[[[..

Essential aspects of Critical thinking:- A) In order to help their

students to develop critical-thinking skills and to take critical action,
teachers need to: >have a sound knowledge base from which to support
students as they delve more deeply into content >remain open to challenge
by students, not representing themselves as the sole source of knowledge
>encourage students to look at the big picture by engaging them in critical-
thinking processes that have relevance beyond the classroom >be prepared
to listen to voices that originate in the classroom and to use students'
personal experiences as starting points for gathering information >avoid
offering 'how to do it' approaches >encourage students to be sensitive to the
feelings of others. B) For students, learning to think critically and to take
critical action will include: >learning to take responsibility for analyzing and
evaluating information >giving each other feedback about their analyses,
evaluations, and actions >questioning and challenging each other's
assumptions in a non-threatening manner> learning to identify any
inequalities and power relationships within contexts in health education,
physical education, and home economics ]]]] === [[[[ Teacher as critical
thinker:- One of the major goals of education is to enable the learners to
understand ideas that are important, useful, and powerful. Another goal is to
develop the appetite to think analytically and critically about what they are
being presented with in the form of books and teaching. Third goal is to help
them to use what they know to enhance their own lives and also to contribute
to their society, culture and civilization as well as to the global community.
These three goals work as a drive for education to promote critical thinking
which is based on certain assumptions. 1. Brains are physiological while minds
are developed. 2. Curriculum is a mind-grooming instrument. 3. Education
should strive upon preparing learners for self-direction. 4. Graduates should
be prepared for thinking their way through the challenging life 5. Careful
analysis, clear thinking, and reasoned deliberation are fundamental to
democratic life. Thus a teacher needs to recognize that teaching in a critical
manner is essential for: >skilled reading, writing, speaking, and listening
>skilled reasoning within all subject areas >skilled decision-making and
problem-solving >skilled analysis and evaluation >skilled civic and personal
choices ]]]].. [[[ CRITICAL THINKING IN EVERYDAY LIFE:- Stage One: The
Unreflective Thinker (we are unaware of significant problems in our thinking)
Stage Two: The Challenged Thinker (we become aware of problems in our
thinking) Stage Three: The Beginning Thinker (we try to improve but without
regular practice) Stage Four: The Practicing Thinker (we recognize the
necessity of regular practice) Stage Five: The Advanced Thinker (we advance
in accordance with our practice) Stage Six: The Master Thinker (skilled &
insightful thinking become second nature to us ]]]]…………………………………..
Factor influencing social exclusion:- 1- Structured Factors a) economic-
technological factors:- One major set of factors is functioning of the labor
market, flexibility of the labor market, decline of urban labor markets
resulting in fewer jobs in cities and increasing local concentrations of benefit
recipients, international competition, globalization b) socio-demographic:-
Another set is derived from increase of duration of dependency due to
increased life expectancy; increasing labor supply with stable; extended
school participation and shortened employment duration over the life span;
decreasing birth rate, increasing individualization 2- Cultural factors There is
a major role of generally accepted opinions, cultural values and norms and
expectations of gender roles; attitudes with regard to ethnic minorities and
towards vulnerable groups in general; development of a ‘deprivation culture’
in isolated and excluded groups or communities with a high risk of passing
exclusion on from one generation to the other as well as general perception
of poverty and inequality.
Cooperative Teaching and Learning Strategies:- Cooperative teaching and
learning has been a popular area in educational circles for more than a
decade. This area gained its strength with the emergence of two major
schools of thought one is “Constructivism” and the other is “Connectivism”.
Researchers and practitioners have found that students working in small
cooperative groups can develop the type of intellectual exchange that fosters
critical and creative thinking, and productive problem solving. Cooperative
teaching is a successful strategy in which small teams, each with students of
different ability levels are made. Students have always congregated together
to perform and learn. To accomplish their group’s task, students must
exchange ideas, make plans, and propose solutions. Thinking through an idea
and presenting it collectively can be very helpful and understood by others in
a better way. Cooperative classroom activities result in students striving for
mutual uplift so that all group members: > benefit from each other's efforts.
>recognize that all group members share a common goal. >realize that one's
performance is mutually caused by oneself and one's team members.> jointly
celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement. ]]]] =====
[[[[[ Concept of cooperative learning:- cooperative learning is a process that
involves students working in teams to accomplish a common goal, under
conditions that include the following elements: >Positive interdependence.
Individual accountability.>Face-to-face promotive interaction.>Appropriate
use of collaborative skills. >Group processing. ]]]] ==== [[[[ cooperative
learning techniques: >promote student learning and academic achievement
>increase student retention >enhance student satisfaction with their learning
experience >help students develop communication skills >develop students'
social skills >promote student self-esteem >help to promote critical thinking
]]] === [[[[ The purpose of cooperative learning:- 1-Active learning 2-
children learn to help and support 3-interaction brings multiple
dimensions 4-improved critical thinking ]]] ==== [[[[ Models of
Cooperative learning :- a) the jigsaw model b) group investigation c)
numbered head together d) think-pair-share ]]]] ==== [[[ Role of the
teacher in cooperative learning:-A cooperative learning classroom brings
additional responsibilities to the teachers and the role of teacher is enriched
even more. The role of teacher includes but is not limited to >Specify
academic objectives >Specify collaborative skills >Decide on group size
>Assign students to groups >Arrange the room >Plan materials >Assign roles
to students (reader, recorder, calculator, checker, reporter, materials handler
etc.) >Explain the task (explain procedures, give examples, asks questions to
check task is understood by all) >Test and question individual children (to
promote individual accountability) >Promote inter group co-operation
>Monitor students' behaviour >Praise good use of group skills >Provide
assistance on understanding a task >Provide assistance on how the group can
work together more effectively >Reflect regularly to improve cooperative
learning and teaching strategies ]]]] ==== [[[[ Types of In-classroom Debating
Techniques:- 1-The four corner debate 2- Role-play debates 3- Fishbowl
debates 4- Think-pair-share debates 5- Problem solving debates 6-
Meeting-house debates ]]]]
[[[[ CLASSROOM assessment techniques :- 1-formative 2- summative
characteristics :- >learner-centered >teacher-directed >mutually
beneficial >formative >context-specific >ongoing rooted in good
teaching practice ]]]…………………………………………………………………….
REFLECTION:- Reflection is a complex word with multiple meanings and
shades in it. It has its purity in the subject of science when we define it as the
act of reflecting of an image and casting back a light or heat. Reflection has
rainbow of meanings. The context in which we will be considering it in our
unit and the coming units is the impact and the personality qualities of the
mentor, a teacher, a boss or a leader on its followers and under command
people. The reflection of the leader is extremely important. Reflective
practices are variously defined in versatile ways by different authors and
researchers. Reflective practice is the ability to reflect on action in order to
keep the learning process in cycle. Importance of Reflection in Different
Fields: Starting from the home. A happy mother, brought up happy children,
a less confident mother brought up fearful and cowardly children, a sad poet
writes sad compositions, a sad artist uses gloomy colours, dark scenes,
negative paintings, a depressive textile designer design cloths that are dull in
colours and a happy, satisfied and positive textile designer uses bright and
catchy colours. A satisfied, contended, and cheerful head of the organization
in high spirit keep the subordinating staff motivated and in high spirit.
Importance of Reflection in Education: Although development of reflection
in the students is a difficult and complicated process but it's so important that
it is said that actual "learning" cannot occur without reflection. ]]] === [[[[
DAVID A. Kolb 1939 4 learning behaviours :- “concrete vs abstract” and
“active vs reflective” 1-Doers 2-Reflectors 3-Thinkers 4-Deciders ]]]]] =====
[[[[[[ REFLECTIVE MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:- 1-Rolfe's
Model of Professional Development:- The first step in the model is the
action that has been taken in a particular situation. After the taking the action,
comes the second stage - So what? Now the situation and the action will be
reviewed in the light of the theory and literature available. The last stage is
the most important stage not only for the action taken, but also for the
actions to be taken. This stage will bring improvement in the process of
decision taking and in the action as well. This model is loosely based on SWOT
Analysis. It basically tells us the following in simple words. > What worked
well? > Why? >What did not work well? >Why not? >What will I do the same
next time? >What will I do differently next time? 2- Peter's Four Step Data
Model Peters (1991, pp. 91-95) describes a process called DATA that
consists of four steps: > Describe >Analyze >Theorize >Act 3- Brookfield
4 Critical Lenses Model:- Brookfield (1995) suggests that we employ four
“critical lenses” through which to view and reflect upon our practice.
These are: >our own view (which he refers to as autobiography); >that
of our students; >that of our fellow professionals; >the various
theoretical perspectives propounded in educational literature. ]]]]] ====
[[[[ ACTION AND REFLECTION :- The link between action, reflection and
change within this style of learning can be well understood through the
figure below. There are four stages of the cycle of reflection: >The initial
or new experience >Reflection and observation >Development of a new
concept >Experimentation. ]]]]]]………………………….
GIBB'S REFLECTIVE CYCLE:- Gibbs' reflective cycle is found very useful in
making people think through all the phases of an experience or activity. The
reflective learning cycle presented in the book models how learners can link
theory and practice through engaging in a cyclical sequence of activities
named as: describing, feeling, evaluating, analysing, concluding and action
planning. the Gibb's Cycle has its basic utility and benefit is for the people who
learn from different situations from which they go through, most probably
when they are unable to go about with their plans. Hence the reflective
practitioners tend to follow similar patterns of reflection and reflective
writing. Gibbs’ (1988) reflective cycle includes six phases of reflection and is
presented below. 1-DESCRIPTION STAGE I:- briefly describe the event; this
should be one of the smallest sections of your reflection. Include important
details to indicate what happened; such as the reason for your involvement,
what you did and who was there and what they did (if appropriate). Whilst it
is important that you include information that is necessary to make sense of
the event, the key point here is on keeping it brief. 2-FEELING:- give you the
opportunity to explore any thoughts or feelings that you were having at the
time of the event in isolation from the other components. In order to achieve
this, it is important that you do not include any further description and do not
try to evaluate them. An important component in this section is that you
expand to tell how the thoughts and feelings that you were having have
impacted on the event. 3-EVALUATION:- The evaluation section gives you the
opportunity to explore what was good about the event and what did not go
well. It is important that you try to consider both the good and the bad, even
if the incident seemed totally negative or positive. 4-DESCRIPTION STAGE II:-
is where you make sense of the event and should be the largest section of
your reflection. It is useful to take all the issues that you have highlighted
previously in the reflection and consider them separately. It is important in
this section that you consult relevant academic literature to help you make
sense of the incident. 5-CONCLUSION:- includes being honest about your
contribution and feelings; you bring them all together so that you can sensibly
conclude from examining the incident and consulting the relevant literature,
how what you did led up to the incident. From this, you should be able to
make a logical alternative about how you can overcome such situations. 6-
ACTION PLAN:- is where taking into account the previous elements of the
cycle, you suggest a plan for if this event (or similar) were to happen again.
What would you do differently or keep the same? This is the final section of
the cycle and the end of this particular reflection. ]]]]]
Teacher as Researcher:- "It is teachers who, in the end, will change the
world of the school by understanding it" (Lawrence Stenhouse 1988) As
teachers engage in action research they are increasing their understanding of
the schooling process. What they are learning will have great impact on what
happens in classrooms, schools, and in the country in broader perspective in
the future. In schools, action research refers to a wide variety of evaluative,
investigative, and analytical research methods designed to diagnose
problems or weaknesses—whether organizational, academic, or
instructional—and help educators develop practical solutions to address
them quickly and efficiently. Teacher-researchers can be characterized as
those practitioners who attempt to better understand their practice, and its
impact on their students, by researching the relationship between teaching
and learning in their world of work. Importance of Teachers’ Research :-
Schools are the nurseries for the production of the trained manpower. So it is
not enough for teachers merely to make decisions; they will be called upon
to make informed decisions, decisions which are data driven. It is important
for the teachers as they assists practitioners and other stakeholders in
identifying the needs, assessing the development processes, and evaluating
the outcomes of the changes they define, design, and implement. Teacher
researchers give an in-depth thought to the question that what they will be
going to learn from their students. In this sense, teacher researchers are
innovators, curriculum drivers, agents of school change, and directors of their
own professional development. ]]]] === [[[[ DESIGNING ACTION RESEARCH:-
1-Identification of Problem 2-Collect data on the Problem 3-Execution and
Recording (Organize, analyze and interpret the data 4-Reflection on the
collected data 5-Action Plan ]]]] ==== [[[[ TYPES OF ACTION RESEARCH:-
Many research authors have mentioned the types of action research in
different manners. Grundy (1982) discusses three modes of action research:
1. Technical:-- the scientific-technical view of problem solving; The
researcher identifies the problem and a specific intervention, then the
practitioner is involved and they agree to facilitate with the implementation
of the intervention. The communication flow within this type of research is
primarily between the facilitator and the group, so that the ideas may be
communicated to the group.
2. Practical:- practical-deliberative action research; the practical model of
action research trades off some measurement and control for human
interpretation, interactive communication, deliberation, negotiation and
detailed description. "The goal of practical action researchers is
understanding practice and solving immediate problems".
3. Emancipatory:- critical-emancipatory action research. In this type of
action research there are two goals for the researcher using this approach,
one is to increase the closeness between the actual problems encountered by
practitioners in a specific setting and the theory used to explain and resolve
the problem. The second goal, which goes beyond the previous two
approaches, is to assist practitioners in identifying and making explicit
fundamental problems by raising their collective consciousness. This type of
action research requires much more effort than mere classroom teaching,
learning, observing and reflecting. ]]]]
Critical review and analysis:- A critical review is much more than a simple
summary; it is an analysis and evaluation of a book, article, or other medium.
It is a formal discussion of the contents, implications, and quality of an
academic or professional text: a nonfiction book, essay, or article. It may be
defined as, “A critical review evaluates the clarity, quality and originality of
research, as well as its relevance and presentation”. a critical review is a
thorough, usually formal discussion that uses a variety of critical-thinking
tools, especially (a) Logical, accurate summary; (b) Discussion or analysis of
arguments, implications, and responses; and (c) Evaluative weighing of the
quality of the writing, organization, and contents. [[[[ Steps to writing an
effective critical review:- 1- Reading 2- Analyzing >structure >methodology
>reason >conclusion >logic 3-writing ]]]] === [[[ REFLECTIVE WRITING:-
Reflection is a form of personal response to experiences, situations, events or
new information. It is a 'processing' phase where thinking and learning take
place. ‘... a form of mental processing with a purpose and/or anticipated
outcome that is applied to relatively complex or unstructured ideas for which
there is not an obvious solution’. Reflective writing can help you to improve
your analytical skills because it requires you to express what you think, and
more significantly, how and why you think that way. Purpose of Reflection:
We reflect in order to: >Consider the process of our own learning – a process
of metacognition >Critically review something - our own behavior, that of
others or the product of behavior (e.g. an essay, book, painting etc.) >Build
theory from observations: we draw theory from generalizations - sometimes
in practical situations, sometimes in thoughts or a mixture of the two.
>Engage in personal or self development >Make decisions or resolve
uncertainty. Types of Reflective Writing:- a) learning logs/journals b)
presentations c) reflective essays ]]]]]]] ==== [[[ CRITICAL WRITING :- The
key to mature writing is learning to write critically. Without criticism, texts
that you read have no life beyond that of the author. Without criticism, you
also have no distance from the text by which you give life to yourself as a
thinker. By analogy, most of us do not spend hours looking in a mirror: we
look in a mirror to get our bearings for the day; then we go on about our
dealing. Hearing or reading words that only mirror our own thoughts leads to
the same result: Critical writing just like critical thinking involves considering
evidence to make reasoned conclusions. This involves writing which evaluates
and analyses more than one source in order to develop an argument.
Characteristics of Critical Writing:-The most characteristic features of
critical writing are: >a clear and confident refusal to accept the conclusions of
other writers without evaluating the arguments and evidence that they
provide; >a balanced presentation of reasons why the conclusions of other
writers may be accepted or may need to be treated with caution; >a clear
presentation of your own evidence and argument, leading to your conclusion;
and >a recognition of the limitations in your own evidence, argument, and
conclusion. Strategies for Critical Writing:- 1-Using the "Compare and
contrast" approach 2-Trying a give and take of argumentation 3-Talking to an
author in your Critical Writing 4-Have authors talk to each other in your
Critical Writing 5-Writing for a fellow student 6-Agreeing with an author
against a fellow student:
MIND MAPPING:- Mind Map is a powerful graphic technique which provides
a universal key to unlock the potential of the brain. It harnesses the full range
of cortical skills – word, image, number, logic, rhythm, colour and spatial
awareness – in a single, uniquely powerful manner. Mind Mapping is the
easiest way to put information into your brain and to take information out of
your brain - it's a creative and effective means of note-taking that literally
'maps out' your thoughts. And it is so simple. According to Michael Michalko,
in “Cracking Creativity”, a Mind Map: >activates your whole brain >clears your
mind of mental clutter >allows you to focus on the subject> helps
demonstrate connections between isolated pieces of information >gives a
clear picture of both the details and the big picture >allows you to group and
regroup concepts, encouraging comparisons between them >requires you to
concentrate on your subject, which helps get the information about it
transferred from your short-term memory to your long-term memory.
PRINCIPLES OF MIND MAPPING:- 1-pictures 2-headlines 3-connection
TECHNIQUES OF MM:- 1-brain storming 2-the flow 3-the big picture ]]]] ====
[[[[ PORTFOLIO DEVELOPMENT:- Portfolio-based assessment is one of the
approaches that have shown considerable promise in the teacher education
programs. A professional portfolio is a representative group of documents
that provides evidence of one's knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and skills. In the
portfolio development based assessment, each student creates a portfolio
that is individualized based upon talents of the student. Purpose of Portfolio
Development:- >The portfolio is intended to encourage the student to
become actively involved in monitoring >The contents of the portfolio reflect
both academic and field experiences that demonstrate the student’s
application of knowledge and skills. >The portfolio allows students to
demonstrate mastery of the competencies of the program. >It provides a
more complete picture of the student’s interests, abilities and
accomplishments in tangible evidences. >used as an ongoing tool to
encourage and guide future professional development. >It encourages the
student’s organizational skills, >students will continue to develop their
portfolios. Types of portfolios:- 1-The Working Portfolio 2-The
Development Portfolio 3-The Showcase Portfolio Stages of Portfolio
Development:- In the initial phase, the student begins collecting and
selecting information that will represent him/her as a developing
professional. The student will develop his/her professional philosophy
statement and identify the purpose of the portfolio. Students will receive
input from their faculty mentor and their peers. The final phase of portfolio
development occurs when students develop a professional resume and select
evidence or artifacts that reflect and document their growth during the
program. 1-Goal Identification 2-Collecting 3-Selecting 4-Categorizing 5-
Connecting 6-Reflecting 7-Sharing ….

CONCEPT OF PERCEIVED KNOWLEDGE:- Perception is the course of action

by which we acquire information about the world around us using our five
senses. It is a central issue in the theory of knowledge. The term perceived
knowledge is used to refer to one's self-assessment or sensitivity of knowing
the information needed to evaluate. Next, these sensations pass through our
perceptual system. When information passes through our knowledge filter,
one of three things happens: 1. We decide that the information is not
meaningful to us and the perception stops there, 2. We do not immediately
recognize the information, but believe it may be meaningful to us so we have
some incentive to gain more information 3. The information is meaningful to
us and therefore passes through the next filter, the valuing filter…..our
Perceived Worlds are:>Highly subjective>Unique>Subject to constant
change>Frequently inaccurate…….Often our perceptions are chosen. We can
frequently choose to perceive people, places, and situations in a number of
ways. CONCEPT OF REFLECTIVE KNOWLEDGE:-Reflective knowledge has
an important role in high-level knowledge which requires justifiably taking
one’s sources to be reliable. Reflective knowledge turns out to be a meta-
competence. That is, a faculty or disposition to aptly evaluate the
circumstances. If one is to have reflective knowledge, one must have “an
understanding of its place in a wider whole that include one’s beliefs and
knowledge of it and how these come about” two components as described by
Sosa. According to him:1) Principle of epistemic ascent: “If one knows full well
that p and considers whether one knows that p, then one must be justified in
thinking that one does.2) Principle of closure of epistemic justification: If one
is fully justified in believing that p necessarily, unless it is so that q, it cannot
be so that p, then one must also be justified in believing that q. BUILDING
COMMUNITIES OF KNOWLEDGE:- Communities of knowledge need to
encourage the interaction to make them active and strong. Communities of
knowledge and practice can be defined as "A group of individuals informally
bound to one another through exposure to a common class of problems,
common pursuit of solutions, and thereby themselves embodying a store of
knowledge" Dimensions of Communities of Knowledge :-These
communities have three important dimensions:
>Purpose.>Function.>Output. Principles for Building Communities of
Knowledge and Practice:- 1-Design for evolution: 2-Open a dialogue
between inside and outside perspectives: 3-Invite different levels of
participation: 4-Develop both public and private community spaces: 5-Focus
on value: 6-Combine familiarity and excitement 7-Creating a rhythm for the
community: Stages of Community Development:- 1-Formation (potential
and unity): 2-Integration (maturing and stewardship): 3-Transformation