital, and the criminal justice system. According to the publication

“Community Policing Defined”, community policing is a philosophy that encourages community

partnerships, collaboration, and interaction with law enforcement agencies to respond to public

safety issues and prevent crime.

Two main components of community policing are an openness to organizational change

and the role of community members in problem solving efforts . The collaborative aspect of

community policing can enhance communication among residents, increase the level of trust and

dependence among fellow citizens, and foster the willingness to assist in solving community

issues (Scott). For example, the New Brighton Department of Public Safety in Minnesota created

a program called Neighborhood Oriented Policing (NOP). The program connects patrol officers
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to citizens living in different geographic locations throughout their jurisdiction. The officers

form relations with community members and form neighborhood watch blocks. Neighborhood

watch blocks are groups of citizens that work with law enforcement to reduce crime. These

groups openly share information with law enforcement to make their neighborhoods safer. The

New Brighton Department of Public Safety in Minnesota has seen crime rates reach a record low

thanks to increased community participation through the NOP program (“Success Story: New

Brighton, Minnesota, Neighborhood Oriented Policing”).

Jason D. Scott’s 2002 study on police-community coproduction and social capital found

that residents play an important role in problem solving and crime prevention efforts in

communities where police and residents collaborate. Scott defines social capital as connections

formed through communication, shared values, and expectations that allow a group to socially

advance. Scott shared his findings in the article entitled “Assessing the Relationship Between

Police-Community Coproduction and Neighborhood-Level Social Capital”. Scott defines

coproduction as the involvement of citizens in the creation of public policy and their input on

decisions made by public service departments. Residents can provide information that a police

officer may not be able to discover on their own. Residents can also provide leads based on

personal experience and background knowledge, two things police officers do not necessarily

have coming into a case cold (Scott). Scott found that residents also play a key role in

communities where the police is perceived as easily accessible. This academic article provides

useful insight through the lens of academia. It is important to consider the thoughts and opinions

of academics because they tend to hold different views than those who are directly involved in

police work.
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My Initial Inspiration

As a child, I had multiple positive interactions with police officers in my hometown

Belmont, North Carolina. There was always a police presence at major community events and

fundraisers, but they were usually handing out free stickers and letting kids look at the squad

cars. While the kids were exploring, parents and other adults usually engaged in brief casual

conversation with the officers in attendance. This vivid memory inspired me to consider

variables that affect police-community relations. I was not exposed to police officers taking a

militant appearance until I began attending major sporting events in Charlotte, North Carolina

and other surrounding areas. Seeing officers holding large high-power rifles while standing in

front of armored vehicles was a new concept for me to grasp. As an aspiring member of law

enforcement, it was important for me to remain open minded to views that criticize or oppose

law enforcement operations. I found it easy to remain impartial by focusing on works published

by credible authors and publishers opposed to emotionally charged and one-sided arguments.

The Future Effects of Technology

In the future, it will become important to consider the long-term effect of technology and

social media on the formation of opinion. Social media has allowed the harsh truth behind issues

of police militarization to surface. It is important for viewers to understand the context of the

photos they see posted on social media. Although pictures can bring social issues the attention it

needs, these images can also be taken out of context. Powerful images regarding police

militarization and broken community bonds are often taken at protests. Although these images

show confrontation between officers and citizens, they do not always portray what the protest is

about or what the wrongdoing was. Because of this, it is important for Americans in the 21st

century to have the ability to evaluate the context, purpose, and meaning of images they
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encounter on social media. Most image’s capture only one side of a story. One image that

surfaced from a Charlotte police riot in 2016 shows law enforcement officers throwing tear gas

to disperse a large crowd (Domonoske). These images have the power to take over social media

in a short amount of time. An image of a police officer throwing tear gas at a large and violent

crowd would probably spread to a larger audience faster than a written report of the event. It will

be interesting to see how future technological advancements transform policing and the way

community members view law enforcement officials.

Works Cited

Akpan, Nsikan. “Police Militarization Fails to Protect Officers and Targets Black Communities,

Study Finds.” PBS News Hour, Public Broadcasting Service, 21 Aug. 2018,

www.pbs.org/newshour/science/police-militarization-fails-to-protect-officers-and-targets-

black-communities-study-finds. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

“Black Lives Matter: From Hashtag to Movement.” Anti-Defamation League, 2019,

https://www.adl.org/education/educator-resources/lesson-plans/black-lives-matter-from-

hashtag-to-movement. Accessed 22 Nov. 2019.

“Community Policing Defined.” Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice, 2014,

https://it.ojp.gov/AT/Resource/34. Accessed 22 Nov. 2019.

Domonoske, Camila. “After Fatal Police Shooting, Protest Erupts In Charlotte, N.C.” National

Public Radio, 21 Sep. 2016, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-

way/2016/09/21/494844130/after-police-shooting-protesters-in-charlotte-n-c-shut-down-

interstate. Accessed 24 Nov. 2019.

Fortenbery, Jay. “Police Militarization in a Democratic Society.” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin,

FBI Training Division, 13 June 2018, leb.fbi.gov/articles/featured-articles/police-

militarization-in-a-democratic-society. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

Guaruglia, Matthew. “‘Blue Lives’ Do Matter — That’s the Problem.” The Washington Post, 30

Nov. 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made-by-

history/wp/2017/11/30/why-blue-lives-matter/. Accessed 22 Nov. 2019.

Katel, Peter. “Police Tactics: Has U.S. Law Enforcement Become Militarized?” CQ Researcher,

vol. 24, no. 44, 12 Dec. 2014, http://library.cqpress.com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/

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Nov. 2019.

Mosteller, Jeremiah. “Militarization of Police.” Charles Koch Institute, 2019,

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https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805161115. Accessed 3 Nov. 2019.

Roberts, Frank L. “How Black Lives Matter Changed the Way Americans Fight for Freedom.”

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justice/race-and-criminal-justice/how-black-lives-matter-changed-way-americans-fight.

Accessed 22 Nov. 2019.

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Neighborhood-Level Social Capital.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 18,

no. 2, 1 May 2019, pp. 147-166. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1043986202018002003.

Accessed 3 Nov. 2019.

“Special Weapons and Tactics Team (S.W.A.T.).” Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department,

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SWAT.aspx. Accessed 3 Nov. 2019.

Stoughton, Seth. “Is the Police-Community Relationship in America Beyond Repair?” The

Washington Post, 8 July 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/is-the-police-

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bc99-7d269f8719b1_story.html. Accessed 4 Nov. 2019.

“Success Story: New Brighton, Minnesota, Neighborhood Oriented Policing.” International

Association of Chiefs of Police, 2018,

https://wwwdiscoverpolicing.org/success_story/new-brighton-minnesota-neighborhood-

oriented-policing/. Accessed 22 Nov. 2019.

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