1 MALAYSIAN PERSPECTIVE

1.1 GENERAL .......................................................................................................................1-1

1.2 GEOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................1-1

1.2.1 Socio-Economics and Politics .............................................................................1-1

1.2.2 Landform and Water Resource...........................................................................1-1

1.2.3 Climate.............................................................................................................1-1

1.2.4 Urbanisation .....................................................................................................1-2

1.3 CURRENT DEVELOPMENT ISSUES AND DRAINAGE PRACTICE...........................................1-2

1.3.1 Development Consequences and Needs .............................................................1-2

1.3.3 Local Problems .................................................................................................1-4

1.4 NEW DIRECTION ...........................................................................................................1-5

1.4.1 Catchment Management....................................................................................1-5

1.4.2 Stormwater Resources ......................................................................................1-6

1.4.3 Initial Efforts.....................................................................................................1-6

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 Malaysian Perspective

1.1 GENERAL further urban and industrial growth, cities and towns may
reach 55-60% of the total population. Urban citizens,
Malaysia is part of the South East Asian community. It while making their daily life more prosperous, will
occupies a total area of approximately 330,000 sq. km and increasingly be subject to environmental consequences.
is divided by the South China Sea into West Malaysia (the
Peninsula) and East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), about 1.2.2 Landform and Water Resource
1000 km apart. Being located between longitudes 1o - 7o
North and latitudes 100o - 120o East, Malaysia is influenced Malaysia is generally formed by highland, floodplain, and
by the equatorial environment and is well outside volcanic, coastal zones (Figure 1.Error! Reference source not
tornado, and severe drought belts. Strategically, the found.). In the Peninsula, the Banjaran Titiwangsa
country is located central to various international air and stretched from north to south, divides the West Coast and
sea transport and communication routes. East Coast states, while in Sarawak the Banjaran Kapuas
Hulu and Banjaran Iran border Indonesia. All of these
Malaysia is moving towards achieving a developed nation ranges are governed by virgin forest.
status by the year 2020. This is evidenced by its rapid
socio-economic growth in the last two decades. Urban and Most rivers in the Peninsula are short and steep, especially
industrial areas have grown in many parts of the country, along the West Coast. Sg. Pahang (330 km) is the longest
especially in the West Coast of the Peninsula. The in the Peninsula, while Sg. Rajang in Sarawak (563 km) is
pressures have caused significant consequences to the the longest in Malaysia.
environment, such as hydrological and ecological changes.
Open water bodies comprise man-made lakes such as dam
Malaysia, like many other developing tropical countries, is reservoirs and ex-mining ponds (mostly found in the Klang
striding to upgrade the social well-being of its urban and Kinta Basins), and natural lakes such as Tasek Bera
citizens by alleviating ever-increasing flash food, water and and Chini in Pahang. These water sources are used for
pollution problems. The particular issues being focused power generation, flood control, water supply, recreation,
upon are stormwater management (SWM) and drainage aquaculture, and tourism.
practices.
Most cities and large towns in the Peninsula are located
1.2 GEOGRAPHY over limestone and granite with a thin surface alluvium.
These include Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Ipoh, and
1.2.1 Socio-Economics and Politics Penang. Kota Bharu, Kuala Terengganu, Kuantan, Johor
Bahru, and Alor Setar are resting on coastal alluvium.
Malaysia is formed by 13 states varying in size from Similarly, in Sarawak and Sabah, most primary urban
244 sq. km. (Federal Territory Kuala Lumpur) to towns such as Kuching, Sibu, Miri, and Kota Kinabalu are
124,449 sq. km. (Sarawak). With a present estimated total situated on coastal alluvium. Kota Bharu is known to have
of 21 million people, the Malaysian population is becoming the largest groundwater aquifers in Malaysia.
more concentrated into cities, towns, and industrial zones
(over 50%), with the highest figure in Kuala Lumpur at Limestone and granite rock associated with the Banjaran
1.4 million. Kuala Lumpur started as a village in 1860, Titiwangsa and Tanah Tinggi Terengganu dominate the
became capital of the United Malay States in 1896, and inland area of the Peninsula while the majority of Sarawak
was turned into the capital of Malaysia in 1963. It was and Sabah are geologically underlained by limestone.
subsequently upgraded to a city status in 1974 and now
stands as the most urbanised and populated zone in 1.2.3 Climate
Malaysia with a projected population of 1.85 and 2.4
million in 2020 and 2050, respectively (EPU, 2000). Malaysia is warm and humid throughout the year, as
characterised by the equatorial climate. It has an average
The increase in the total population is not only from births annual rainfall of more than 2500 mm with monthly
within the country but also from immigrants across its variations for selected cities and towns, as shown in
borders. From the viewpoint of urban stormwater Figure 1.Error! Reference source not found.. The
management/water resources, this situation means that West Coast of the Peninsula is subject to localised and
planning for the future in Malaysia must envisage a convective storms generated by the inter monsoon
continued increase in population growth in urban areas. seasons/Sumatra wind system in the months of April/May
Internal migration grows annually. Migration takes place and October/November. The highest monthly rainfalls in
from rural areas to established urban centres and industrial Kuala Lumpur are recorded in April and October. Storms
zones where there are good infrastructural facilities. Most mainly occur in the late afternoon and early evening.
urban areas are normally found on alluvium plain and Intense short duration rainfall has frequently caused flash
coastal/estuarine zones. In the year 2020, the Malaysian floods in many localities in the Klang Valley.
population is expected to escalate to 30 million and, with

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 Malaysian Perspective

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Malaysian Perspective

The South-West Monsoon (normally from May to Sg. Linggi (Negeri Sembilan), Sg. Melaka (Melaka),
September) produces less rain in the West Coast of the Sg. Skudai (Johor), Sg. Juru and Sg. Dondang (Pulau
Peninsula whilst the North-East Monsoon, from November Pinang), and Upper Sg. Kinta (Perak).
to March, carries longer and heavier rains to the East Coast
of the Peninsula, North Sabah, and inland Sarawak 1.3 CURRENT DEVELOPMENT ISSUES AND
(Figure 1.Error! Reference source not found.). In the DRAINAGE PRACTICE
Peninsula the wettest area is Taiping in Perak whilst the
driest is Kuala Pilah in Negeri Sembilan (Figure 1.Error! 1.3.1 Development Consequences and Needs
Reference source not found.). Average daily
temperatures range from a minimum of 25o C to a It is widely recognised that landuse changes from rural to
maximum of 33o C. Relative humidity is high, sometimes urban or industrial areas cause local runoff impacts on
exceeding 80%. Daytime cloudy hours are also high while receiving water flow, quality, and ecology. Apart from
haze lately is a frequent occurrence that has contributed to erosion and sedimentation problems associated with
acid rains. development, it has become increasingly apparent that
stormwater runoff contributes to receiving waters a
1.2.4 Urbanisation significant part of total loads of such pollutants as nutrients
(including phosphorus and nitrogen), heavy metals, oil and
Urbanisation results in the growth and spread of grease, bacteria, etc. Over the years, flood damage and
impervious areas and a diversification of urban landuse adverse impacts on water quality, fisheries, scenic river
practices with respect to the hydrologic and environmental areas, and wildlife habitats have been recognised as
terms. Urban and industrial areas in Malaysia typically shortcomings of long-accepted approaches to the planning,
comprise the following (Figure 1.1); design, and management of storm drainage facilities in
urban areas.
• residential
• commercial/business As a result rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and estuarine
• industrial and coastal waters, have become sensitive to increased
rates and volumes of runoff and pollutant discharges.
• institutional
These discharges have posed major issues to many urban
• construction and residential centres, particularly in the western states of
• resort/golf link the Peninsula. The problems have become even more
• parks and greenways aggravated by frequent intense rainfalls, the physiological
nature of basins, and the pattern of urbanisation with
• market places
relatively poor urban services.
• roads, streets and highways
Conventional storm drainage has long been in practice in
Urbanisation poles are formed in many different ways. many countries including Malaysia. Local decision-makers
They are configured: and professionals have just begun to recognise the need
• centrally in dense arrangements such as towns, cities, for a new and broader approach, urban stormwater
ports, commercial/business centres, and new management (SWM) in the light of development in the
development areas country progressing at a tremendous pace.

• linearly along road, highway, railway, river, estuary,

Every professional currently engaged in such development
and coastal area
(engineers, planners, and environmentalists in particular)
• randomly including villages and high class residential should therefore accept the new concept and challenging
areas roles of not only designing satisfactory flood protection
facilities but also of controlling and reducing stormwater
A well-planned settlement, in a Malaysian planning pollution in urban catchments and receiving waters. The
perspective, is one that is facilitated by adequate level of technical know-how of our practising engineers
infrastructure and utilities, such as the new town of Shah and the quality of stormwater data, in terms of sufficiency
Alam in Selangor. and reliability, need to be upgraded in readiness to develop
and achieve sound design practice and operational
The main functions within an urban area can be classified procedures to deal effectively with the existing and future
as administrative, industrial, and business. Factors that stormwater systems.
contribute to urban growth are locality and socio-economic
development. 1.3.2 Existing Drainage Practices

In some river basins, development pressures on the water Present experience indicates that rapid disposal, localised,
environment are now at an alarming level. Of significance reactive, and mono-functional drainage concepts have
are Sg. Klang, Sg. Langat and Sg. Buloh (Selangor), been widely practised in Malaysia.

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Malaysian Perspective

Research on the characteristics of urbanised and

urbanising catchment areas is relatively scarce within
Malaysia and continues to be frustrated by a lack of data,
in terms of quantity/quality/length of record, from which
meaningful design information may be deduced sufficiently
and reliably.

In Malaysia, urban drainage practice has been largely

based on the 1975 DID Urban Drainage Design Manual
that covers essentially the following;
• planning
• basis of design
(a) Residential Area • flood estimation
• hydraulic design of open channels
• structures
• storm drainage design for urban streets
• detention storage
• erosion and sediment control
• information to be submitted with design

The approaches to the design procedure, in terms of

methods and techniques employed, have not been
reviewed and upgraded although advances in urban
drainage and stormwater management technology are
continuing and circumstances changing as evidenced by
the increased frequency of flash floods and water quality
(b) Commercial/Business Centre problems occurring in many urbanising areas in Malaysian
towns and cities.

In relation to the contents of the former manual, some

recognised weaknesses are associated with institutional
and legal issues, strategic/masterplanning concepts,
discharge estimation, minor and major drainage facilities,
computer simulation, and runoff quantity and quality
controls. These were either inadequately covered or not
included in the manual.

1.3.3 Local Problems

Some of the stormwater-associated problems being

(c) Industrial Zone encountered in Malaysia are (Figure 1.2);

Figure 1.1 Type of Urbanisation • construction activities and mud flows

• flash flooding
• water pollution and ecological damage
Although situation may differ from one country to another
or even in regions with regard to development, the • urban slope failures
Rational Method is adopted for sizing most drainage • traffic disruption and accidents
structures. While standard design procedures have been • surcharges and overflows from wastewater facilities
available since the early 1970s, the peak discharge • garbage and floating litters
estimation method has been freely used, even for large • sedimentation
and complex hydraulic structures in large catchment and
tidal areas. As a result, cost-effective design and Major zones that are prone to these problems include
construction has seldom been realised. Practices in urbanised and urbanising centres in the Klang Valley,
Malaysia have thus far relied very much on slight MSC/KLIA region, Upper Kinta Valley, Penang, Linggi Basin,
adaptation or even direct use of temperate region-based Melaka Basin, and other new socio-economic growth areas
urban rainfall/runoff design procedures and computer in the West Coast of the Peninsula. Inland localities
models. normally experience short flash floods while coastal towns

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 Malaysian Perspective

face larger, longer duration floods due to expanded basin and enhancing landscape values or minimising the long
runoff contributions, flattened floodplains, and tidal term effects of development on the ecology of the area.
influences. Many urban rivers, lakes, and ponds are
rendered unfit for use, either in-stream or off-stream, as Contribution of flow and pollutants to our waterways are
they are flooded and overloaded with non-point source provided mainly from spatially distributed land sources
(NPS) pollutants in wet periods and their water bodies such as residential areas of various densities, city and
experience more concentrated point sources (PS) due to urban centres, industries, golf courses, and streets and
reduced baseflow contribution in dry periods. An highways. With such complexities being experienced in
interpretative evaluation of river water quality has revealed our catchment development activities, the approaches to
that increasing proportions (more than 60%) of the the current urban drainage codes of practice are seen to
Malaysian inland waters are failing due to pollution be no longer adequate. New, comprehensive, and
contributions from the NPS or storm-generated activities, integrated SWM strategies are now needed to be in line
particularly in urban areas (W Mokhtar, 1998). with the government’s drive to achieve a sustainable
developed nation status in the early 21st century. Such
new strategies will incorporate interalia, runoff source
control, management and delayed disposal on a catchment
wide, proactive, and multi-functional basis. This should
result in flood flow reduction, water quality improvement,
and ecological enhancement in downstream receiving
waters. To some extent, it should also contribute to
improved urban amenity through the application of
wetlands, landscape for recreation, potential beneficial
reuse of stormwater (especially as a non-potable supply
source), and recharge of depleted urban groundwater
aquifers to enhance stream baseflow during dry seasons.

1.4.1 Catchment Management

(a) Flash Flooding
There is evidence in many developed countries of an
increasing interest in the use of SWM practice in adaptive,
strategic level approaches to achieve integrated catchment
planning (ICP) and sustainable urban river corridor
environment. ICP is strategically applied for sustaining
catchment outflow and replenishment of nearby water
bodies by reducing runoff discharge magnitude and NPS
pollutants during wet weather and enhancing longer
outflow contribution through the implementation of SWM
practices. Controlled drainage of wastewater (domestic,
municipal, and industrial) and augmentation of baseflow
should form an important ICP measure. On a larger scale,
many recent implementation studies were carried out
based on this catchment approach (Hassel, 1997;
(b) Pollution of Receiving Waters Smission, 1991; Murray & Cave, 1997 and Richards, 1997).

Holistic catchment plans for urban drainage, SWM, and the

Figure 1.2 Flash Flood and Pollution from Stormwater water environment will need to be based on cost-effective
new technology. They will provide both the forward
planning frameworks for liaison with local authorities in the
1.4 NEW DIRECTION preparation of structure and local district development
plans, and the catchment-scale assessment of investment
It should be appreciated that the engineer concerned with needs in terms of function and location. It is essential that
the drainage of urban areas is, by necessity, working in a hydrologic, hydraulic, and water quality models be used to
dynamic situation. The very presence of urban and provide not only a better representation of the present
industrial areas would normally cause a disruption of the situation, but also a predictive and adaptive management
local water balance and the natural environment, which is tool for the future.
often unanticipated and difficult to predict. Nevertheless,
the minimisation and control of flooding and pollution risks The uses and constraints of catchment receiving water
are necessarily compatible with maximising wildlife habitats bodies are usually defined by relevant and suitable
environmental quality/flow standards specified by the DOE

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Malaysian Perspective

and DID. By evaluating the current monitored Within the KLIA at Sepang, stormwater is being used for
performance against these standards, priorities for landscape irrigation. It appears that a more
pollution abatement and flow reduction can be identified. comprehensive approach to stormwater use will be
Modelling and monitoring can be used to assess the implemented soon at Putrajaya, as some BMPs are already
impacts of various sources of pollutants on receiving water in place for sustaining its lake water resources. Use of
bodies. rainwater and stormwater runoff in a systematic way is still
scarce, even in a tight water demand and supply crisis area
Review of dischargers’ design methods, operation and such as the Klang Valley. In view of runoff control, water
maintenance procedures, upgrading works, and data shortage/emergencies, and aquifer enhancement, local
collection and planning capabilities are also important. An water resource uses should be mandated in the region. A
evaluation report should be presented, in qualitative and comprehensive stormwater source management system
quantitative terms, describing what information exists on has successfully been implemented for a house lot in
the catchment and what investigations are required to Bangi, Selangor.
produce catchment management plan (CMP). To evaluate
such issues, it is necessary to complement existing Natural recharge is extremely slow in urban groundwater
catchment information with baseline studies. This can be aquifers and this can restrict withdrawal and reduce
efficiently handled using Geographic Information System baseflow in nearby streams and water bodies. Apart from
(GIS) software and relational databases linked to water combating land subsidence due to overdrafts, stormwater
and environmental parameters and flow/transport models (pretreated) can be diverted from streams, drains, ponds
(W Mokhtar, 1993). These modelling components can be and lakes into aquifers. This can augment water resource
integrated with catchment policies on stormwater disposal, availability in dry periods and help reduce persistent
landuse, and environmental protection in order to provide stormwater flooding in wet periods. These types of
an indication of reductions in pollutants loading required to schemes are most applicable in areas such as Kota Bharu
achieve receiving water quality goals. The authority can (where groundwater is heavily used) and Kuala Lumpur
build these into forward planning of its capital works (where flooding and water crisis is at issue).
programme and disposal strategies with other pollution
control measures. Dischargers will then be required to 1.4.3 Initial Efforts
implement appropriate construction and operational
programmes while regulators can audit these programmes, Despite being relatively new in this country, some forms of
give compliance consent, and assess the resulting effects SWM have been practised to some extent, albeit in an ad
on the environment through ‘Environmental Monitoring’. hoc manner. SWM practices for controlling NPS pollutants
Whenever necessary, the CMP shall be updated upon the are still in their infancy in Malaysia. The DID and Local
issue of new directives. Authorities are now beginning to focus on controlling
runoff peak discharge, volume, and associated sediments
1.4.2 Stormwater Resources while supporting data and research are relatively scarce.

Local urban water resources are often neglected and left to Promotion of SWM was initiated in 1989. The first
degrade and run to waste. As socio-economic growth Stormwater Symposium was held in Kuala Lumpur in May
continues, stormwater may be used increasingly to 1990 with selected papers published in its proceedings
augment water supplies, recharge aquifers, improve inland (W Mokhtar, 1991). The event was well attended by world
fisheries, and provide public recreation. After the 1998 experts and local practitioners and researchers. The
water crisis in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur, interest has ongoing efforts made by the DID include the development
been growing in the government and private sectors to use of this SWM Manual, seminar/training activities, and R&D
these vital resources, and efforts to restore their depleted collaboration with local universities. Published scientific
conditions are developing. Experience elsewhere has papers so far have touched on stormwater modelling
shown that PS pollutants are readily treated while NPS (Abustan, 1998), infiltration trench sizing (W Mokhtar,
pollutants are highly uncertain, random, and much more 1999), and stormwater BMPs (Yu & W Mokhtar, 1991).
difficult to control. Earlier research efforts that were started in Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia include runoff study for a small
Most developed countries have made good use of urban residential catchment, stormwater reuse, highway runoff
stormwater, which has helped to harmonise the distorted characterisation, and laboratory investigation of porous
hydrologic and environmental system due to urbanisation. pavement (W Mokhtar & Satri, 1993).

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