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Migrant Labour - Problems of The Invisible 1 5 5
Migrant Labour - Problems of The Invisible 1 5 5
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MIGRANT LABOUR - PROBLEMS OF THE INVISIBLE
The fact that the same communities of migrant urban areas, as well as between rural areas. Nearly
workers repeatedly come to Punjab reveals that all sectors of Punjab’s economy employ migrant
work and living conditions are perhaps a great deal labour. Migrant women are employed as domestic
better than conditions in their home states. help in cities and children are employed as
Migrant labour may be attracted by local wage domestic help in both rural and urban areas.
rates, labour contract systems and by the relations Migrant labourers are employed in both agriculture
with employees that are in a peace in Punjab. and industry. Table 8.1 gives an estimate of the
number of migrant labour in each of the industries,
However, the labouring numbers who have come as well as in the agricultural sector in Punjab.
to play a major role in Punjab’s economy, have
found it relatively difficult to access the benefits Migration to the Agricultural Sector
of citizenship. In this chapter we look at who these Migration to Punjab began strongly in the early
migrants are and where they come from, as well 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s despite
as living conditions. militancy and reached its pinnacle in the 1990s. The
proportion of migrant labourers rose from 2.19
Since the migrant labourer is considered an lakh, or 7.6 percent of the total agricultural labour
‘outsider’ in a cultural, linguistic and class sense, force in 1978-79 to 3.86 lakh or 10 percent, in 1983-
the focus is always on ‘the migrant as a problem’, 84. Their number was estimated at 3.27 lakh during
rather than the ‘problems of the migrant’. In a state the lean season and 6.56 lakh during the peak
from where pioneers and entrepreneurs have season. By the 1990s, their number during the peak
migrated, settled, and contributed to the season stood at nearly 7.74 lakh, or 11% of
economies of many countries, domestic migrant agricultural labour in the state (Sidhu and Rangi).
labourers deserve far better treatment.
There was a phenomenal increase in migrant
Migration to Punjab occurs from almost all north labour population after the Green Revolution,
western states, as well as from states in central especially with the introduction of labour-intensive
and eastern India. Migration occurs from rural to crops like potato, sugarcane and cotton. Wheat-
1. Agriculture 7 lakh
2. Brick kiln 2 lakh
3. Manufacturing Industries :
(i) Textile/ Hosiery Workers 4 lakh
(ii) Sports & other industries 2 lakh
(iii) Sugarcane industry 15,000
4. Service industries:
(i) Loading/ unloading workers in Mandis (Palledars) 7.5 lakh 1.5 lakh (7.5 lakh including local and migrant)
(ii) Rickshaw pullers 1 lakh
(iii) Domestic workers 50000 (1 lakh including local and migrant)
5. Construction Industry:
(i) Power, irrigation and multi-purpose projects 1.5 lakh
(ii) House/ building construction 1.5 lakh
(iii) Stone construction/ Road construction 50,000
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PUNJAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT
Table 8.2: Estimates of Total Migrant Workers in Punjab Agriculture
S. No. Source Year Estimated number
paddy rotation itself comprises 67.42 percent of Most migrant workers who migrate to Punjab
the total cropped area in the state and come primarily from the states of Uttar Pradesh
consolidation of land holdings created conditions and Bihar and also from Madhya Pradesh, and
for capitalist development in agriculture and Orissa, which suffer from severe unemployment
facilitated the use of farm machinery like tube- and under-employment, low wages, low earnings
wells, tractors, threshers, cane crushers, and an agricultural productivity that is much lower
combined harvesters and paddy planters. The than that of Punjab (Sidhu and Rangi 1998). A large
demand for labour was met not only from local number of migrants migrate in order to repay
communities but there was also a massive influx debts they have incurred from village
from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Punjab had earlier moneylenders, shopkeepers and others (Sidhu and
been characterised by the predominance of family Rangi, Manmohan Sharma, and Manjit Singh).
labour on land, but family labour was rendered Punjab is able to offer them a wage rate double of
quite insufficient by the huge demands of the that offered in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Green Revolution. Migrant labour was initially
concentrated in just a few districts but later Migrant labourers generally prefer to work in
spread to others. The districts of high villages where they have worked earlier. Inter- village
concentration were Ludhiana, Patiala and and inter-district migration in Punjab is
Jalandhar; medium concentration districts were comparatively low. Living conditions are not always
Amritsar, Faridkot, Firozpur and Sangrur; and the satisfactory. Migrants live in small groups, in
districts with low concentration were Rup Nagar, accommodation provided by the farmers near their
Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur and Bathinda. In 1998, it tube wells, or in any other common village area.
was estimated that districts with high Over 90 percent of them do not have to pay any
concentration had approximately 52 migrant rent for accommodation. Migrants have not been
labourers per village, those with moderate registered as voters in Punjab, despite the fact that
concentration had about 30, and villages with low they have been living in the same area for many
concentration had about 15 labourers per village years and have returned repeatedly. They have
(Sidhu and Grewal). therefore not been allowed to develop any stakes
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MIGRANT LABOUR - PROBLEMS OF THE INVISIBLE
Courtesy photo
Migrant labourers in Punjab’s agriculture
in the area nor are they taken into consideration The reasons for the influx of migrant labour can
during planning and governance processes. be summed up as:
It may be mentioned here that there are different Wage rate offered by Punjab are almost double
views on the conditions of migrant workers. Some the rate offered in their native states of Bihar
argue that they are given fair treatment and full and Uttar Pradesh.
protection by the state and that in recruitment, Living conditions in native states are poor and
wages and general treatment, the migrant labourer migration provides better opportunities and an
is on a par with the Punjabi labourer. alternative source of employment.
Large-scale debts also lead to migration to
Migrant labourers in Punjab are both annual and Punjab, although many incurred debts even in
seasonal. Among the total migrant labourers in their new place of work.
agriculture, nearly one-sixth of them worked on a Large families (6-14 members) and few earning
yearly contract i.e. on a permanent basis. Migrant members also force migration.
labourers are now replacing local labourers who
may have worked as attached or permanent labour. Land owners prefer migrant populations for many
Of the majority of migrant labourers, nearly half of reasons. These are:
them work on a casual basis, one-third of them as
seasonal migrant workers, and the rest as attached scarcity of agricultural labour during peak
labourers. Labourers are also given food and tea seasons;
in addition to cash wages. There has been threat by local agricultural labourers to stop
considerable increase in the wage rates of migrant work during peak season unless wages are
labourers over the last twenty years. The total increased;
annual earnings of migrant labourers range from higher wage rates demanded by local
Rs. 5, 000 to Rs.15,000 (Sidhu and Rangi). labourers;
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greater assertiveness of the local labour force; The preponderance of local labour in the more
perception of migrant labour as honest, docile skilled processes can be attributed to the fact that
and obedient, reliable, simple and unaware of they enter the trade as apprentices and are able
their rights. to stay on for longer periods. They thus acquire
the required expertise fairly quickly in their working
In a study of the impact of migration, Alakh Naraina lives. This is in contrast to the migrant, whose
finds that agricultural practices and performance existence is mobile and who is not able to sustain
remain basically unchanged in spite of migrants. a stable expertise-creating long-term career. The
migrant is more linked to rural agricultural work
Migration to the Industrial Sector than to urban industrial work.
With increased mechanisation of agriculture, the
Punjabi farmer no longer needed to work his own The migrant labourer is also illiterate and is therefore
lands. After the Green Revolution, there was an not employed in tasks requiring skills such as the
accumulation of capital, which resulted in the ability to handle complicated machinery. Obviously,
development of small-scale industry. Major these tasks also pay better.
industries developed, all of which used migrant
labour. These are the sugar industry and the textile The migrant labourer is at the very lowest level of
industry. Ludhiana, as the hosiery centre of the the industrial class structure. They have been
state, attracts the largest numbers of migrant demarcated as a distinct and separate stratum
labourers after agriculture. In the early 1980s, nearly within which they are able to stay and work.
40 percent of workers in the unorganised sector, Migrant workers are often referred to as the rather
primarily in the hosiery sector, were migrants. derogatory `bhaiyas’ in local parlance. Additionally,
Migrant workers began to work in the hosiery local workers tend to maintain a social distance
industry at the start of the 1970s and their numbers from migrant workers at the places of work
have been increasing ever since. (Dr. Manjit Singh).
Migrants are employed mostly in low-paid In certain parts such as Gobindgarh, the wages
unskilled jobs that often carry greater health received by a worker, do not depend on the volume
hazards than other jobs. Although there are of work done by the person individually, but are
arguments that there is little difference between based on the average level of work performed by
local and migrant labour yet it can also be said a group. Work is allocated to a group attached to
that the daily and monthly earnings of migrants a thekedar and earnings are pooled, and
are undoubtedly lower than the earnings of local distributed equally at the end of a working week.
labour. Lower piece rates are fixed for migrant Thus risks are shared even by the lowest strata.
labourers and their average monthly earnings are The often methodical manner in which accounts
almost 10-35 percent lower than that of the locals of earnings are kept, wages are distributed and
in such processes as knitting, tailoring, checking decisions taken on inclusion or exclusion of
and packing and button stitching. The average members is fairly impressive.1
number of working hours is higher when
compared to the number of hours that local The Sugar Industry and Migrant Labour
labourers work. There is a substantial presence of migrant
1Amitabh Kundu and Surender Bhatia, a study on ”Industrial Growth in Small and Medium Towns and Their Vertical Integration: The
Case of Gobindgarh, Punjab, India“.
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MIGRANT LABOUR - PROBLEMS OF THE INVISIBLE
Sugar industry
labourers in Punjab’s sugar industries. At present industry, the level of education was higher among
there are 22 sugar mills in Punjab, which employ local labour compared to the migrants.
15,000 workers. Migrant labourers from Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar, constitute a substantial Migration to the Brick Kilns
proportion of the labour employed in these Systems of migration often differ in different
sugarmills.2 In fact migrant labour has become industries. Within the brick kiln industry, for
an essential component of the labour force of example, there exists a system of bonded labour,
Punjab’s sugar industry. A large proportion of these a result of accumulated debt. 3 In most cases
migrants were engaged in agriculture before they workers decide to migrate in order to clear local
migrated to Punjab and were indebted to village debts. They do this with advance money, which is
moneylenders. Pressure of debts and low incomes given to them by contractors in the form of peshagi.
meant that even when militancy was at its peak, Peshagi exploits them further and traps them in
they continued to migrate to the sugar mills of further debt, this time in an alien environment. At
Punjab. Since work is seasonal in the sugar industry, the end of the season, the worker is allowed to
only about half of the labour force is permanently return only if he/ she is able to repay the peshagi.
employed. While skilled workers have permanent If not, they are forced to stay back until they have
employment, a majority of semi-skilled and repaid the entire amount. To do this, migrants
unskilled workers work on a seasonal basis. Most might borrow more money, leading them into
migrants to the sugar industry stay in Punjab for terrible and perpetual debt. Accumulated debt
less then ten years, remit most of their earnings leads to perpetual bondage, one of the major
to families at home and maintain strong links with afflictions of migrant workers in the brick-kiln
their native places. The majority belong to the age industry of Punjab (Nasir, Ateeq, et al., March 2001).
group of 30 to 40 years and are drawn from Labourers’ debt advances can range from
backward caste communities, invariably more Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 40,000. Interest rates could range
dependent on work than local labour. In the sugar between 24 and 60 percent.
2 This section is based entirely on study by Krishan Chand et al. (1998) on the Sugar Industry of Punjab
3 Nasir Ateeq in his study ”Status of Migrant Labour in Brick Industry of Punjab“
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PUNJAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT
In case work stops due to, say, rain, workers do
not get any wages for the work they might have
done before rainfall began. In such situations, they
have to rely on loans from contractors or owners.
Although the law provides for a system of
compensation where the employer must pay a
specified amount in case of stoppage of work,
this is almost never followed.
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Box 8.1: Features of Bondage
1. Bonded labourers are forced to work without cases of some female domestic servants. The latter
adequate pay in most cases. are sometimes subjected to sexual exploitation.
2. They are given advances that carry interest rates 8. Nearly one-fourth are below 25 years; and the rest
ranging from 24 to 60 percent per annum. Thus are mostly aged 26 to 50 years. There are a few
they become indebted to the farmers till they return above 50 years as well.
the debt. 9. The duration of bondage, in an overwhelming
3. They are neither paid any wages, nor any number of cases is up to 5 years, and in a few
perquisites in the form of food, clothes, etc. cases, ranges from 6 to over 20 years
4. They are not free to leave their employers until they 10. Cases of bondage include both local labourers and
clear their loans. migrant labourers. There are also cases of women
5. They remain at the beck and call of their masters and child bonded labourers.
and have to work for 14 to 16 hours a day. 11. Labourers are not given any leave and in case of
6. The recalcitrant are coerced and often severely acute illness, fines are imposed on them @ Rs.
beaten. 100 for absence. The amount of fine is added to
7. Most bonded labourers are male but there are also the initial debt advance.
Box 8.2: Case Study: Bonded Labour, Hoshiarpur (Manjit Singh, 1995)
The presence of migrant labourers in Hoshiarpur was prevent escape and were allowed out only for ablutions.
first noticed in the 1980s. While seasonal labourers Sometimes, owners would just keep a container in
migrated to Ludhiana voluntarily, the recruitment pattern the room where tribal labourers were supposed to
of tribals in Hoshiarpur and its adjoining areas was relieve themselves.
regulated through intermediaries. Recruitment of tribals
was made easier by the fact that there were many This practice continues unabated in some areas.
natives of Hoshiarpur employed in Ranchi. Agents in Markets are held in the town of Garhshankar, where
Punjab established contacts, and received assistance migrant labourers, particularly tribals are bought and
from others, who became intermediaries in the sold. The price for these labourers has now increased
recruitment procedure. Once recruited, tribal labourers to Rs. 1500 per person, with men attracting a higher
were transported to Punjab. price than women. Recruiting sub-agents who used
to be Punjabis in the past are now Biharis. Also, the
Tribal labourers are available at cheap rates and are centre of the trade has shifted from Hoshiarpur to
reputed to be very hard working. In the early 1970s, Gurdaspur. The number of women being traded has
only a few people were involved in this trade. Later, it also increased.
became lucrative in the entire district. Contractors in
Hoshiarpur had their agents at Ranchi, who operated Of a total of Rs. 1500 paid for a labourer, approximately
through their sub-agents at the village level. Labourers one-third, or Rs. 500 goes towards travel expenses.
were brought in from Ranchi and sold to farmers in The agent and the recruiter in Bihar share the remaining
Punjab for a sum, ranging from Rs. 200 to Rs. 400. amount. As said earlier, tribal-labourers do not receive
The farmers who bought them, did not pay any wages payment for the first few months. After this they get
for the initial 5-6 months and they were lodged in around Rs. 450 to Rs. 700 per month in case of males
inhuman conditions. They were forced to go barefoot and Rs. 400 to 500 per month for females.
through the day, kept locked in small airless rooms to
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PUNJAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT
serious problems faced throughout the cycle of Commission have rendered justice to bonded
migration. The state has started making efforts to labourers in only a few cases. The findings of
register migrants through the district various studies suggest that the intervention by
administration and police department but cruelties independent agencies like NHRC, Supreme Court,
still remain. However, attention is also being given Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes
to see that workers are not harassed during the Commission have been effective, but only to a
process of registration. limited extent.
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Malwa region followed by the Doaba and Majha room. Accommodation provided by employers is
region. often totally lacking in ventilation or sanitary
facilities. Trade unions have tried to campaign on
Given the huge international attention that this these issues but the trade union movement
system has received, the Government of India has remains weak in Punjab. One of the main reasons
formulated a new scheme for the identification, for this could be that workers are totally helpless
awareness and rehabilitation of bonded labour. The and completely at the mercy of employers.
state of Punjab has already been sanctioned an
amount of Rs. 10 lakh by the Central government Workers in most of the industries, especially those
for initiating identification and sensitisation who have become members of trade unions, are
programmes in bonded labour in five districts. The mostly young, aged 20 to 30 years. A majority are
state is in the process of commissioning a survey Hindus and belong to Scheduled Caste or other
on the incidence of bonded labour. backward caste groups. As compared to workers
in the agriculture or construction sector, industrial
Labour Lok Adalats workers are relatively better educated. The
On an average, Punjab receives 9000 cases for chances of an individual being a member of a union
conciliation and although more than 50 percent are higher if she or he has her own house and has
cases are settled in conciliation, the number of been living in the state for a while. Levels of
pending cases is nevertheless increasing. In order participation also increase if workers have families
to tackle this problem, the government of Punjab in Punjab. Participation levels of educated workers
initiated exclusive Labour Lok Adalats in the are higher than that of illiterate workers. Yet, on
beginning of 2001. In the four Lok Adalats that the whole, participation of migrants as well as local
were held at Ludhiana, Patiala, Jalandhar and workers in union activities is low even on issues
Amritsar, about 17, 994 cases were settled, out of like wages and bonus.
which 6209 cases were at a pre-litigative stage.
An amount of more than Rs. 13 crore was The fear of victimisation is perhaps the most
distributed to different categories of workers. The important reason for worker passivity. Such fears
Government of India has in fact directed other decrease if families live in the state for longer
states to replicate the Punjab experience. The periods, however the state government must
experience of the Punjab labour Lok Adalats has ensure that employers meet basic legal criteria of
also been applauded by the International Labour employment and provide employees with basic
Organization (ILO). social security along with job security.
Working Conditions of Migrant Workers The one sector where unions have been
Industries in Punjab have not been able to provide moderately successful in meeting the needs of
higher wages to workers as agriculture has been migrant labourers is in the sugar industry. As
able to do. There have been some efforts recently mentioned above, work in the sugar mills is
to organise migrant workers into trade unions. seasonal. Large numbers of migrant labourers are
Different political parties have organised brick kiln hired during the months when sugar is produced.
workers, rickshaw pullers, contract workers, Mills also retain a few employees throughout the
workers in mandis, or grain markets, and those in year. These are generally skilled workers who have
textile factories into unions. Living conditions for been trained to run machines. Though workers are
workers in industries are particularly gruesome. generally locals there are also some migrants in
Eight or ten individuals are crammed into a tiny this category. Interaction between migrant and
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PUNJAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT
local labour during their duty time was found to bodies are weak and they are overwhelmingly
be limited while interaction after duty hours was illiterate. It is therefore imperative to ensure that the
even lower. While workers do not feel that the migrant is able to avail of the entitlements that
management distinguishes between local and Punjab provides for all its citizens.
migrant workers and wages paid to both remains
the same, yet there exists a feeling that the influx The state could attempt to create awareness of
of migrant labour has had a depressing effect on migrants’ rights and set up mechanisms of
the wages of local labour. Presently, the major redressal by encouraging them to form trade
demands of the trade unions in the sugar mills are unions and co-operative societies to enhance
20 percent bonus at the start of the crushing their bargaining power. They should be freed from
season, increase in variable dearness allowance, harassment, perhaps issued temporary ration
adjustment of grades so that they are parallel to cards so that they can benefit from the public
grades of Punjab government employees, and distribution system. Schools should be set
removal of disparity between the common cadre up in areas where migrant workers are
and the mill cadre. These demands have been more concentrated.
or less fulfilled.
Ensuring decent working conditions and proper
While trade unions maintain that migrant labourers contract systems, providing basic health care for
in Punjab are well represented in the trade union migrant families together with education
leadership, migrant workers feel that they are not opportunities should be primary concerns of the
given their due either in trade unions or in the state.
political life of the state. There are grievances that
the leadership usually favours local people and that The state of Punjab has framed elaborate rules
the interests of migrant labourers are often called the Punjab Factory Rules, 1952, to further
sacrificed. the purposes of the Factories Act of 1948. In
addition to prevention and control of industrial
The State and Migrants accidents and injuries in work places, this
Migrant labour has contributed substantially to the legislation also provides for detection and control
growth of Punjab’s agriculture as well as industry. of diseases at work places. The state has also
Yet these groups continue to labour under many organised about 165 medical camps for industrial
severe problems, which rise mainly from the nature workers at various places in Punjab recently.
and manner of employment and economic relations Employers, trade union leaders, NGOs, and public
that dominate migrant labour markets. Not only are figures have been actively involved in these camps
they burdened with their own indebtedness and and approximately 50,000 workers have been
poverty but their nutritional levels are low, their examined.
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PUNJAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT