HR482NaturalHistory407 459

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 407
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

CAUDATA — SALAMANDERS antipredator defense (Darst et al. 2004. Am. Nat. 165:56–69). It
is possible that they additionally serve as an effective defense
PLEURODELES WALTL (Iberian Ribbed Newt). LEECH PARA- against ectoparasites. It has been experimentally found that al-
SITISM. Leeches are hematophagous ectoparasites that live in kaloids commonly present in dendrobatid skin deterred, and in
humid or aquatic environments. Although mainly associated sufficiently high doses caused toxicosis in mosquitoes (Weldon
with mammalian hosts, some studies have reported depreda- et al. 2006. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:17818–17821). However,
tion on amphibians, with special incidence on anurans and their this study was conducted in a lab setting, with silicone feeding
eggs. Evidence of parasitic activity on urodelian species has also membranes and using Aedes mosquitoes, which are only oppor-
been found, namely on Mesotriton alpestris, Salamandra sala- tunistic feeders on frogs. The authors reported that in more than
mandra, and Lissotriton vulgaris (Merila and Sterner 2002. Ann. four decades of dendrobatid fieldwork, they had never observed
Zool. Fenn. 39:343–346). mosquitoes feeding on them. Similarly, Australian Green Tree
At 1425 h on 15 June 2013 we found two large Hirudo troctina Frog (Litoria caerulea) secretions mixed into sucralose solution
(Iberian Medicinal Leech) feeding on an adult Pleurodeles waltl decreased feeding by and caused mortality of blowflies, such that
caught in a hoop net trap to sample turtles in the Natural Park of the authors considered whether this toxicity had evolved as a de-
Southwest Alentejo and Vicentine Coast, Portugal (37.66711°N, fense against parasitic dipterans (Williams et al. 1998. Aust. J. En-
8.79264°W; WGS 84). The parasites were lodged on top of the am- tomol. 37:85–89). Here, we present the first record of a mosquito
phibian’s head and on the left axillary region. Upon placement (Uranotaenia sp.) targeting a poison frog.
on the shore both abandoned the newt, which was still alive but At ca. 2100 h on 16 May 2016 in tropical forest to the north-
missing the left posterior limb and with a large cavity in the head east of Tarapoto, San Martin Department, Peru (06.45181°S,
where the leeches had been attached. The newt was in very poor 076.34743°W, WGS 8; 480 m elev.) a Uranotaenia sp. mosquito
health, struggling to move, but was released alive at the point of was seen parasitizing a sleeping adult A. trivittata (Fig. 1). The
capture. A. trivittata was sleeping on a leaf approximately 38 cm above
On 25 June 2013, we found a leech of the same species con- the ground, and the mosquito was already present at the time of
suming a dead Pelophylax perezi (Iberian Water Frog) caught in initial observation.
another trap in the same pond but it remains unclear if the frog It is particularly important to understand mosquito parasit-
was dead prior to the observation or if the attack was fatal, as ism of dendrobatids, as various dendrobatids are of conservation
traps might make amphibians more susceptible to free-swim- concern, mosquitoes co-occur in virtually every dendrobatid
ming parasites and carnivorous invertebrates. Habitat consisted habitat, and mosquitoes are vectors for many pathogens includ-
of a shallow temporary pond with silty substrate, typically used ing some recorded in frogs (Desser 2001. J. Parasitol. 87:152–160).
as a water reservoir for free-ranging cattle, which is part of a net- Uranotaenia mosquitoes selectively feed on ectotherms, espe-
work of ephemeral water bodies in a coastal plain mainly used cially frogs (Toma et al., op. cit.). In future, it would be interesting
for cereal farming and cattle grazing. This is the first record of
leech depredation on P. waltl and the first recorded on amphib-
PHOTO BY ANTON SOROKIN

ians in Portugal.
FILIPE SERRANO, Departamento de Ecologia, Rua do Matão
321, Travessa 14, Cidade Universitária, 05508-090, São Paulo, Brazil (e-mail:
[email protected]); PEDRO SEGURADO, Centro de Estudos Florestais,
Edifício Prof. Azevedo Gomes, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Tapada da
Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal.
ANURA — FROGS
AMEEREGA TRIVITTATA (Three-striped Poison Frog). ECTO-

PARASITISM. It is not unusual for dipterans to target anurans.
Certain species are even anuran specialists, such as certain mos-
quitoes of the genus Uranotaenia and the frog-biting midges
(family Corethrellidae; Borkent and Belton 2006. Can. Entomol.
138:91–94; Toma et al. 2014. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 30:215–
218). However, we are not aware of any records of ectoparasites
feeding on dendrobatids. Dendrobatids are known for their Fig. 1. A mosquito (Uranotaenia sp.) parasitizing an Ameerega
potent skin toxins, which are considered to have evolved as an trivittata.
Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

408 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
to investigate poison frogs and ectoparasites in the field, to de- on the forest floor (Menin et al. 2005. Phyllomedusa 4:39–47) and
termine how frequently they may be parasitized by biting dipter- E. pustulosus is abundant, the encounters between these species
ans, and whether their toxicity grants them relief relative to other should be frequent.
frog species in their ecosystems. CRISTIAN ALFONSO GALLEGO CARMONA (e-mail: cristian.gallego.
ANTON SOROKIN, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Caro- [email protected]), JUAN SEBASTIÁN FORERO RODRÍGUEZ, JO-
lina 27858, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); EMMA STEIGERWALD, HANA ALEJANDRA CASTRO ARANGO, Grupo de Investigación en Her-
Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, Mulford petología, Eco-Fisiología & Etología, Universidad del Tolima, Barrio Santa
Hall, 130 Hilgard Way, University of California Berkeley, California 94720, Helena Parte Alta, Código postal 730006299, Ibagué, Tolima, Colombia;
USA. CAMILA CASTELLANOS VARGAS, Universidad del Tolima, Barrio Santa
Helena Parte Alta, Código postal 730006299, Ibagué, Tolima, Colombia.
ENGYSTOMOPS PUSTULOSUS (Tungara Frog). PREDATION.
Engystomops pustulosus is a moderate-sized leptodactylid frog HYLA MOLLERI (Iberian Tree Frog). LIMB MALFORMATION.
(SVL = 2.4–3.46 cm; Cannatella and Duellman 1984. Copeia Malformations can affect individual fitness because they might
1984:902–921) with a wide geographic distribution from Mexico reduce mobility, with implications for prey capture and predation
through Central America, to Colombia, Venezuela, and Guyana risk (Johnson and Lunde 2005. In Lannoo [ed.], Amphibian
(Frost 2017. Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Refer- Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species, pp.
ence. Version 6.0 <http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/am- 124–138. University of California Press, Berkeley, California).
phibia/index.html>; accessed 17 Apr 2016. American Museum of Several studies have been carried out on the relationship
Natural History, New York). The natural history of E. pustulosus is between amphibian fitness and environmental parameters with
well documented with many known predators such as the crab several finding positive correlations between malformations
Potamocarcinus richmondi, spiders Sericopelma rubronitens and and pollution, and with presence of parasites (Johnson and
Trechalea sp., the frog Leptodactylus pentadactylus, the opossum Lunde 2005, op. cit.), albeit studies remain scarce for European
Philander opossum, and the bat Trachops cirrhosus (Ryan et al. populations, especially in the Iberian Peninsula (Galán 2011. Bol.
1981. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 8:273–278; Gray et al. 1999. Herpe- Asoc. Herpetol. Esp. 22:65–67).
tol. Rev. 30:93; Hernández-Cuadrado and Bernal 2009. Herpetol. In July 2013, around 100 ad-hoc observations of Hyla molleri
Rev. 40:432). were made in the Natural Park of Southwest Alentejo and Vicen-
Herein, we report a spider of the Ctenidae family preying tine Coast, Portugal (37.66839°N, 8.790436°W; WGS84). Habitat
upon an adult E. pustulosus at 2115 h on 31 March 2013 in the consisted of a shallow temporary pond with muddy substrate,
Reserva Natural Tití Cabeciblanco of ProAves Foundation, Mu- typically used as a water reservoir for free-range cattle, and part
tatá, Antioquia, Colombia (7.1438°N, 76.3133°W, WGS 84; 141 m of a network of ephemeral water bodies in a coastal plain, mainly
elev.). When first observed, the frog was still vocalizing while the used for cereal farming and cattle grazing. All individuals were
spider had its chelicerae inserted into the frog’s neck. During 5 released back to the pond after handling. Among the observed
min of observation, the frog did not attempt to escape. individuals of Iberian tree frogs a recently metamorphosed poly-
Spiders of the family Ctenidae are well-known predators of melic specimen was found, showing a unilateral fully developed
amphibians, and several events have been reported in the lit- supernumerary forelimb between the anterior and posterior
erature (Prado and Borgo 2003. Herpetol. Rev. 34:238–239; Pazin limbs on its left side with four complete digits (Fig. 1).
2006. Herpetol. Rev. 37:336; Rodrigues and Arruda 2007. Herpe- More data are needed to investigate the causes of this abnor-
tol. Rev. 38:437; Maffei et al. 2010. Herpetol. Notes 3:167–170; mality. Nevertheless, factors such as UV exposure and chemical
Ribeiro and Pimienta 2011. Biota Neotrop. 11:350–351; Maffei agents (e.g., retinoids) are unlikely to be the cause of the ob-
et al. 2014. Herpetol. Notes 7:371–374; Jablonski 2015. Herpetol. served malformation. In fact, while UV exposure typically in-
Notes 8:1–3). Considering that spiders can reach high densities duces bilateral and symmetrical malformations, retinoids most
often solely affect hindlimbs (Gardiner and Hoppe 1999. J. Exp.
Fig. 1. Predation on Engystomops pustulosus by a ctenid spider in the

Reserva Natural Tití Cabeciblanco of the ProAves fundation, Mutatá, Fig. 1. Recently metaphormosed Hyla molleri exhibiting unilateral
Antioquia, Colombia. polymelia.

Zool. 284:207–216). Possible causes might include predation al. 2007. J. Nat. Hist. 41:1237–1243). Avian predation of H. cinera-
and leech parasitism, as these might induce hyperregeneration scens has yet to be observed in the wild.
and supernumerary limbs (Lannoo 2008. Malformed Frogs: The The Black-Fronted Nunbird (Monasa nigrifrons) is found
Collapse of Aquatic Ecosystems. University of California Press, throughout much of the Amazon basin with significant overlap
Berkeley, California. 288 pp.). in the range of H. cinerascens. The diet of nunbirds includes any
Standardized surveys provide important baseline data on number of small animals including arthropods and lizards, as well
the health and fitness of amphibian populations as they help to as amphibians (Sherry and McDade 1982. Ecology 63:1016–1028).
identify patterns in amphibian malformation occurrences and At 1400 h on 3 July 2016, near the edge of a lake in the Loreto
can help direct future research. Worldwide, an increasing num- province of Peru (4.6383°S, 73.4756°W; WGS 84), M. nigrifrons
ber of data on amphibian malformation are becoming available. was observed preying upon a H. cinerascens (Fig. 1). This is the
However, this is the first reported case of polymelia in anurans in first record of predation of H. cinerascens by a Black-Fronted
Portugal and so further studies are needed to investigate whether Nunbird. Two nunbirds occupied the area, each of which held a
other cases are occurring throughout similar habitats or if this is prey item. One held a katydid while the other held the H. cinera-
merely an isolated event. scens. The two nunbirds held their prey for > 30 min. before the
FILIPE SERRANO (e-mail: [email protected]) and PEDRO observers left the area. While the abundance of H. cinerascens in
SEGURADO, Centro de Estudos Florestais, Edifício Prof. Azevedo Gomes, the area is unknown, the predation by Black-Fronted Nunbirds is
Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Por- likely opportunistic.
tugal. J. P. LAWRENCE, Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, Uni-
versity, Mississippi 38677, USA; e-mail: [email protected].
HYPSIBOAS CINERASCENS. PREDATION. Although amphib-
ians are common prey for many different animals, predation of LEPTOBRACHIUM LUMADORUM (Mindanao Litter Frog). PRE-
arboreal species is difficult to observe. Hypsiboas cinerascens is DATION. Leptobrachium lumadorum is a Philippine endemic
a wide-ranging species found throughout much of the northern megophryid occurring on the islands of Basilan, Dinagat, and
Amazon basin and the Guiana Shield. Although little is pub- Mindanao (Diesmos et al. 2015. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 62:457–
lished on the predators that consume H. cinerascens, one study 593). It is an intermediate-sized frog (SVL = 39–65 mm) that lives
observed H. cinerascens and other Hypsiboas in the diet of Lep-
tophis ahaetulla (Neotropical Parrot Snake; de Albuquerque et
Fig. 1. An endemic freshwater crab Isolapotamon sinuatifrons prey-

Fig. 1. Black-Fronted Nunbird (Monasa nigrifrons) holding a Hypsi- ing on Leptobrachium lumadorum tadpole on Mindanao Island,
boas cinerascens. Philippines.

in primary and secondary lowland and montane forest especial- Table 1. Diet of four Leptodactylus vastus.
ly along mountain streams. A distinct characteristic of this frog
is the possession of long and slender limbs that are utilized for Specimen SVL (cm) Aranae Hymenoptera Lizard Orthoptera
walking on the forest floor rather than the usual hopping locomo- (cm) skin
tion (Brown et al. 2009. Herpetol. Monogr. 23:1–44). Herein, we
report an observed predation on a tadpole of L. lumadorum by an 1 14.4 1 1 1 0
endemic freshwater crab Isolapotamon sinuatifrons. 2 15.3 0 1 0 0
At 2227 h on 8 April 2009, during a herpetological survey of 3 14.8 0 0 0 1
Zamboanga Watershed Area within the Pasonanca Natural Park, 4 14.7 0 0 0 0
Zamboanga City, Mindanao Island, Philippines (6.983889°N,
122.068056°E, WGS 84; 70 m elev.), one of us (ACD) observed
an immature I. sinuatifrons eating a L. lumadorum tadpole in during foraging between both species, iii) the lizard shed its skin
a shallow part of a forest stream (Fig. 1A). The crab was grasp- as a defense strategy and escaped from the predation, and finally,
ing a lifeless tadpole with its chela and was gnawing at the left iv) the shed skins were scavenged by the lizard. To our knowl-
hind limb (Fig. 1B). The incident was observed for ca. 5 min; both edge, this is the first report of these frogs feeding on lizard skin.
specimens were not collected. Since the tadpole was already Our results contribute to knowledge about feeding habits of this
dead when first observed, we are uncertain if the crab killed it species in the Caatinga biome.
or only scavenged the carcass. To our knowledge, this is the sec- We thank CNPq for scholarships provided to DAT and JAAF,
ond reported possible predation incident by freshwater crabs on and CAPES for a scholarship granted to AAMT. ICMBio granted
Philippine anurans (Sy et al. 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:413). permission to collect under license SISBIO (System Authoriza-
We are grateful to J. C. Mendoza (Lee Kong Chian Natural tion and Information on Biodiversity, No. 27542-2, process no.
History Museum) for providing references and the identity of the 96683918).
crab species. DIÊGO ALVES TELES (e-mail: [email protected]), ADONIAS
ANTONIO N. LORENZO II, The Graduate School, University of Santo APHOENA MARTINS TEIXEIRA, JOÃO ANTONIO DE ARAUJO FILHO,
Tomas, España, Manila, Philippines (e-mail: [email protected]); Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia), Labo-
EMERSON Y. SY, Philippine Center for Terrestrial and Aquatic Research, ratório/Coleção de Herpetologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Cidade
1198 Benavidez St., Unit 1202, Tondo, Manila, Philippines (e-mail: emer- Universitária, Campus I, CEP 58059-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil; JOSÉ
[email protected]); ARVIN C. DIESMOS, Herpetology Section, Zoology GUILHERME GONÇALVES DE SOUSA, Programa de Pós-Graduação em
Division, National Museum of the Philippines, Ermita, Manila, Philippines Ecologia & Recursos Naturais da Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus
(e-mail: [email protected]). do PICI, Av. Humberto Monte, s/n, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil.
LEPTODACTYLUS VASTUS (Northeastern Pepper Frog). DIET. LITHOBATES CATESBEIANUS (American Bullfrog). DIET. Bull-
Leptodactylus vastus is a large, carnivorous frog found in open frogs primarily eat invertebrates but are known to eat vertebrates
habitats near water bodies throughout Brazil (Brasileiro et al. such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and even flying
2008. Check List 4:185–197). The purpose of this note is to add vertebrates such as birds and bats (Krupa 2002. Southwest. Nat.
to the diet of L. vastus as part of an ongoing investigation into 47:461–467; Dodd 2013. Frogs of the United States and Canada.
feeding habitats of anurans in the Caatinga biome. Four female Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 1032 pp.).
specimens of L. vastus (mean SVL = 14.8 cm) were collected on In a heavy rain at 0930 h on 18 September 2016, a male L.
11 May 2011, during the rainy season, at Estação Ecológica de Ai- catesbeianus (SVL = 13 cm) recently hit by a vehicle was found
uaba, Ceará state, northeastern Brazil (6.573476°S, 40.123564°W, on Highway 39, 0.4 km N of Ocala Road, Pulaski County, Ken-
SAD69; 466 m elev.). We examined the stomach contents of these tucky, USA (37.24804°N, 84.52058°W; WGS84). Upon examina-
specimens, and identified the presence of four food items: Ara- tion, the tip of a mammal’s tail was found protruding from the
neae, lizard skins, Hymenoptera, and Orthoptera (Table 1). Only frog’s throat. A Zapus hudsonicus (Meadow Jumping Mouse) was
fragments of lizard skin were found, no bones. The skins found removed from the frog’s stomach (Fig. 1). The mouse was coated
were identified based on the morphology of the scales as be- by thick mucus from the frog’s stomach but otherwise appeared
longing to the lizard genus Tropidurus. Some species of the ge- to have been recently swallowed. The mouse was an adult female
nus Ceratophrys (Savage 2002. The Amphibians and Reptiles of with five embryos weighing a total of 4.5 g and which comprised
Costa Rica: A Herpetofauna between Two Continents, between 15% of her total mass. Standard measurements for mammals
Two Seas. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 934 pp.), were taken for the mouse (total length = 200 mm, tail length =
Lithobates (Wu et al. 2005. J. Herpetol. 39:668–674), and Lepto- 118 mm, hind foot length = 28 mm, ear length = 10 mm, weight
dactylus (Santana et al. 2008. Herpetol. Notes 5:449–450) pre- = 34 g). The frog weighed 146 g after the stomach contents were
date small vertebrates such as fish, other anurans, and reptiles removed. The L. catesbeianus and Z. hudsonicus embryos were
(lizards and snakes). However, the consumption of lizards by preserved as alcoholic specimens and the adult mouse preserved
anurans is unusual. Previous studies indicate L. vastus are gen- as a study skin with skull. These specimens have been cataloged
eralists and consume invertebrates and numerous small verte- (jjk-3776 for L. catesbeianus; jjk-3777 for Z. hudsonicus adult and
brates, including other amphibians (Teles et al. 2015. Herpetol. embryos) and deposited in the University of Kentucky, Depart-
Rev. 46:755) and bats (Gouveia et al. 2009. Herpetol. Rev. 40:210). ment of Biology Vertebrate Collection.
The predation of a lizard by L. vastus may have occurred in the Within the native range of L. catesbeianus, a community
following ways: i) the lizard could have accidentally entered the of small mammals is typically found at the edge of ponds and
toad’s lair (L. vastus could have used the sit-and-wait strategy marshes and commonly coexists with L. catesbeianus. Members
to catch the lizard; see Couto and Menin 2014. Herpetol. Notes of this community include shrews of the genera Blarina and Sorex,
7:37–39), ii) predation occurred due to a fortuitous encounter voles of the genus Microtus, Peromyscus leucopus (White-footed

Fig. 1. Lithobates catesbeianus with predated female Zapus Fig. 1. Amplexus between a male Litoria dentata and a female Litoria
hudsonicus (Meadow Jumping Mouse). peronii.
Deer Mice), and Z. hudsonicus. To date, all these taxa except Z.

hudsonicus have been reported as prey of bullfrogs. Zapus hud-
sonicus can be found in dry meadows but prefers moist meadows
near streams and ponds with cattails, sedges, and grasses. In addi-
tion, this rodent swims well both under water and on the surface
(Schwartz and Schwartz 2016. Wild Mammals of Missouri. Uni-
versity of Missouri Press, Columbia, Missouri. 396 pp.). Thus the
likelihood that Z. hudsonicus and L. catesbeianus encounter one
another should be fairly great. Despite this, I found no previous
records of this rodent having been eaten by L. catesbeianus. This
is likely due to the behavior of Z. hudsonicus. This rodent moves
quickly by hopping in a zig-zag fashion often jumping up to 1 m
off the ground. Furthermore, Z. hudsonicus is wary and nervous,
capable of jumping up to 3.5 m off the ground when frightened
(Schwartz and Schwartz 2016, op. cit.). A small farm pond was 50
m east of where the bullfrog was found. A dense stand of cattails Fig. 2. Male Litoria peronii competing for amplexus opportunity.
and sedges covered the edge of the pond, and a large, dry pasture
dominated by native warm weather grasses surrounded the wet
habitat including the pond. This is ideal habitat for Z. hudsonicus during the warmer months of spring and summer. These species
to overlap with L. catesbeianus, thus increasing the chances that have contrasting breeding strategies: L. dentata is an explosive
the two species could encounter each other. It is likely this female’s breeder while L. peronii is a prolonged breeder (Lemckert and
jumping abilities were hindered because of carrying the embryos; Mahony 2008. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 3:71–76). Here I document
thus causing her to be more easily captured. the first published observation of interspecific amplexus between
JAMES J. KRUPA, Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lex- a male L. dentata and a female L. peronii.
ington, Kentucky 40506, USA; e-mail: [email protected]. At 2050 h on 16 January 2015, I observed a male L. dentata in
amplexus with a female L. peronii sitting on a branch of a Banksia
LITORIA DENTATA (Bleating Tree Frog) and LITORIA PERONII ericifolia (Fig. 1) at an ephemeral pond in Maddens Falls, Dark-
(Peron’s Tree Frog). INTERSPECIFIC AMPLEXUS. Interspecific es Forest, New South Wales, Australia (34.2375°S, 150.9167°E,
amplexus can be a common occurrence in explosive breeding WGS84, 368 m elev., air temperature = 21°C). The sex of each frog
anurans but is rarer in prolonged breeders (Wells 1977. Anim. was determined by observing the presence or absence of nuptial
Behav. 25:666–693). This is due to the increased pressure to breed pads, a feature specific to male frogs. The pair remained in am-
caused by the limited time frame in which suitable conditions plexus for ~2 h despite the presence of competing male L. peronii
occur. Litoria dentata and L. peronii are co-occurring hylid anurans calling nearby (Fig. 2). The L. peronii female made no attempt to
of southeastern Australia with similar habitat usage (Anstis 2013. release itself from the amplecting male L. dentata but did move
Tadpoles and Frogs of Australia. New Holland Publisher, Sydney, away from competing male L. peronii. No breeding attempts
New South Wales. 832 pp.). Litoria dentata and L. peronii share were observed. Interspecific amplexus of male L. dentata on fe-
typical tree frog morphology yet L. dentata is smaller with sizes male L. peronii is likely where dense aggregations of both species
ranging from 32–44 mm SVL while L. peronii are 44–65 mm SVL co-occur and may be attributed to similarities in morphology
(Tyler and Knight 2011. Field Guide to Frogs of Australia. CSIRO and habitat usage.
Publishing, Sydney. 188 pp.). Both species have sexual dimorphism CHAD BERANEK, School of Environmental and Life Sciences, New-
with females tending to be larger on average and both live a castle University, Callaghan, Newcastle, New South Wales 2308, Australia;
primarily arboreal life style, usually only descending to breed e-mail: [email protected].

ODORRANA AMAMIENSIS (Amami Tip-nosed Frog). PREDA-
PHOTO BY ELVIS DELGADO

TION. Odorrana amamiensis is an endangered endemic spe-
cies in Amami-Oshima Island and the adjacent island (Matsui
1994. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 111:385–415; Kaneko and Matsui 2004.
http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58541/0; 13 Oct 2016). This
species inhabits subtropical rain forest in mountainous areas
on Amami-Oshima Island (Maeda and Matsui 1999. Frogs and
Toads of Japan, Revised Edition. Bun-ichi Sogo Shuppan, To-
kyo). Dinodon semicarinatum (Ryukyu Odd-tooth Snake) is an
endemic species in central Ryukyu Archipelago, Japan (Mishi-
ma 1966. Acta Herpetol. Jpn. 1:75–81). I report predation on O.
amamiensis by D. semicarinatum on Amami-Oshima Island Ja-
pan (Fig. 1). At 2042 h on 18 July 2016, I found a D. semicarina-
tum (SVL = 120 cm) preying on an O. amamiensis (SVL = 80 mm)
on a forestry road in Amami-Oshima Island, Japan (28.18643°N,
129.24387°E, WGS84; 295 m elev.). A previous study reported
that D. semicarinatum primarily consumes snakes or lizards,
Fig. 1. Adult Osteopilus septentrionalis with polymelia from La Con-
and rarely predates large frogs (Mishima 1966, op. cit.). Odor- chita, Pinar del Río, Cuba.
rana amamiensis is a large frog and an important predator,
therefore this observation gives insight into the native food web
of the subtropical island. (five forelimbs; Fig. 1). This stream has eutrophic water, mostly
from human waste. It was the only frog observed in the area at
the time. This specimen was kept in a terrarium at the provin-
PHOTO BY H. KOMINE
cial natural history museum; on the second day, it escaped from

captivity and we were not able to find it. We observed that this
individual had limited jumping performance in comparison to
normal O. septentrionalis individuals, but it could jump success-
fully enough to escape from captivity.
We have observed polydactyly, ectrodactyly, and ectromelia
in some large Cuban toads of the genus Peltophryne and in the
introduced American Bullfrog, Lithobates catesbeianus, but this
is the first report of polymelia in Cuban amphibians, and, to our
knowledge, the first record of polymelia for O. septentrionalis
within its wide distribution (Henderson and Powell 2009. Natu-
ral History of West Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. University of
Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida. 495 pp.). The reports of poly-
melia in forelimbs in amphibians in nature are scarce (Johnson
and Hartson 2009. J. Anim. Ecol. 78:191–201). Reeves et al. (2013.
PLoS ONE 8:e77467) reviewed the most typical malformations in
Fig. 1. Odorrana amamiensis being consumed by Dinodon North American anurans, and polymelia was the least common
semicarinatum. malformation among all (occurs in 0.6%) of the species in collec-
tion. Johnson and Chase (2004. Ecol. Lett. 7:521–526) discussed
HIROTAKA KOMINE, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technol- causes of limb malformation and showed an association with
ogy, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan; e-mail: komitori- eutrophic water as a driver of elevated parasitic infection. Al-
[email protected]. though there are no trematodes known to cause limb malforma-
tion in Cuban anurans, Pérez Vigueras (1940. Rev. Univ. Habana
OSTEOPILUS SEPTENTRIONALIS (Cuban Tree Frog). MAL- 5:217–242) reported Trifolium travassosi in Anhingas (Anhinga
FORMATION. There are many agents that cause malformation anhinga), an aquatic bird that inhabits freshwater ecosystems in
in frogs including UV-B radiation, retinoid exposure, pesticide Cuba. This trematode is closely related to other trematodes of the
contamination, predation, and trematode infection (Johnson et genus Ribeiroia (Sutherland 2005. In M. J. Lannoo [ed.], Amphib-
al. 2001. Herpetologica 57:336–352). The malformations typically ian Declines: the Conservation Status of United States Species,
involve the limbs: missing limbs and parts of limbs, extra limbs, pp.109–123. University of California Press, Berkeley, California),
and skin webbings (Ouellet et al. 1997. J. Wildl. Dis. 33:95–104; recognized for its effects on amphibian limb development and
Johnson et al. 2001, op. cit.). known to cause malformations, from complete suppression
Osteopilus septentrionalis is a native Cuban species, and has of limb development to induction of multiple supernumerary
been introduced in other West Indian and Pacific islands and limbs (Johnson et al. 2004. Adv. Parasitol. 57:191–253).
also in southern USA (Heinicke et al. 2011. Biol. Lett. 7:407–410). We thank Elvis Delgado for providing the photo and informa-
Here we document the first published record of malformation by tion about the specimen and Gilberto Barrera Ramos for helping
polymelia for this species and for Cuban amphibians. At 1500 h improve the language.
on 6 June 2009, during a diurnal visit to a stream in La Conchita L. YUSNAVIEL GARCÍA-PADRÓN, Museo de Historia Natural “Tran-
town, Pinar del Río, Cuba (22.27152°N, 83.39732°W, WGS 84; 40 m quilino Sandalio de Nodas,” Martí 202, esquina Comandante Pinares CP.
elev.), we collected an adult of O. septentrionalis with extra limbs 20100, Pinar del Río, Cuba (e-mail: [email protected]); ROBERTO

ALONSO BOSCH, Museo de Historia Natural “Felipe Poey,” Facultad de Bi- (e.g., P. acutirostris, P. dendrobates, P. petropedetoides, and P. versi-
ología, Universidad de La Habana, Calle 25 #455 e/ J e I, Vedado, Plaza de la color) that may also include other large East African species such
Revolución, CP10400, La Habana, Cuba (e-mail: [email protected]). as P. irangi (Drewes and Perret 2000. Proc. California Acad. Sci.
52:55–64; Zimkus et al. 2010. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 55:883–900;
PHILAUTUS VERMICULATUS (Perak Bubble-nest Frog). EN- Zimkus et al. 2012. PLoS ONE 7:e35118).
DOPARASITES. Philautus vermiculatus is known to occur in We used high-resolution x-ray computed tomography (CT)
extreme southern peninsular Thailand and Malaya (Frost 2017. to document the skeleton in a male specimen of P. krefftii (CAS
Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 168486; SVL = 40.0 mm; Fig. 1A) that was collected near Amani
6.0 <http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index. in the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania (5.10°S, 38.62°E; WGS
html>; accessed 12 Jan 2017. American Museum of Natural His- 84) by R. C. Drewes, K. M. Howell, and J. V. Vindum on 9 April
tory, New York). We know of no published records of parasites 1988. While reconstructing the skeleton of this specimen, we
from P. vermiculatus. In this note we establish the initial parasite identified a frog in its gut that appears to have been swallowed
list for P. vermiculatus. headfirst, and that based on skeletal morphology (Fig. 1B,C) is
We examined three P. vermiculatus (mean SVL = 29.3 mm ± a juvenile Arthroleptis. It is identifiable as not yet mature due to
4.2 SD, range = 26–34 mm) from Peninsular Malaysia, Perat State, the combination of its small size (SVL = ~20 mm), poorly ossified
Bukit Larut (4.324758°N, 102.324758°E; WGS 84) collected by LLG mespodial bones, and by having cranial bones that are not coos-
and deposited in the herpetology collection of La Sierra Universi- sified (e.g., the exoccipital and otic region). Unlike the skeleton of
ty, Riverside County, USA as LSUHC 8870 (collected March 2008) P. krefftii, the skeleton of the ingested frog lacks an ossified style
and LSUHC 10625, 10626 (collected September 2010). of the sternum and has more medially placed vomers, both of
The digestive tract was removed and the esophagus, stom- which are characteristics of Arthroleptis in comparison to Phry-
ach, small and large intestine were opened and their contents nobatrachus (Scott 2005. Cladistics 21:507–574). Because the
examined for parasites utilizing a dissecting microscope. Two size of this ingested frog is near the upper size limit for the small
Nematoda were found. They were each placed in a drop of lac- species of Arthroleptis found in these mountains (e.g., A. xeno-
tophenol on a glass microscope slide, cover slipped, studied dactyloides, A. xenodactylus; Blackburn 2008. Mol. Phylogenet.
under a compound microscope, and identified utilizing Ander- Evol. 49:806–826), it is likely that this represents a juvenile of a
son et al. (2009. Keys to the Nematode Parasites of Vertebrates, larger species such as A. affinis or A. stenodactylus (Loader et al.
Archival Volume. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxfordshire. 2011. Fieldiana Life Earth Sci. 4:90–102). Because this specimen
463 pp.) and Gibbons (2010. Keys to the Nematode Parasites of has femora that are approximately as long as the tibiofibulae, it
Vertebrates. Supplementary Volume. CAB International, Walling- is more likely to be A. affinis rather than A. stenodactylus which
ford, Oxfordshire. 416 pp.) We identified one female of Foleyell- typically has relatively shorter tibiofibulae.
ides malayensis from the body cavity of LSUHC 10625 and one
larval Acuariidae in a cyst in the stomach wall of LSUHC 10626.
Foleyellides malayensis, a member of the Onchocercidae, is
transmitted by blood-sucking arthropods (Anderson 2000. Nem-
atode Parasites of Vertebrates. Their Development and Transmis-
sion. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxfordshire. 650 pp.). Acu-
arididae are parasites of aquatic birds and utilize arthropods as
intermediate hosts (Anderson 2000, op. cit.). Amphibians serve
as paratenic (transport) hosts with development to the adult oc-
curring when the amphibian is eaten by a carnivorous bird. Both
nematodes were deposited in the Harold W. Manter Laboratory
(HWML), University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA as F. malayensis
(HWML 99964) and Acuariidae sp. (HWML 99965). Philautus ver-
miculatus represents a new host record for F. malayensis and for
larvae assigned to the Acuariidae.
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: [email protected]);
CHARLES R. BURSEY, Pennsylvania State University, Department of
Biology, Shenango Campus, Sharon, Pennsylvania 16146, USA (e-mail:
[email protected]); L. LEE GRISMER, La Sierra University, Department of
Biology, Riverside, California 92515, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
PHRYNOBATRACHUS KREFFTII (Krefft’s Puddle Frog). ANU-

ROPHAGY. Phrynobatrachus krefftii is found in small streams
and pools in the forests of the East and West Usambara Moun-
tains in northwestern Tanzania (Channing and Howell 2006.
Amphibians of East Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New
York. 418 pp.; Pickersgill 2007. Frog Search: Results of Expeditions
to Southern and Eastern Africa. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Fig. 1. A) CT-scan of Phrynobatrachus krefftii (CAS 168486) revealing
skeleton of juvenile Arthroleptis in gut; scale bar, 5 mm. B, C) Dor-
Main, Germany. 575 pp). It is among the largest of species in this
sal and ventral views of skeleton of ingested Arthroleptis specimen;
genus and is the sole representative from the Eastern Arc Moun-
scale bar, 2 mm.
tains within a small clade found in the Albertine Rift Mountains

Previous studies of stomach contents in various species of in advanced stage and the spider had already ingested the frog’s
Phrynobatrachus have reported an assortment of terrestrial ar- anterior region.
thropods including beetles, ants, weevils, spiders, and millipedes We thank Antonio D. Brescovit for identifying the spider, and
(Noble 1924. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 49:147–303; Barbour and the Center for Biodiversity Studies of the Michelin Ecological Re-
Loveridge 1928. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 50:87–261; Toft. 1982. serve for logistical and financial support. CVMM thanks Fernan-
Rev. Ecol. [Terre Vie] 36:223–232). In addition to eating arthro- da Tonolli for her patience, affection, and eternal loving support.
pods, P. krefftii is known to eat crabs (Barbour and Loveridge CAIO VINICIUS DE MIRA-MENDES (e-mail: [email protected].
1928, op. cit.). While anurans eating other anurans is well docu- br), MIRCO SOLÉ, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane
mented in neobatrachian frogs, this is the first report of anuro- Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, Km 16, Bairro Salobrinho, CEP
phagy in the family Phrynobatrachidae (Measey et al. 2015. PeerJ 45662-900, Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil; DANILO SILVA RUAS, Universidade Estad-
3:e1204) and of any species of Phrynobatrachus consuming a ual do Sudoeste da Bahia, Campus Itapetinga, Praça Primavera, 40 - Bairro
vertebrate. Primavera, CEP 45700-000, Itapetinga, Bahia, Brazil.
DAVID C. BLACKBURN (e-mail: [email protected]), DANIEL
J. PALUH, and EDWARD L. STANLEY, Department of Natural History, Flor- POLYPEDATES OCCIDENTALIS (Western Tree Frog).
ida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, 1659 Museum Road, PREDATION. Post-metamorphic anurans are known to be
Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA. most vulnerable to invertebrate predators either when they are
breeding or while they are juveniles (Toledo 2005. Herpetol. Rev.
PHYSALAEMUS CAMACAN. PREDATION. Amphibians are prey 36:395–400). The only report synthesizing predation of post-
for numerous species of invertebrates (Toledo et al. 2006. J. Zool. metamorphic anurans is more than a decade old and reports
271:170–177). Among the invertebrate predators, the Arachnida a diverse community where ~68 species of anurans have been
represent one of the four classes of arthropods that are signifi- preyed upon in over 300 documented instances by at least 57
cant vertebrate predators (McCormick and Polis 1982. Biol. Rev. species of invertebrates (Toledo 2005, op. cit.). Despite the crucial
Camb. Philos. Soc. 57:29–58). Several events of anuran predation role of predation in amphibian ecology and behavior, we know
by arachnids are reported from the Neotropical region and are little about even the broad categories of predators, particularly
attributed to the spider families Pisauridae, Ctenidae, Lycosidae, among invertebrates. Here, we report an incidence of predation
Sparassidae, and Theraphosidae (Menin et al. 2005. Phyllom- on a juvenile Polypedates occidentalis by a Scutigera sp.
edusa 4:39–47). Herein we report the predation of a leptodactylid On the night of 6 July 2015, during a survey as part of the
frog by a spider from the family Ctenidae. “Bisle Frog Team,” a citizen engagement initiative, we encoun-
Physalaemus camacan is a small frog endemic to the Atlantic tered an arthropod of the genus Scutigera feeding on a juvenile
Forest of southern Bahia State, northeastern Brazil (Frost 2017. (SVL = ca. 15 mm) P. occidentalis (Fig. 1). The Scutigera sp., com-
Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version monly known as house centipedes, was found on a rock and
6.0 <http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index. had started to ingest the anuran by its left eye. The Scutigera sp.
html>; accessed 3 May 2017. American Museum of Natural His- did not move in our presence and continued to feed on the an-
tory, New York). Populations of the spider Ctenus rectipes are uran. We observed the predation incident for five minutes and
found in the Atlantic Forest of northeastern Brazil (Brescovit and continued on our survey. We did not observe if the Scutigera sp.
Simó 2007. Arachnology 14:1–17). On 7 June 2015 at 2130 h, we consumed the whole anuran. The anuran did not show any signs
observed a female adult spider Ctenus rectipes preying upon an of movement and was possibly envenomated. This predation in-
adult frog P. camacan on the water surface of a temporary pond cident occurred around a small, shallow pond in which over 50
in a fragment of the Atlantic forest of the Reserva Ecológica tadpoles of P. occidentalis were observed. Six adult P. occidentalis
Michelin (13.81666°S, 39.13333°W; SAD 69), located in the mu-
nicipality of Igrapíuna, Bahia, Brazil. The predation event was
PHOTO BY K. S. SESHADRI
Fig. 1. Predation of Physalaemus camacan by Ctenus rectipes in Fig. 1. Froglet of Polypedates occidentalis being eaten by a Scutigera
northeasten Brazil. sp. perched on the vertical surface of a rock.

were observed around the pond and they were actively vocaliz- snakes, lizards, nestling birds, and frogs including Polypedates
ing. The pond was located near a community hall in the small maculatus that belong to the same genus as P. otilophus (Na-
village of Bisle in Sakleshpura Taluk, Hassan District, Karnataka tarajan 1993. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 90:11–16). This note re-
State, India (12.71°N, 75.69°E, WGS 84; 885 m elev.). The locality ports a single observation of predation on P. otilophus by a C.
is surrounded by evergreen forests and rice paddy fields, and the sinensis.
region receives mean annual rainfall of around 5000 mm. At 1644 h on 4 March 2012, in Danum Valley Conservation
We were unable to determine the specific identity of the Scu- Area (4.9683°N, 117.8064°E; WGS 84), Sabah, Malaysia, TS ob-
tigera as this are an understudied taxon in India. However, most served a C. sinensis on a tree holding a female P. otilophus in its
members of Scutigera are common in the forests and in house- bill just after a heavy rain (Fig. 1). The P. otilophus did not move at
holds in both the Western Ghats and other parts of India, and like all during the observation. The C. sinensis remained in the same
other members of the genus, have venom glands. position for two minutes then disappeared among the bushes.
The Western Ghats of India has a rich diversity of amphibians The P. otilophus may have come out from a hiding place because
and new species continue to be described. In this nascent situa- of the rain and was then captured by the bird.
tion, natural history forms the basis for understanding ecological TATSUYA SHIOZAKI, Ryokusei Research Institute Inc., Kawasaki Bldg.
implications of any species. Specifically, very little research has 2F, 2-6-30, Minamisakurazuka, Toyonaka-shi, Osaka 561-0882, Japan (e-
gone in to examining the importance of predation on amphib- mail: [email protected]); KANTO NISHIKAWA, Graduate School of
ians in the region. Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Nihonmatsu-
We thank all the participants of the Bisle Frog Watch Team cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan (e-mail: [email protected].
for the great company at Bisle and Jahnavi Joshi for attempts to ac.jp).
identify the Scutigera.
KADABA SHAMANNA SESHADRI, Department of Biological Sciences, PRISTIMANTIS ELEGANS (Rain Frog). PARENTAL CARE. Pris-
National University of Singapore, Singapore (e-mail: [email protected]); timantis is one of the most speciose genera in the world, con-
SHASHWAT JAISWAL, N4-373, Pushpa Giri, BEML Layout, Bangalore taining 474 species distributed primarily in northwestern South
560066, India (e-mail: [email protected]); KOTAMBYLU America, from Bolivia to Colombia (Hedges et al. 2008. Zootaxa
VASUDEVA GURURAJA, Srishti Institute of Art, Design and Technology, 1737:1–182; Padial et al. 2009. Zool. Scr. 38:431–447). Colombia
Yalahanka New Town, Bengaluru 560064, India (e-mail: gururaja.kv@srishti. alone contains 212 species of Pristimantis (Acosta Galvis 2017.
ac.in). List of Amphibians of Colombia: Reference online V.07.2017.0;
accessed 5 Jan 2017. <http://www.batrachia.com> Batrachia,
POLYPEDATES OTILOPHUS (File-eared Tree Frog). PREDA- Villa de Leyva, Boyacá, Colombia).
TION. Polypedates otilophus is a large nocturnal rhacophorid Pristimantis elegans is widely distributed latitudinally in the
frog that occurs at the edges of primary forests as well as habi- paramo habitats of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. This spe-
tats modified by man such as secondary forest, tree plantations, cies was described initially from the paramos of Chingaza and
logged areas, and villages in Borneo (Malkmus et al. 2002. Am- Sumapaz, Cundinamarca. Currently, its distribution extends
phibians and Reptiles of Mount Kinabalu [North Borneo], A.R.G. northwards to the border between Boyacá and Santander de-
Gantner Verlag Kommanditgesellschaft, Ruggell, Liechtenstein. partments, with an altitudinal distribution from 2600 to 3650 m
424 pp.; Inger and Steubing 2005. A Field Guide to the Frogs of elev. (Acosta-Galvis 2015. Biota Colombiana 16:107–127). They
Borneo, 2nd Edition, Natural History Publications [Borneo], Kota have been classified by the IUCN as Vulnerable due to their frag-
Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. 209 pp.). mented distribution, restricted geographic distribution (area of
Centropus sinensis (Greater Coucal) is a large species of the less than 20 km2), and habitat loss (Castro et al. 2010. The IUCN
order Cuculiformes. This species is widely distributed in Asia, Red List of Threatened Species 2010: e.T56576A11499208; ac-
from India to Indonesia, and is known to prey on snails, insects, cessed 5 May 2016). In the present work I report parental care in
P. elegans in a high montane ecosystem.
A nest of P. elegans was discovered on at 0830 h on 7 Decem-
ber 2015, attended by an adult female in Chingaza National Park
(4.764°N, 73.839°W, WGS 84; 3367 m elev.; Fig. 1A), Siecha, Guas-
ca, Cundinamarca, Colombia. The nest was located in a small
depression in the ground covered by dead leaves of the frailejon
species, Espeletia grandiflora (Fig. 1A), far away from any source
of standing water. The female was found covering the egg clutch
completely with her body (Fig. 1B). The following morphometric
data were taken on the female: SVL = 41.12 mm, head width =
12.11 mm, mouth width = 14.88 mm, forearm length = 9.66 mm,
tibia length = 16.01 mm and femur length = 17.02 mm. The eggs
were grouped in a spherical mass but were not suck together by
any kind of foam or viscose substance, and it was determined
that they were in at Gosner Stage 2, due to the presence of a slight
gray pigmented focus, which corresponds to the opposite point
of sperm penetration (Gosner 1960. Herpetologica 16:183–190).
Five fertile eggs were examined with calipers: these eggs were
Fig. 1. A Centropus sinensis (Greater Coucal) preying on a female
Polypedates otilophus in Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, spherical, light yellow with an average diameter of 3.02 mm (SD:
Malaysia. 0.0836). After being measured, the female and entire clutch (un-
counted) were returned to the nest.

DAVID CAMILO MARTÍNEZ DUEÑAS, Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas,

Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, Boyacá, Colombia;
e-mail: [email protected].
RHACOPHORUS PARDALIS (Gliding Tree Frog).

ECTOPARASITES. Freshwater leeches parasitizing anurans
have already been accounted for several times in different
species (Howard 1978. Ecology 59:789–798; Briggler et al.
2001. J. Freshw. Ecol. 16:105–111; Sutherland 2005. In Lannoo
[ed.], Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United
States Species, pp. 123. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California; Masetti et al. 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:614–615; Blais
2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:435–436). On 27 August 2016 at 2100 h
in Barangay Sugcad, Municipality of Malinao, Province of Albay,
Philippines (13.403958°N, 123.643633°E, WGS84; 563 m elev.),
we discovered a female Rhacophorus pardalis with a leech
(Hirudinaria cf. manillensis; Fig. 1) attached just below her right
jaw articulation (as seen in ventral view). When first observed,
the frog was jumping on a vine by a river within a secondary
growth forest.
To the best of our knowledge, we report the first record of
freshwater leech parasitism in R. pardalis. Furthermore, the de-
tachment of the leech from the host showed signs of “picking,”
wherein the anterior sucker of the leech tears the host’s skin leav-
ing a wound (Barta and Sawyer 1990. Can. J. Zool. 68:1942–1950;
McCallum et al. 2011. Herpetol. Notes 4:147–151). However, this
wound did not show signs of bleeding suggesting that the leech’s
intention was not to feed on the blood of the host. Leech hema-
tophagy on adult anurans is rare, but oophagy of anuran eggs
is well documented (Wells 2010. The Ecology and Behavior of
Amphibians. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 1162
pp.). With this, considering that the host was an adult female and
Fig. 1. A) The nest of Pristimantis elegans, in a small depression on
ready to breed, we propose that the leech might be waiting for
the ground covered by dead leaves of the frailejon species Espeletia the female to copulate, and then feed on the newly deposited an-
grandiflora. B) Female Pristimantis elegans covering the egg clutch uran eggs.
completely.
According to the parental care classification of Wells (1981.

In Alexander and Tinkle [eds.], Natural Selection and Social
Behavior, pp.184–187. Chiron Press, New York, New York), P.
elegans utilizes a type of parental care called “attendance of
eggs,” a category of behavior that ranges from the building of
a nest to the care of eggs until any developmental stage, either
by the male, the female, or both. Similar parental care has been
reported for a congener (P. educatoris) in Panamá (Mason et al.
2010. J. Herpetol. 44:193–200). This type of parental care has
been reported for some species of Eleutherodactylus, Coloste-
thus, and Epidedobates (Wells 2007. The Ecology and Behavior
of Amphibians. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illi-
nois. 1148 pp.).
This behavior, where a parent cares for the clutch, increases
the probability of hatching by providing three specific functions:
Fig. 1. Rhacophorus pardalis with a freshwater leech attached below
1) preventing dehydration, 2) reducing predation, and 3) reduc-
its right jaw articulation.
ing fungal infections (McDiarmid 1978. In Burghardt and Bekoff
[eds.], The development of Behavior: Comparative and Evolu-
tionary Aspects, pp. 127–147. Garland STPM Press, New York, JAKE WILSON B. BINADAY, Matagbac, Tabaco City, 4511, Albay,
New York; Wells 1981, op. cit.). Nevertheless, this parental care is Philippines (e-mail: [email protected]); MARVIN JAKE I.
unlikely to be 100% efficient, because relatively small changes in SERRANO, Department of Biology, College of Science, Bicol University,
thermal or hydric conditions could contribute to seasonal varia- Legazpi City, 4500, Albay, Philippines (e-mail: marvinjake.serrano@bicol-
tion in clutch production or egg mortality (Rogowitz et al. Copeia u.edu.ph).
2001:542–547).

RHEOHYLA MIOTYMPANUM (Small-eared Treefrog). PREDA-
PHOTO BY CRYSTAL KELEHEAR

TION. Rheohyla miotympanum is a small treefrog of the family
Hylidae that is endemic to Mexico, with a wide distribution across
the Sierra Madre Oriental through the states of Coahuila, Nuevo
León, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Hidalgo, Puebla,
and Veracruz. Diurnal and crepuscular in behavior, it dwells near
streams where it hunts invertebrates and breeds (Lemos-Espinal
et al. 2015. Amphibians and Reptiles of Sonora, Chihuahua and
Coahuila, México. CONABIO. México. 714 pp.). Dolomedes holti
is a large nursery web spider of the family Pisauridae endemic to
the state of Nuevo Leon. The females are sandy brown and seem-
ingly lacking pattern while the males possess a lighter margin on
both the carapace and the dorsal portion of the opisthosoma;
similar to other large Dolomedes, it lives near bodies of water
where it preys upon invertebrates and small vertebrates (Carico
1973. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 144:476–478).
The spider was found on 9 July 2016 early in the afternoon in
the municipality of Santiago (25.34115°N, 100.19015°W, WGS 84; Fig. 1. Female Rhinella martyi with her egg clutch.
1077 m elev.) in the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon; it was photo-
graphed in the act of consuming a R. miotympanum at the edge
of a small creek; the immature male spider measured 8 cm in leg- female started laying eggs, though the male was no longer am-
span. Both the spider and the frog remains were collected and plexing her. At 1400 h the female had finished laying a clutch of
preserved in 70% ethanol and deposited in the arachnological 904 eggs (mean size = 1.76 ± SE 0.10 mm; N = 6 measured). The
collection of the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. eggs were black and encased in long strings of transparent egg
jelly, as is customary for bufonids. The female (SVL = 61.1 mm;
PHOTO BY MANUEL DELUNA
16 g [weighed post-laying]) was reddish in coloration and was

missing her right eye (Fig. 1). The male was brown with a pale
dorsal stripe (SVL = 63.6 mm; 18 g). The male emitted a release
call when CK grasped him beneath the armpits prior to releasing
him. The pair and their resultant clutch (likely unfertilized) were
released that evening.
This research trip was supported by a George E. Burch Post-
doctoral Fellowship and a National Geographic Research and Ex-
ploration Grant (9945-16).
CRYSTAL KELEHEAR, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Aparta-
do 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancon, Panama, Republic of Panama (e-mail: crys-
[email protected]); VANESSA BENJAMIN, ALEX ROBINSON
HONORIO, Iwokrama International Centre for Rainforest Conservation
and Development, Iwokrama Rainforest Reserve, Region 8, Guyana; SEAN
P. GRAHAM, Department of Biology, Geology, and Physical Sciences, Sul
Ross State University, Alpine, Texas 79832, USA (e-mail: grahasp@tigermail.
auburn.edu).
Fig. 1. Immature male Dolomedes holti consuming a Rheohyla mio- SCINAX FUSCOVARIUS (Yellow-legged Snouted Treefrog;
tympanum. Perereca-de-banheiro). INTERSPECIFIC AMPLEXUS. The hylids
Scinax fuscovarius and Pseudis paradoxa and the leptodactylid
Physalaemus nattereri are frequent and abundant species in
MANUEL DELUNA (e-mail: [email protected]), DANIEL anuran communities throughout the Pantanal wetlands of
MONTOYA, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Manuel L. Barragán central South America (Pansonato et al. 2011. Biota Neotrop.
Avenue, Ciudad Universitaria, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León 66455, 11:77–86; Souza et al. 2014. Phyllomedusa 13:41–50). Permanent
México (e-mail: [email protected]). aquatic habitats in this region are scanty, and the availability of
temporary ponds depends on seasonal rainfall. Upon the onset
RHINELLA MARTYI. CLUTCH SIZE. Rhinella martyi is a species of rains, most of the anuran species in the Pantanal exhibit
of the Rhinella margaritifera complex that occurs in Guyana, explosive breeding (Prado et al. 2005. Amphibia-Reptilia 26:211–
Suriname, southern French Guiana, and northern Brazil (Fouquet 221). Aggregations are common under these circumstances, with
et al. 2007. Zootaxa 1663:17–32). There is little known about the males of several species forming large choruses at breeding sites
ecology of R. martyi and there is no published information on (Lutz 1946. Copeia 1946:153–155). Here we report on interspecific
clutch size for this species. amplexus involving the three aforementioned species.
At ca. 0635 h on 17 June 2016, VB collected an amplectant pair On 13 December 2008 at Fazenda Baía de Pedra (16.466389°S,
of Rhinella martyi in a roadside puddle in Iwokrama Rainforest 58.152500°W; WGS84) in the northern Pantanal, Cáceres, Mato
Reserve, Region 8, Guyana (4.66695°N, 58.68554°W; WGS84). The Grosso, Brazil, after heavy rains and at air temperature of 24.5°C,
pair were placed in a zip-lock bag and several hours later the we observed interspecific amplexus involving four individuals.

TESTUDINES — TURTLES
APALONE FEROX (Florida Softshell Turtle). KYPHOSIS. Kypho-

sis is a skeletal deformity defined as a dorsal–ventral curvature of
the spine (Davy and Murphy 2009. Can. J. Zool. 87:433–439). In
chelonians, kyphosis typically presents itself as an exaggerated
doming of the carapace, and has been documented in wild in-
dividuals of several families (e.g., Plymale et al. 1978. Southwest.
Nat. 23:457–461). Suspected causes for this condition include
arrested development, excessive pressure exerted on incubat-
ing eggs, insufficient oxygen levels or temperatures during em-
bryological development, late retraction of the yolk mass, partial
desiccation of incubating eggs, neoplasia, freeze damage to shell
tissues during winter inactivity, and premature fusion of the cos-
tal plates and ribs resulting in differential growth rates (Smith
1947. Univ. Kansas Publ. Nat. Hist. 1:117–124; Plymale et al. 1978,
op. cit.).
On 18 June 2016, MT encountered an Apalone ferox of un-
known gender and approximately 25 cm in straight carapace
length in the parking lot of an apartment complex on Flemming
Island, Florida, USA (30.083929°N, 81.708027°W; WGS84). With
several man-made retention ponds located on the property,
it appeared to be moving between ponds when encountered.
Upon closer inspection, the specimen exhibited extreme dom-
ing of the carapace which measured approximately 10–12 cm
in height (Fig. 1). Although no noticeable signs of trauma were
present, the texture of the skin in the affected area was dried and
encrusted, and hard to the touch when compared to the softer,
smoother skin of the surrounding unaffected areas of the cara-
pace. When relocated to the edge of a nearby pond, its behavior
and movements appeared normal and unhampered as it retreat-
ed to the water.
Because the specimen was left in situ, radiographic confir-
mation of spinal abnormalities was not possible. Nonetheless,
the specimen’s outward appearance strongly resembled photo-
Fig. 1. Interspecific amplexus in pairs of anurans in the Pantanal graphed individuals of other trionychid species with kyphosis
wetlands, Mato Grosso, Brazil. A) A male Scinax fuscovarius (Anonymous 1936. Bull. New York Zool. Soc. 39:246; Burke 1994.
amplexing Physalaemus nattereri. B) A male S. fuscovarius amplexing Herpetol. Rev. 25:23). Kyphosis has previously been documented
Pseudis paradoxa. in A. ferox (Nixon and Smith 1949. Turtox News 27:1–2) as well
as several other trionychid species including A. mutica (Smith
We found amphibians at the same temporary pond, near the 1947, op. cit.), A. spinifera (Cahn 1937. Biol. Monogr. 16:1–218;
edge, in open landscape. We found the first pair at 2300 h, a male Smith 1947, op. cit.; Burke 1994, op. cit.), Palea steindachneri
S. fuscovarius amplexing an individual (indeterminate sex) of P. (Anonymous 1936, op. cit.), Pelodiscus sinensis (Vogt 1922, Arch.
nattereri (Fig. 1A)—and, we found the second pair at 2312 h—a
male of S. fuscovarius amplexing an individual (indeterminate
sex) of P. paradoxa (Fig. 1B). To the best of our knowledge, this
is the first report of amplexus of S. fuscovarius with P. paradoxa
or P. nattereri. Although the three species habitually exhibit dis-
tinct substrates of activity (subarboreal, aquatic, and terrestrial,
respectively), their reproductive activities occur at the same time
and in the same temporary habitats, increasing the possibility of
interspecific interactions.
AP was supported by Instituto Nacional de Áreas Úmidas and
Centro de Pesquisas do Pantanal.
JESSICA RHAIZA MUDREK (e-mail: [email protected]),
ANDRÉ PANSONATO (e-mail: [email protected]), CHRISTINE
STRÜSSMANN, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação
da Biodiversidade, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Mato
Grosso, Av. Fernando Corrêa da Costa, nº 2367, Boa Esperança, Cuiabá,
Mato Grosso, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]).
Fig. 1. Apalone ferox exhibiting kyphosis.

Naturgesch. 10:135–146), and Trionyx triunguis (Mertens 1940.

Senckenbergiana 22:236–243); however, it is unclear how com-
mon this anomaly is within this group or what the underlying
causes may be. In females, kyphosis could be a barrier to suc-
cessful copulation (Plymale et al. 1978, op. cit.), although Burke
(1994, op. cit.) reported a case of extreme kyphosis in a gravid fe-
male A. spinifera.
MIKE TAYLOR (e-mail: [email protected]) and ROBERT W.
MENDYK, Department of Herpetology, Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens, 370
Zoo Parkway, Jacksonville, Florida 32218, USA (e-mail: mendykr@jackson-
villezoo.org).
APALONE SPINIFERA EMORYI (Texas Spiny Softshell). DIET.

Apalone spinifera emoryi was introduced into the Colorado River
system in the early 20th century, likely via the Gila River (Miller
1946. Copeia 1946:46), and is now widespread in the Colorado
and its tributaries. Spiny Softshells are primarily benthic car-
nivores and scavengers, and have been reported feeding on in-
sects, fish, frogs, crayfish, other aquatic animals, carrion, and oc-
casionally aquatic, and even terrestrial, plant material (Williams
and Christiansen 1981. J. Herpetol. 15:303–308, and references
therein). Herein we report two novel dietary components for A.
spinifera, in the introduced part of the species’ range.
Fig. 2. Desert Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera) fruits recovered from
As part of a larger ongoing ecological study of this species in the stomach of Apalone spinifera emoryi.
the Muddy River of Nevada, turtle stomach contents were exam-
ined. Gut contents were collected from animals sacrificed during
native fish restoration and monitoring efforts during the 2016 of this introduced species in a previously turtle-free system, this
field season. Of particular note were three turtles whose stom- adaptable animal appears to be successfully exploiting avail-
achs contained wholly or primarily terrestrial vegetative mate- able, albeit unusual, resources. Although no reliable census has
rial. One female turtle (carapace length 299 mm, body mass 1134 been conducted to establish turtle population size in this system,
g) contained ten intact, and multiple fragments of, Screwbean anecdotal evidence suggests continued population growth and
Mesquite (Prosopis pubescens) fruits (Fig. 1). Two different turtles, range expansion. The apparent willingness of this species to uti-
one male and one female (carapace length 137 mm, body mass lize novel food sources presumably contributes to its success in
178.3 g, and carapace length 352 mm, body mass 1814 g, respec- this system.
tively), contained seven Desert Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera) This report was facilitated by the Nevada Department of
fruits/seeds (Fig. 2). Due to the large number of fruits consumed, Wildlife Muddy River Cooperative Recovery Initiative Team: A.
the exclusivity of fan palm fruits in the stomach of one animal, Rehm, J. Mecham, R. Stevenson, and K. Guadalupe—who col-
the presence of both items in multiple animals (including some lected the turtle specimens—and M. Ogburn, who assisted in the
not reported here), and the fact that these fruits are consumed identification of the fruits.
by other wildlife and humans (Stewart 1965. Kiva 31:46–53), we WILLIAM HEYBORNE (e-mail: [email protected]) and JOSH-
conclude these are not cases of incidental consumption, but in- UA SIGG, Department of Biology, Southern Utah University, 351 W. Univer-
stead that the animals were specifically seeking these items as a sity Blvd, Cedar City, Utah 84720, USA.
regular part of their diet.
Although we are still working to describe the complete diet APALONE SPINIFERA (Spiny Softshell), CHELYDRA
SERPENTINA (Snapping Turtle), and GLYPTEMYS INSCULPTA
(Wood Turtle). EMBRYO SURVIVAL AFTER NEST FLOODING.
Published field observations on the hatching success of natural
turtle nests after flooding events are uncommon. Here, we report
observations on the hatching success of an Apalone spinifera
nest, several Chelydra serpentina nests, and a Glyptemys
insculpta nest, following a mid-summer flood on a tributary of
the Namekagon River between Hayward and Spooner, Washburn
County, Wisconsin, USA (exact location undisclosed in deference
to Glyptemys conservation status). Each nest was covered by up
to 61 cm of water from 11–17 July 2016 (Apalone and Chelydra
nests) or from 12–16 July 2016 (Glyptemys nest).
The Apalone nest was constructed on a gravel road on 2 July
and was 9 d old at the start of the 6-d inundation period. Eight live
hatchlings from this nest were first observed at 1530 h on 25 Nov
2016, along with five individuals that had apparently been killed
Fig. 1. Screwbean Mesquite (Prosopis pubescens) fruits inside the
by a vehicle at about 1030 h the same day. The last hatchlings
opened stomach of an Apalone spinifera emoryi specimen.
emerged at 1623 h on 25 Nov, when the on-site air temperature

was 1.7°C. Seven of the live hatchlings were placed in a shallow Thongwa, Myaungmya, and Bassein Districts and the Turtle-
part of the creek, wherein four individuals moved very slowly banks of the Irrawaddy Division. Government Printing Office,
but immediately off into the current. Of the remaining three, Rangoon. 57 pp.), but chronic egg harvesting and loss of nesting
one moved the next day, and the last two moved into the current habitat resulted in long-term population declines (Platt et al.
the second day after emergence. The remaining hatchling was 2005. Chelon. Conserv. Biol. 4:942–948). Batagur trivittata was
warmed overnight at approximately 20°C, where it gradually feared extinct (Bhupathy et al. 2000. Chelon. Res. Monogr. 2:156–
became more active by morning and quickly moved into the 164) until two remnant populations were “rediscovered” in the
current upon release the next day. Subsequent hand-excavation early 2000s (Platt et al., op. cit.; Kuchling et al. 2006. Oryx 40:176–
of the nest indicated that all eggs (N = 13) had successfully 182), one of which (Dokhtawady River) has since gone extinct
hatched. (Platt et al., unpubl. data). The remaining population consists of
Six Chelydra nests were, collectively, 22–38 d old at the start of < 10 breeding females inhabiting a stretch of the upper Chindwin
the 6-d inundation period (constructed on same gravel road 3–19 River (Rhodin et al. 2011. Turtles in Trouble: The World’s 25+
June), and produced no emergent hatchlings. Most Endangered Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles–2011. IUCN
The Glyptemys nest was 33 d old at the start of the 5-d in- Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, Lunenburg,
undation period (constructed on medium-grained sand within Massachusetts. 54 pp.), where they nest on sandbanks exposed
38 m of the Apalone nest on 9 June). Excavation on 8 Sept 2016 by falling water levels during the annual dry season (October
revealed that five eggs had hatched, whereas several others had through mid-May) (Platt et al. 2014. Turtle Survival 2014:45–48).
not. Despite being critically endangered, virtually nothing is known
Our observations of 9–15 d-old Apalone embryo survival after concerning the ecology of B. trivittata in the wild. We here
6 d of water coverage contrast with experimental results of low describe the sandbanks and geological composition of substrates
survival of 1–12 d-old A. mutica eggs covered by water for more used by nesting female B. trivittata.
than 4 d (i.e., 12.2% survival at 4 d of inundation; Plummer 1976. The Chindwin River arises in the Hukaung Valley of north-
Herpetologica 32:353–359). The partial success of the Glyptemys ern Myanmar and flows southward ca. 1200 km to its confluence
nest, within the age range of the failed Chelydra nests and simi- with the Ayeyarwady near Pakokku (Gresswell and Huxley 1965.
larly inundated for several days during the mid-incubation pe- Standard Encyclopedia of the World’s Rivers and Lakes. G. P. Put-
riod, is also noteworthy, as even short periods of water coverage nam’s Sons, New York. 314 pp.). Parts of the upper (upstream
are believed to be typically lethal to older embryos, presumably from Homalin) Chindwin River are characterized by extensive
due to their greater oxygen demands (e.g., Lynn and von Brand sandbanks along meanders and point bars, while other stretches
1945. Biol. Bull. 88:112–125). of the river are confined to a deeply incised, generally straight
The 146-d oviposition-to-emergence interval for the A. channel where smaller sandbanks occur in pockets eroded from
spinifera nest could represent an unusually long incubation bedrock. Our observations (2012–2016) suggest that sandbanks
period for this species (55–85 d for northern populations; Harding on river meanders are dynamic in nature with architecture and
1997. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region. topography sculpted by wet season flooding (May through Sep-
University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 400 pp.), tember). In contrast, sandbanks along deeply incised channels
but its relationship to inundation, if any, remains unexplained. appear more stable, exhibiting minimal year-to-year structural
Alternatively, it is possible that embryo development and changes.
hatching proceeded along typical schedules, but exit from the Sandbanks used as nesting sites by female B. trivittata were
nest was delayed for unknown reasons. While these hatchlings identified as part of an emergency conservation effort initiated in
survived an atypical pre-emergence period, their exit in late 2005 to avert the near-certain biological extinction of the species
November appears non-optimal, as the low environmental (Gerald Kuchling, pers. comm.; Platt et al. 2014, op. cit.). Female
temperatures likely caused the observed, significantly reduced B. trivittata exhibit a high-degree of site fidelity and return to the
hatchling motor skills, thus increasing vulnerability to predation same sandbanks each year to nest. We employ local villagers as
and lengthening the time to reach underwater hibernacula. Community Conservation Cadres to monitor all known nesting
We acknowledge WDNR wildlife technician Tiffanie Bougie areas during the egg-laying period (early December through
for additional observations informing this note. We also thank March) and notify us when clutches are deposited. We then
Thomas Davis, James Harding, and Michael Plummer for their carefully excavate each clutch shortly after oviposition (< 12
insights and comments during draft preparation. Photo vouchers
were deposited at the Milwaukee Public Museum (VZP 855–863). Table 1. Geographic coordinates (WGS 84 datum) of the six
DAMIAN A. VRANIAK, W3177 Hamilton Road, Springbrook, Wiscon- sandbanks used as nesting sites by Batagur trivittata along upper
sin 54875, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); GREGORY A. GELLER, Chindwin River, Myanmar (2014–2015). Sandbank classification:
E7503 County Road C, North Freedom, Wisconsin 53951, USA (e-mail: M = sandbank on river meander/point bar. P = sandbank in pocket
eroded from bedrock. Aike = deep pool adjacent to sandbank.
[email protected]).
Sandbank Classification Latitude (°N) Longitude (°E) Aike
BATAGUR TRIVITTATA (Burmese Roofed Turtle). NESTING
SITE AND SUBSTRATE. Batagur trivittata is a large (carapace Limpha P 25.80570 95.52200 Yes
length to 580 mm) aquatic turtle endemic to the Ayeyarwady Mine Naung P 25.85733 95.59181 Yes
(formerly Irrawaddy), Chindwin, Sittaung (formerly Sittang),
Padumone M 26.01000 95.86716 No
and Thanlwin (formerly Salween) rivers of Myanmar (Ernst and
Pagoda Island M 25.78980 95.52930 Yes
Barbour 1989. Turtles of the World. Smithsonian Institution
Saletid P 25.77540 95.51860 Yes
Press, Washington, D.C. 313 pp.). Historic sources indicate B.
trivittata was formerly common to abundant in these large Sein Naing P 25.95088 95.62311 Yes
rivers (Maxwell 1911. Reports on Inland and Sea Fisheries in the

Table 2. Percent by weight of substrate components from six sandbanks used as nesting sites by female
Batagur trivittata along the upper Chindwin River, Myanmar. Sand fraction: VC = Very coarse; C =
Coarse; M = Medium; F = Fine; VF = Very fine. Size range (in mm) for each substrate component: Gran-
ule (> 2.0); VC (2.0–1.0), C (1.0–0.5), M (0.5–0.25), F (0.25–0.125), VF (0.125–0.0625), Silt/clay (< 0.625).
Sand
Sandbank Granule VC C M F VF Silt/clay
Limpha 0.34 19.87 0.65 45.89 25.70 5.94 1.61

Mine Naung 0.27 45.24 2.08 39.09 9.36 3.15 0.81
Padumone 0.00 1.02 0.12 52.77 43.39 2.37 0.34
Pagoda Island 0.33 25.56 1.06 53.70 14.97 2.77 0.63
Saletid 0.00 8.79 1.06 63.21 21.95 3.81 1.18
Sein Naing 0.00 0.58 0.11 66.20 29.84 2.73 0.54
(openings = 2.00, 1.00, 0.500, 0.250, 0.125, 0.0625, and < 0.0625
mm) in a mechanical shaker. Sieve openings correspond to
geometric size relationships of the Phi Scale used in standard
sediment analysis (Boggs, op. cit.). Most of the sampled mate-
rial was sand-sized (2.0–0.0625 mm) with about one percent (by
weight) being larger or smaller (Table 2). The size distribution
of the sand fraction was bimodal; the most common size inter-
val was medium sand with lesser amounts of very coarse sand.
This bimodal distribution likely results from seasonal variation
in river flow velocity. The sand fraction appears compositionally
immature reflecting a nearby metamorphic source, probably the
Naga-Chin Hills that form the western boundary of the water-
shed (Brunnschweiler 1966. J. Geol. Soc. Australia 13:137–194).
The largest sand grains included flakes of mica and subangular
to surrounded lithic grains of phyllite and schist; over half of the
sand grains are angular to subangular quartz. The silt and clay
Fig. 1. Sandbank on Pagoda Island used as a nesting site by Batagur in our samples indicate deposition from suspension or later in-
trivittata in the Chindwin River of Myanmar. Field staff are standing filtration.
astride path taken by nesting female. Nest located on crest of sand- Our finding appears to be the only granulometric analysis of
bank. Deep pool (known locally as an aike) to the immediate left of nesting substrates used by B. trivittata, and one of the few such
sandbank. reports for any river turtle (see also Fierreira Júnior and Castro
2006. Acta Amazonica 36:249–258). Substrates used for nesting
h) and transfer the eggs to a protected sandbank to complete by Podocnemis expansa and P. unifilis are composed largely of
incubation; hatchlings are reared in captivity (head-started) for coarse to medium sand grains with little silt or clay components
eventual return to the river (Platt et al. 2014, op. cit.). (Fierreira Júnior and Castro, op. cit.; Pignati et al. 2013. South
We collected sediment samples (ca. 200 g) for grain-size Am. J. Herpetol. 8:175–185). The reported grain size of sand sub-
analysis (Boggs 1987. Principles of Sedimentology and Stratig- strates used by nesting P. expansa (Fierreira Júnior and Castro,
raphy. Merrill Publishing Co., Columbus. 784 pp.) from the six op. cit.) are very similar to those found in our study. Collectively,
sandbanks used as nesting sites by female B. trivittata during the these results are not unexpected as in comparison to silt and clay,
2014–2015 reproductive season (Table 1). Three sandbanks are sand heats rapidly thereby enhancing embryo growth rates, and
located on river meanders and point bars, and three others are in is a porous, well-drained substrate through which gases readily
pockets eroded from bedrock along relatively straight segments diffuse (Pignati et al., op. cit.; Somaweera and Shine 2012. Aus-
of the river. Deep pools (known locally as aikes) are adjacent to tral Ecol. 38:313–325). Moreover, unlike fine-grained substrates
five (83.3%) of the sandbanks. According to local fishers, female (e.g., clay), wet sand does not dry to a rock-hard consistency that
B. trivittata remain in these pools throughout the nesting sea- can entomb hatchlings in the egg chamber (Moll and Moll 2004.
son. Elderly villagers stated that when turtles were common in The Ecology, Exploitation, and Conservation of River Turtles. Ox-
the river (ca. 50 years ago), most sandbanks used for nesting had ford University Press, Oxford. 393 pp.). For these reasons, sandy
an associated aike, suggesting these pools are important habitat substrates with little or no vegetative cover appear to be the pre-
features for B. trivittata. Sandbanks used by nesting turtles are ferred nesting substrate for a wide variety of river turtles (Moll
scoured by wet season flooding and consequently support little and Moll, op. cit.).
if any annual vegetation. Microsites where turtles deposit eggs We thank the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and
on sandbanks are completely open and devoid of overhead tree Forestry for granting us permission to conduct research in
canopy cover. Myanmar. Fieldwork in Myanmar was made possible by gen-
We analyzed the sediments collected at nesting sites by erous grants from Andrew Sabin and the Andrew Sabin Family
screening the samples through a stack of graduated sieves Foundation, Panaphil Foundation, Helmsley Charitable Trust,

and Margaret A. Cargill Foundation. The field assistance of Tun
PHOTO BY ANTÔNIO CASTRO

Win Zaw, Moe Aung Thu, and Myo Min Win was critical to the
success of our project. We also thank Deb Levinson for obtaining
literature and Lewis Medlock for insightful comments on a draft
of this manuscript.
STEVEN G. PLATT, Wildlife Conservation Society - Myanmar Program,
No. 12, Nanrattaw St., Kamayut Township, Yangon, Myanmar (e-mail:
[email protected]); ELIZABETH A. MEASURES (e-mail: measures@
sulross.edu) and DAVID M. ROHR, Department of Biology, Geology and
Physical Sciences, Sul Ross State University, Alpine, Texas 79832, USA
(e-mail: [email protected]); KALYAR PLATT, Turtle Survival Alliance -
Myanmar Program, No. 12, Nanrattaw St., Kamayut Township, Yangon,
Myanmar (e-mail: [email protected]); THOMAS R. RAINWATER,
Tom Yawkey Wildlife Center & Belle W. Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology
and Forest Science, Clemson University, P.O. Box 596, Georgetown, South
Carolina 29442, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
Fig. 1. Chelonoidis carbonaria (Red-footed Tortoise) scavenging on

CHELONOIDIS CARBONARIA (Red-footed Tortoise). SCAV-
the carcass of a horse in Colombia.
ENGING BEHAVIOR. Fruits are an important source of water,
carbohydrates, fat, and energy, but provide relatively low levels
of protein (Milton 2008. Neotrop. Primates 15:1–7). Even frugi- facultative scavenging appears to be widespread among forest
vores may have to supplement their diet to acquire appropriate tortoises. Jerozolimski (2005, op. cit.) reported two records in the
levels of this important macronutrient. Chelonoidis carbonaria is Pinkaiti Wildlife Reserve, an 8-km2 forest portion located in the
a diurnal, terrestrial, opportunistic omnivore that feeds primar- territory of the Kaiapó village A’Ukre (7.7706°S, 51.9619°W), in
ily on fruit, but also occasionally consumes flowers, leaves, fungi, the transition between Amazon forest and the cerrado fields in
arthropods, and carrion (Moskovits 1985. PhD. Dissertation, the southeastern Amazonia. An adult female C. carbonaria was
University of Chicago, Illinois; Moskovits and Bjorndal 1990. feeding on the remains of a Tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla)
Herpetologica 46:207–218; Jerozolimski 2005. PhD. Dissertation. and another adult female was found next to the carcass of a D.
Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo; Wang et al. 2011. South leporina, both during the rainy season. Wang et al. (2011, op. cit.)
Am. J. Herpetol. 6:11–19). We collated opportunistic observa- also found the remains of unidentified birds and of a Leptophis
tions of necrophagy by C. carbonaria from an undisturbed forest ahaetulla (Colubridae) in the scats of Red-footed Tortoises kept
in Brazilian Amazonia and an open area in Orinoquia, Colombia, temporarily in captivity in the Brazilian Pantanal (19.5673°S,
and data from literature, highlighting the importance of scaveng- 56.2461°W).
ing to regulate the ingestion of protein (and ultimately, nitrogen) Chelonoidis carbonaria regularly consumes fruit and it is
in forest tortoises. reported to be the most abundant item in their diet (Moskovits
Maracá Ecological Station is a 1013-km2 riverine island located 1985, op. cit.; Moskovits and Bjorndal 1990, op. cit.; Jerozolim-
in the Uraricuera river, in the state of Roraima, northern Brazilian ski 2005, op. cit.; Wang et al. 2011, op. cit.). Fruit and other plant
Amazonia (3.3622°N, 61.4336°W), lying on the ecotone between matter are generally low in protein and a previous study shows
the Amazonian forest and Roraima-Rupununi savannas of the that forest tortoises are frequently in negative nitrogen bal-
Guyana Shield (Moskovits 1985, op. cit.; Mourthé 2014. Braz. J. ance (Bjorndal 1989. Oecologia 78:317–321). One purpose of C.
Biol. 74:720–727). At MES, our observations were recorded in the carbonaria feeding opportunistically on carrion is likely to bal-
easternmost part of the island, an area predominantly covered ance the ingestion of nitrogen. Although the percentage of crude
by unflooded upland forest interspersed with small non-forest protein might vary among different species and parts being
enclaves. We also included data from the llanos del Orinoco, consumed, meat has high levels of protein, averaging 22% Dry
collected at La Aurora Natural Reserve of Civil Society, a ca. 10 Matter (DM) (range: 19–25% DM; Aguiar 1996. Acta Amazonica
km2 private reserve located in the north of Casanare department 26:121–126), higher than fruits (2% DM: Aguiar 1996, op. cit.; 7%
in Colombia (6.0376°N, 71.3469°W). Our observations were DM: Milton 2008, op. cit. and Mourthé 2012. PhD. Dissertation,
recorded in an area of secondary vegetation between medium Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus), matu-
and dense forest and unflooded grassland savanna. re leaves (13% DM: Milton 1981. Biotropica 13:177–181) or fungi
A C. carbonaria was observed consuming the remains of an (~11% DM: Hilário and Ferrari 2011. J. Chem. Ecol. 37:145–149).
unidentified snake (Boidae) during the rainy season at Maracá. Other potential important sources of protein for Red-footed
Bones of an Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) and a White-lipped Tortoises, including flowers (18% DM: Milton 1981, op. cit.) and
Peccary (Tayassu pecari) were also recovered from the scats of young leaves (24% DM: Milton 1981, op. cit.), are limited to a fair-
wild C. carbonaria and C. denticulata kept in captivity for short ly narrow window of time throughout the year.
periods at MES. These remains were also consumed during the Although carcasses are rare and unpredictable, they are prof-
rainy season (Moskovits 1985, op. cit.). In La Aurora, an adult C. itable to tortoises due to the low effort and low risk involved in
carbonaria was observed beside the carcass of a horse (Equus obtaining and consuming this resource (Sazima and Strüssmann
caballus) that was in an advanced state of decay (Fig. 1), dur- 1990. Rev. Bras. Biol. 50:463–468). The dietary flexibility of forest
ing the rainy season; although the individual was not feeding, tortoises (Bjorndal 1989, op. cit.) allows them to consume carrion
a worker of the reserve mentioned that the species occasion- opportunistically as a strategy to supplement their low-protein
ally consumes carrion. Two individuals were recorded 20–30 m diet, providing an important source of nitrogen, one of the least
from the first one, moving towards the carcass. Opportunistic, available and limiting resources.

We are in debt to D. Moskovits and A. Jerozolimski for shar- was a male (maximum carapace length ca. 45 cm). Upon being
ing data on scavenging by forest tortoises. We thank D. Moskov- lifted, the turtle snapped its neck backwards towards us, a com-
its and Felipe B. R. Gomes for kindly reviewing this manuscript. mon behavior of C. serpentina, and began regurgitating over its
We are also grateful to the editors, James H. Harding and Robert carapace. The regurgitate was primarily frog eggs and the indi-
Hansen. These data were recorded during studies undertaken vidual repeatedly struck backwards, projectile vomiting eggs
with the support of the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conserva- each time. The individual was also displaying its penis and mak-
tion Fund, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e ing guttural vocalizations, as is typical upon disturbance (Ernst
Tecnológico (CNPq), Fundação Estadual do Meio Ambiente e Re- and Lovich 2009. Turtles of the United States and Canada. The
cursos Hídricos de Roraima (FEMARH-RR), and Idea Wild to IM, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 134 pp.).
and Fundación Biodiversidad (Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Typical defensive behaviors of C. serpentina include biting, re-
Food and Environment) to AC. traction of extremities into the shell, and release of musk gland
ITALO MOURTHE, Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade e secretions (Dodd and Brodie 1975. Herpetologica 31:286–288).
Conservação, Universidade Federal do Pará, Rua José Porfírio, 2515, Espla- However, to our knowledge, vomiting has not been recorded as
nada do Xingu, 68.372-040, Altamira, Pará, Brazil (e-mail: imourthe@gmail. a stress response or defensive behavior in this species. It is pos-
com); ANTONIO CASTRO, Project Director of Asociación Chelonia, Calle sible that the individual had just consumed the eggs and had not
Aristóteles 3, 28027, Madrid, Spain (e-mail: [email protected]). fully swallowed them, thus the eggs may have been expelled due
to constrictive forces in the throat as the animal snapped defen-
CHELYDRA SERPENTINA (Snapping Turtle). BEHAVIOR. At sively. However, we did not observe any eggs or egg deposition on
approximately 1215 h on 20 May 2016 we captured a Chelydra that side of the pond and it also possible that the eggs were eaten
serpentina during a BioBlitz Survey at Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller earlier at another location.
National Historic Park in Woodstock, Vermont, USA. The individ- BETH A. REINKE (e-mail: [email protected]) and
ual was walking in the shallow water of Pogue Pond (43.6333°N, DAVID H. KLINGES, Life Sciences Center, Dartmouth College, 78 College
72.5413°W) and we directed it towards shore and lifted it up by Street, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA (e-mail: David H. Klinges.III.17@dart-
the back of the shell to show visiting students. The individual mouth.edu).
EMYDOIDEA BLANDINGII (Blanding’s Turtle). COLD

TOLERANCE. Studies have been conducted regarding
thermoregulatory and hibernation site selection of Emydoidea
blandingii throughout its range (Ross and Anderson 1990. J.
Herpetol. 24:6–12; Sajwaj and Lang 2000. Chelon. Conserv. Biol.
3:626–636). However, in Missouri, USA, E. blandingii is listed as
state endangered and is only known to occur at three locations
across the state (Conant and Collins 1998. A Field Guide To
Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America.
Third edition, expanded. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York,
New York. 616 pp.). Little has been published on E. blandingii
in these isolated populations. In the only hibernation-related
study of this species in Missouri, Kofron and Schreiber (1985.
J. Herpetol 19:27–40) observed ambient water temperatures in
winter ranging from 2° to 7.5°C at hibernation sites.
Less than 20 individual E. blandingii have been documented
since they were first observed in 1984 at Loess Bluffs National
Wildlife Refuge (LBNWR), Holt County, Missouri. LBNWR con-
sists of approximately 1500 ha of wetland habitat divided be-
tween 33 managed units. These wetland units are managed pri-
marily for early successional aquatic vegetation as food stores
to achieve high duck energy days. The management strategies
consist of scheduled flooding and draining around the waterfowl
and shorebird migration and peak growing seasons respectively.
A study to determine spatial ecology and habitat selection of
E. blandingii using radio telemetry was implemented because of
this species’ rarity, conservation status, and the intensive wetland
management of the refuge. Two individual E. blandingii, one
male and one female, originally captured crossing roads in 2012
and 2013 respectively, were fitted with DS1921G-F5# iButtons
(Embedded Data Systems, Lawrenceburg, Kentucky). The current
surveying effort consists of radio tracking 1–2 days per week
during low activity seasons (October through April) and 3–5 days
per week during high activity seasons (May through September).
Data collected included dominant vegetation type, water depth,
Fig. 1. Chelydra serpentina (Snapping Turtle) with regurgitated frog
eggs on ground in front of head. water temperature, and geospatial location. Location data was
attained through use of ATS units (Advanced Telemetry Systems,

Northwest Missouri State University. This work was approved by

the Missouri Western State University Institutional Animal Care
and Use Committee (protocol 2016Mills.02) and under Missouri
Department of Conservation scientific collection permits. Any
use of trade, firm or product names is for descriptive purposes
only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the au-
thors and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service.
JORDAN J. MEYER (e-mail: [email protected]) and DARRIN
M. WELCHERT, Loess Bluffs National Wildlife Refuge, P.O. Box 158, Mound
City, Missouri 64470, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); MARK S.
MILLS, Missouri Western State University, 4525 Downs Drive, St Joseph,
Missouri 64507, USA (e-mail: [email protected])
Fig. 1. Daily mean inactive season (October–April) ambient tempera-
tures for two Emydoidea blandingii in northern Missouri as recorded
GLYPTEMYS INSCULPTA (Wood Turtle). NEST PREDATION.
using carapace-mounted iButtons. Turtle BH is male, CJ is female.
Cochrane et al. (Herpetol. Rev. 46:618) observed what they sug-
gested was the first documented record of G. insculpta nest pre-
Isanti, Minnesota) units, and R-1000 (Communication Specialists dation by Taxidea taxus (American Badger) in Minnesota. At one
Inc., Orange, California). Data collection was implemented site, T. taxus was observed digging in the sandy substrate and
utilizing ArcPad 10.2 (ESRI, Redlands, California) on a Trimble consuming turtle eggs from 1151 h to 1201 h on 4 June 2015. At
Nomad 900 LE Data Collector (Trimble Inc., Sunnyvale, another site, two T. taxus were observed consuming turtle eggs
California). Temperature data loggers were used to document from 1820 h to 1923 h and from 2026 h to 2257 h on 15 June 2015.
temperature consistently, including periods when measurement Both records were captured by camera trap.
was difficult. These devices automatically measured and stored Because the ranges of G. insculpta and T. taxus overlap in
temperature data with ± 1.0°C accuracy, have a functioning range portions of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and
from -40°C to +85°C (www.embeddeddatasystems.com; 3 May southern Ontario, it is not surprising that we offer perhaps the
2016), and were calibrated to record temperature every 3 h. The first documented predation of G. insculpta nests by T. taxus in
iButtons were encased in flexible sealant and bonded against Wisconsin over a two-year period (2015, 2016).
a radio transmitter with marine epoxy and attached directly A known G. insculpta nesting site was protected in northern
to a carapace scute of the animal. After approximately eight Wisconsin (specific location withheld to protect sensitive re-
months of use, transmitters and data loggers were collected and sources) with solar-powered electric fencing to reduce nest pre-
maintained or replaced as necessary. All analyses were performed dation in 2015 and 2016 as part of a four-state (IA, MN, WI, MI)
with Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 23. project funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to improve
Over the course of two years, autumn 2014 to spring 2016, the riverine turtle habitat and nesting success. We documented T.
iButtons placed on these two E. blandingii collected 30,117 total taxus predating turtle nests at this site on several occasions. In
hours of temperature data, ranging from 0°C to 39.5°C. The two each case T. taxus dug under the electrified fencing to enter the
turtles did not differ significantly in temperature over two low nesting area where 20–30 G. insculpta and several Chelydra ser-
activity periods (Fig. 1; Mann-Whitney U test, P = 0.107). Tem- pentina (snapping turtle) nests were located.
peratures less than 1°C were recorded 365 times for both turtles.
The female experienced these temperatures 57 (171 h) times in
the winter of 2014 to 2015 and 214 times (642 h) in the winter of
2015 to 2016. The male experienced these temperatures 27 times
(81 h) in the winter of 2014 to 2015 and 67 times (201 h) in winter
of 2015 to 2016 (Fig. 1).
This is the first study to record temperatures less than 1°C
for E. blandingii in Missouri. Water temperature at overwinter-
ing sites may not be a limiting factor for E. blandingii in north-
ern Missouri, as demonstrated by its extensive tolerances at more
northern latitudes; for example in Wisconsin (Edge et al. 2009.
Can. J. Zool. 87:825–834; Thiel and Wilder 2010. Can. Field Nat.
124:134–138). This study is part of an ongoing project to further
knowledge regarding the rarity of E. blandingii in Missouri. There-
fore, the immediate goal of this study will be to increase the num-
ber of tracked E. blandingii and continue to monitor this species
using temperature data loggers. The increase in study individuals
will potentially provide additional data on the effects of seasonal
influences and sex differences on thermoregulatory behaviors of
E. blandingii at the southern extent of the species’ range. Fig. 1. Taxidea taxus searches for and consumes turtle nests
(Glyptemys insculpta and Chelydra serpentina) inside of a nesting
We thank the LBNWR staff and Youth Conservation Corps
exclosure constructed with solar-powered electric fencing in
employees for assistance on location and numerous contributing
northern Wisconsin.
student researchers from Missouri Western State University and

One T. taxus was documented predating turtle nests with a

camera trap (PC900 Covert Pro) at 0425 h on 6 Aug 2015, 1341 h
on 26 Jul 2016, 1751 h on 5 Aug 2016, and 1046 h on 5 Aug 2016.
Two T. taxus were documented predating turtle nests at 2253 h
on 5 Aug 2016, 1606 h on 6 Aug 2016, and 0317 h on 7 Aug 2016.
The T. taxus dug in the sand where G. insculpta had laid eggs and
consumed those eggs that were found. Nests that were protected
with small, individual cages were not predated (Fig. 1).
We extend our appreciation to Jim Woodford, Wisconsin
DNR, for setting up fencing and cameras.
DAMIAN A. VRANIAK, W3177 Hamilton Road, Springbrook, Wis-
consin 54875, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); CARLY N. LAPIN
(e-mail: [email protected]) and TIFFANY BOUGIE, Wisconsin De-
partment of Natural Resources, 107 Sutliff Avenue, Rhinelander, Wisconsin
54501, USA.
GOPHERUS POLYPHEMUS (Gopher Tortoise). BEHAVIOR. Go-

pherus polyphemus is a medium-sized testudinid that is consid-
ered an ecosystem engineer due to its burrowing behavior (Kin-
law and Grasmueck 2012. Geomorphology 157–158:108–121).
Its burrows are frequently credited with providing ecological
benefits to over 350 species (Jackson and Milstrey 1989. In Di-
emer et al. [eds.], Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commis-
sion Nongame Wildlife Program, Technical Report 5, pp. 86–98.
Gainesville, Florida). One of these species is Athene cunicularia
floridana (Florida Burrowing Owl), which is also an ecosystem
Fig. 1. A) Gopherus polyphemus approaching a collapsed and
engineering burrow dweller (Pike and Mitchell 2013. Anim. Con-
abandoned Athene cunicularia floridana burrow; B–E) the tortoise
serv. 16:694–703). While it is known that these two species inter-
began to excavate the burrow; F) after the burrow was completely
act, little information exists about the precise nature of the inter- excavated the tortoise left.
actions. Here we report on two separate observations of tortoise
and owl interactions, one beneficial and one antagonistic.
At 1443 h on 29 November 2014, an adult G. polyphemus
was observed in a beneficial (although maybe one-sided) en-
counter with A. c. floridana in Cape Coral, Lee Co., Florida, USA
(26.677127°N, 82.003170°W; WGS84). These observations were
captured on a wildlife camera set up to observe A. c. floridana
behavior. The tortoise approached a previously active owl bur-
row that was presently inactive. The burrow had collapsed due
to mammal activity, mainly Mephitis mephitis (Striped Skunk),
and several heavy late-season rain events (date of last known owl
inhabitance was 8 October 2014). During that period of inactiv-
ity, owls had made several failed attempts to excavate the burrow.
Over the course of 1 h, the tortoise completely excavated the bur-
row (Fig. 1). Upon completion, the tortoise left the burrow and
did not return during the course of the study, which concluded
on 16 May 2015. However, on 5 December 2014, six days after
the tortoise completed excavation, an adult A. c. floridana re- Fig. 2. Gopherus polyphemus foraging near an Athene cunicularia
inhabited the burrow and it was an active owl burrow through floridana burrow.
the remainder of the study. While the intention of and benefit (or
impairment) to the tortoise is unknown, this was clearly a benefi- that was foraging about three meters away (Fig. 2). One of the
cial interaction from the owl’s perspective since it resulted in the owls attacked the tortoise and in the ensuing struggle the tortoise
burrow being available again. In fact, the adults that re-inhabited managed to bite and hold on to the leg of the owl (Fig. 3). After
the burrow successfully reared several chicks in a nearby burrow the encounter, all five owls and the tortoise retreated into their
and when those chicks fledged they often used the excavated respective burrows. We can only speculate as to the intentions
burrow for refuge. Therefore, this interaction had a population- of the attacking owl but it is possible that the owl was a juvenile
level beneficial influence for the owls. and acted in a naïve way to ward off a potential predator or attack
In a separate set of observations at 1200 h on 25 May 2016, potential prey. We suggest that the owl may have been a juvenile
an adult G. polyphemus was observed in an antagonistic en- because some of the wing feathers were still short (Fig. 3), and
counter with A. c. floridana on Marco Island, Collier Co., Florida, that there were five owls in one burrow and adults typically are
USA (25.948875°N, 81.739966°W; WGS84). While photographing single or in pairs at the burrows (Bowen 2001. Florida Field Nat.
A. c. floridana, it was observed that five owls appeared to be in 29:113–142). However, it is also possible that the attacking owl
an agitated state at their burrow entrance because of a tortoise was an adult and the other owls were its offspring, and that this

research was approved by the landowner, New Mexico Depart-

ment of Game and Fish (Permit Authorization No. 3621) and
Eastern New Mexico University IACUC (approval #03-02/2016).
This work was supported in part by the Share with Wildlife Pro-
gram at New Mexico Department of Game and Fish and State
Wildlife Grant T-32-4, #11.
JESSICA CURTIS (e-mail: [email protected]) and IVANA MALI,
Eastern New Mexico University, Department of Biology, Station 33, 1500 S
Ave K, Portales, New Mexico 88130, USA (e-mail: [email protected]);
MICHAEL R. J. FORSTNER, Texas State University, Department of Biology,
601 University Drive, San Marcos, Texas 78666, USA (e-mail: MF@txstate.
edu).
PSEUDEMYS NELSONI (Florida Red-Bellied Cooter) and

PSEUDEMYS SP. ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN MEXICO.
The freshwater turtle genus Pseudemys comprises about eight
Fig. 3. Gopherus polyphemus biting the leg of an Athene cunicularia
floridana after the owl had attacked the tortoise. species restricted to the Atlantic and Gulf drainages of eastern
North America from Massachusetts, USA, to Tamaulipas, Mexico
(Ernst and Lovich 2009. Turtles of the United States and Cana-
was a defensive behavior towards the tortoise, which could have da. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 827
approached the burrow (as seen in the previously described ben- pp.). Pseudemys nelsoni occurs in a variety of lentic freshwater
eficial interaction). habitats including ponds, reservoirs, ditches, canals, marshes,
What we can conclude from these two sets of observations springs, spring runs, creeks, and rivers from the Okeefenokee
is that these two “ecosystem engineers” can interact with each Swamp and Cumberland Island, Georgia to the southern Ever-
other in a number of possible ways with various ecological out- glades, with an outlying occurrence in the Apalachicola Region
comes, a subject ripe for further investigation. of the Florida Panhandle (Jackson 2010. Chelon. Res. Monogr.
JOHN E. HERMAN, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Gulf 5:041.1–041.8.).
Coast University, 10501 FGCU Boulevard South, Fort Myers, Florida 33965, During a larger study of the population structure of Trachemys
USA (e-mail: [email protected]); MARY GOCEK-SHORT, Naples, Florida venusta from 2013 to 2015, we observed two Pseudemys turtles
34120, USA (e-mail: [email protected]). on multiple occasions in two isolated ponds in a region of
southeastern Mexico where the genus has not, to our knowledge,
PSEUDEMYS GORZUGI (Rio Grande Cooter). HATCHLING been previously reported. As part of this effort we surveyed a
MOVEMENT. Pseudemys gorzugi is a riverine emydid turtle na- freshwater cenote complex (Cenote A) in tropical forest northwest
tive to New Mexico and Texas, USA. This species is listed as near- of Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico (20.2464°N, 87.4640°W, WGS84;
threatened globally (Van Dijk 2011. The IUCN Red List of Threat- 11 m elev.). The cenote is recessed ≥ 5 m below the ground surface
ened Species), as threatened by the state of New Mexico, and of and the turtles within it may be mostly confined from terrestrial
greatest conservation concern in Texas. This turtle’s life history egress by steep walls. We also surveyed a more open cenote 3.9
is incompletely known within its limited range (Ernst and Lov- km to the northwest (Cenote B; 20.2742°N, 87.4864°W, WGS84; 5
ich 2009. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Second edi- m elev.). The water surface of this cenote is more level with the
tion. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 827 surrounding upland than the first site; turtles can clearly enter
pp.). Studying the ecology of hatchling and juvenile freshwater and exit the pond unrestricted. Cenote B is adjacent to a larger
turtles is challenging (Micheli-Campbell et al. 2013. Freshw. Biol.
58:2253–2263), and data on these life stages in P. gorzugi remain
notably scarce.
Previous studies revealed that adult P. gorzugi exhibited a
relatively sedentary lifestyle, with a maximum observed home
range of 300 m (Painter 1993. New Mexico Department of Game
and Fish, unpubl. report to U.S. BLM, Carlsbad Resource District,
27 pp.). In 2016, we surveyed freshwater turtles along the Black
River, New Mexico, using baited hoop nets. We set 50 traps for
six days along each of two adjacent ~300-m stretches of the river
separated by a county road (11–17 and 17–23 July), resulting in
approximately 300 trap-days per stretch. Upon capture, turtles
were measured, marked, and released at the point of capture.
This allowed us to measure short-term movement patterns of
P. gorzugi. We captured 35 unique hatchlings/juveniles; 6 were
recaptured once, and 2 other individuals were recaptured twice.
Based on recapture data, hatchlings traveled 27 m ± 6.5 m, rang-
ing from 0–51 m weekly. Hatchlings that were originally caught
on the first stretch of the river were never recaptured on the
Fig. 1. Male Pseudemys nelsoni observed 29 January 2014 at Cenote A,
second stretch the following week. This is the first documented Quintana Roo, Mexico.
observation of movement patterns of P. gorzugi hatchlings. This

25.6 cm). Also found in this cenote were one T. scripta elegans
and 12 T. venusta.
Pseudemys nelsoni has been widely traded in the United
States and Europe since the 1990s (Jackson, op. cit.; J. Buskirk,
pers. comm.), and these animals presumably reflect released
pets. Recent summary accounts (Lee 2000. A Field Guide to the
Amphibians and Reptiles of the Maya World. Cornell University
Press, Ithaca, New York. 402 pp.; Ernst and Lovich, op. cit.; Jack-
son, op. cit.; Legler and Vogt 2013. The Turtles of Mexico: Land
and Freshwater Forms. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California. 402 pp.) indicate that the genus Pseudemys has not
been documented in the wild in southeastern Mexico. With ex-
panding development and tourism in this section of the Riviera
Maya it is conceivable that localized breeding groups may be es-
tablished. The potential ecological effects of introduced Pseud-
emys on the native populations of T. venusta are not clear. At
least one case in Florida suggests that Pseudemys may be better
equipped than Trachemys to digest macroalgae and other plant
materials (Aresco 2010. Herpetologica 66:259–268), which may
be advantageous or neutral in the cenote environment. How-
ever, these systems are heavily used and managed by humans for
recreation, and introduced T. scripta, which has been previously
reported in the region (Böhm 2013. Herpetozoa 26:30), currently
appear to occur in greater numbers than Pseudemys.
MICHAEL T. JONES, American Turtle Observatory, 90 Whitaker Road,
New Salem, Massachusetts, USA (e-mail: [email protected])
and Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachu-
setts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA; LISABETH L. WILLEY, Department of
Environmental Studies, Antioch University New England, 40 Avon Street,
Keene, New Hampshire, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); RODRIGO
MACIP RIOS, Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Universidad Nacio-
nal Autónoma de México, Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro No. 8701, Col. Ex
Fig. 2. Female Pseudemys sp. observed 24 January 2014 at Cenote B, Hacienda de Sán José de la Huerta, C.P. 58190 Morelia, Michoacán, México.
Quintana Roo, Mexico.
PSEUDEMYS NELSONI (Florida Red-bellied Turtle). INTRA-
freshwater swamp to the south and is surrounded by tropical SPECIFIC FEEDING SYMBIOSIS. Many vertebrate and inver-
forest. Both cenotes are part of an extensive, karstic groundwater tebrate species have been observed participating in symbiotic
network. cleaning events; localities for these events are often dubbed
We documented a male P. nelsoni in Cenote A on 29 and “cleaning stations” (Poulin and Grutter 1996. Bioscience 46:512–
30 January 2014 and again (the same individual) on 7 January 517; Schofield et al. 2006. Endang. Spec. Res. 2:71–79). Most of-
2015 (Fig. 1). Upon recapture, we confirmed the individual ten descriptions of feeding symbiosis is associated with fish in
identification of the turtle using photographs. During the marine habitats, or with primates in terrestrial habitats, both in
year between recaptures, the turtle increased in SCL from 16.3 regards to removal of epibiota and ectoparasites (Grutter 2001.
cm to 19.5 cm, an increase of 19%, within the range of growth Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 268:1361–1365; Akinyi et al. 2013. Anim.
rates observed for P. nelsoni at a spring in Florida (Munscher et Behav. 85:559–568). However, feeding symbiosis has been iden-
al. 2015. Herpetol. Notes 8:133–140). Also found in this cenote tified in a variety of different ecosystems and additional verte-
during the same sampling period were seven Trachemys scripta brate taxa, including freshwater ecosystems (Sulak 1975. Anim.
elegans, 11 T. venusta, one apparent T. scripta x T. venusta hybrid, Behav. 23:331–334), and in herpetofauana (Christian 1980. Auk.
one Rhinoclemmys areolata, two Kinosternon scorpioides, and 97:887–889; Losey et al. 1994. Copeia 1994:685–690). Turtles are
one K. leucostomum. often primary examples of feeding symbiosis among reptiles,
We documented an adult female Pseudemys (species unde- with giant land tortoises and several species of marine turtles
termined) in Cenote B on 24 and 26 January 2014 and again on exhibiting well documented instances of interspecific feeding
6 January 2015 (Fig. 2). The individual has a pale plastron with symbiosis (MacFarland and Reeder 1974. Ethology 34:468–483;
faint medial markings, a very faintly cusped upper jaw, and over- Sazima et al. 2010. Neotrop. Icthyol. 8:187–192). However, there
all dark coloration. Although we could not confidently determine is limited information on feeding symbiosis in freshwater turtles,
the species, the occurrence of a second individual in the genus and apparently no accounts of intraspecific feeding symbiosis.
Pseudemys on the Yucatán Peninsula is noteworthy. Also, the Herein we describe an observation of possible feeding symbiosis
continued use of the same cenote one year later, although it was between two Pseudemys nelsoni.
clearly permeable to an adjacent wetland system, is consistent At approximately 2100 h on 17 February 2014 in Collier
with movement patterns and behavior observed for this genus County, Florida, we witnessed two P. nelsoni surface in a patch
in Florida (Kramer 1995. Copeia 1995:883–890). The turtle grew of water lilies (Nymphaea sp.). The first individual was a large
slightly in SCLmax over the course of one year (from 25.4 cm to adult female (CL = ca. 30 cm) based on observed secondary

Fig. 1. Juvenile Pseudemys nelsoni feeding on filamentous algae (Ba-

sicladia sp.) on the carapace of an adult.
sexual characteristics such as short tail length and lack of ex-

Fig. 1. Adult male Pseudemys suwanniensis with bilateral aural ab-
tended front claws (Ernst and Lovich 2009. Turtles of The United scesses in the Santa Fe River in northern Florida.
States and Canada. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
Maryland. 380 pp.). The second individual was a smaller juve-
nile of unknown sex. Both P. nelsoni were extensively covered in have yet to be verified, and this disease may be the result of
filamentous algae, likely in the genus Basicladia. After approxi- multiple factors. Incidence in T. carolina ranges from 9% to 11%
mately 2 min of floating adjacent to one another, the juvenile (Adamovicz et al., op. cit.; Brown et al., op. cit.); it was 3.6% in T.
individual moved closer to the adult and proceeded to bite and ornata (Christiansen et al., op. cit.). Known incidence of aural
ingest clumps of the algae on the adult’s carapace. The adult re- abscesses in C. picta are lower, 0.05–0.07% (Christiansen et al.,
mained still as the immature individual maneuvered around the op. cit.; Gamble, op. cit.). Here we report the first known occur-
right side of her carapace, and consumed algae for approximately rence of aural abscesses in a third emydid, Pseudemys suwan-
12 min (Fig. 1). After approximately 13 min of observation, both niensis.
turtles moved into deeper water and out of view. This behavior is During the period of May 2006 to May 2012, we captured
reminiscent of what is observed in a “cleaning station” in other 1226 P. suwanniensis (418 juveniles, 121 subadult females, 400
vertebrates, and to our knowledge represents the first observa- adult males, 287 adult females) in 392 person-hours of snorkel-
tion of intraspecific feeding symbiosis in this species. ing in the Santa Fe River (SFR) in northern Florida, USA (see
JORDAN DONINI Naples, Florida, 34103, USA (e-mail: Jordan.donini@ methodology in Johnston et al. 2016. Bull. Florida Mus. Nat.
selu.edu); JACQUELYN COPPARD, Naples, Florida 34103, USA. Hist. 54:69–103). On 1 July 2015 we caught an adult male (267
mm midline CL, 217 mm midline PL, 1859 g mass) at Rum Is-
PSEUDEMYS SUWANNIENSIS (Suwannee Cooter). AURAL land in the SFR (29.8327°N, 82.6778°W, WGS84; Gilchrist County,
ABSCESSES. Reports of aural abscesses in turtles have been Florida) that exhibited bilateral aural abscesses (Fig. 1). He had
increasing since the mid-1990s (Murray 1996. In D. R. Mader no abscesses when captured originally on 21 February 2010 at
[ed.], Reptile Medicine and Surgery, pp. 349–352. W. B. Saun- Gilchrist Blue Springs (29.8303°N, 82.6824°W, WGS84; 0.34 km
ders Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Tangredi and Evans 1997. downstream of Rum Island) nor when recaptured on 28 Febru-
J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 28:97–100). This disease is now well known ary and 24 November 2010 and 8 March, 5 May, and 2 October
in Terrapene carolina (Eastern Box Turtle) from Florida, Mary- 2011. The onset of the abscesses was between October 2011
land, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia (e.g., Brown and (when it measured 260 mm CL, 211 mm PL and weighed 1761 g)
Sleeman 2002. J. Wildl. Dis. 38:699–705; Willer et al. 2003. J. Her- and July 2015. The same turtle was observed basking on a log in
petol. Med. Sur. 13:4–9; Dodd and Griffey 2004. Herpetol. Rev. the river on 29 February 2016; the bilateral aural abscesses were
35:233–235; Schrader et al. 2010. J. Wildl. Dis. 46:1079–1085; Ad- still present (G. Shemitz, pers. comm.). This is the first report
amovicz et al. 2015. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 46:39–51) and Ornate Box of aural abscesses in the genus Pseudemys and the second in
Turtles, T. ornata, in Iowa (Christiansen et al. 2005. J. Herpetol. turtles from riverine habitats. We speculate that this male could
39:293–298). Recent reports show that it also occurs in aquatic have had hypovitaminosis A, possibly correlated with a major
emydids, including wild-caught Chrysemys picta (Christiansen vegetation shift that occurred in the SFR after June 2012. Na-
et al., op. cit.; Gamble 2007. Chelon. Conserv. Biol. 6:293–295) tive submerged aquatic plants on which P. suwanniensis feeds
and captive Trachemys scripta (Kroenlein et al. 2008. J. Wildl. Dis. declined and were replaced by nuisance algae (e.g., Vaucheria
44:664–669). A proximate cause, at least in some cases, could be spp.) and cyanobacteria (e.g., Lyngbya wollei) (see discussion of
low concentrations of vitamin A, perhaps induced by uptake of this ecological transition in Johnston et al., op. cit.). We do not
organochlorine compounds which are known vitamin A dis- have data on occurrence of organochlorine compounds in the
ruptors (Holliday et al. 2001. Ecotoxicology and Environmental river.
Safety 48:99–106; Brown et al. 2003. J. Wildl. Dis. 39:918–921), Sl- JOSEPH C. MITCHELL, Florida Museum of Natural History, University
eeman et al. 2008. J. Wildl. Dis. 44:922–929). Hypovitaminosis A of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (e-mail: dr.joe.mitchell@gmail.
as a result of poor nutrition followed by bacterial infections has com); GERALD R. JOHNSTON, Department of Natural Sciences, Santa Fe
been suggested as a proximate factor for aural abscess forma- College, Gainesville, Florida 32606, USA (e-mail: jerry.johnston@sfcollege.
tion in captive turtles (Murray, op. cit.). Willer et al. (op. cit.), but edu)
Kroenlein et al. (op. cit.) pointed out that these causative agents

TERRAPENE CAROLINA (Eastern Box Turtle). DIET. Terrapene of fish, toads, lizards, snakes, turtles, birds, and mammals, with
carolina has a generalist diet consisting of a wide-variety of plant small mammals specifically including Neotoma floridana, Rattus
and animal material, including many species of fungi, the roots, rattus, and Sylvilagus floridanus (Ernst and Lovich, op. cit.).
seeds, leaves, and fruit of many vascular plants, gastropods, an- On 22 September 2016 at 1136 h MST, we observed and pho-
nelids, myriapods, earthworms, insects, isopods, fish, anurans, tographed (Fig. 1) an adult female T. ornata feeding upon an
salamanders, lizards, snakes, small birds, small mammals, eggs, Ord’s Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys ordii) observed dead on a gravel
and occasional carrion (Dodd 2001. North American Box Tur- road in the Sandhill Region of Nebraska, 3.5 km S, 3.3 km E Lisco,
tles: A Natural History. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Garden County, Nebraska, USA (41.4649°N, 102.5810°W; WGS
Oklahoma. 231 pp.; Ernst and Lovich 2009. Turtles of the United 84). The locality was bordered by a mixed-grass prairie located
States and Canada, 2nd ed. Johns Hopkins University Press, Bal- about 1 km S of the North Platte River. The turtle was feeding on
timore, Maryland. 827 pp.; Tetzlaff et al. 2016. Herpetol. Rev. the D. ordii as we drove by in a vehicle, but upon backing up,
47:453–454). On 17 June 2016 at 1110 h, I observed an adult T. the turtle retreated inside its shell. It took about 45 min until she
carolina consuming a European Gypsy Moth (Lymantria dispar) came out and began feeding by biting into the flesh with its beak.
caterpillar along a hiking trail within an upland deciduous forest The feeding behavior consisted of only biting without tearing
in southeastern Montour County, Pennsylvania, USA. Although the carcass with its claws, as we observed blood and fur around
T. carolina are known to consume lepidopterans (Surface 1908. the beak, face, and neck but not on its claws (Fig. 1). Box turtles
Pennsylvania Dept. Agric. Div. Zool. Bull. 6:105–196.; Ernst and are known to use their foreclaws to hold or tear food items apart
Lovich 2009, op. cit.), I could find no record of the European Gyp- (Dodd 2001, op. cit.). Weather during the time of observation
sy Moth in the diet of T. carolina in the extensive review by Ernst was overcast, light east winds, >90% humidity, and temperature
and Lovich (2009, op. cit.) and subsequent references (e.g., Fleck- about 15.5°C with periodic light rain during the previous night.
enstien et al. 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:85; Palis et al. 2016. Herpe- Our observation appears to represent the first documenta-
tol. Rev. 47:657), suggesting this might be a novel observation for tion of a kangaroo rat being consumed as carrion by this spe-
the diet of T. carolina. European Gypsy Moths were introduced cies. Terrapene ornata has previously been observed feeding on
into eastern North America during the late 1860s and have since road-killed vertebrates (Dodd 2001, op. cit.), but such behaviors
spread throughout the northeastern United States and south- likely are not advantageous, as box turtles commonly succumb
eastern Canada (Liebhold et al. 1992. J. Biogeogr. 19:513–520). to vehicle-caused mortality on roadways (Dodd 2001, op. cit.;
Thus, this observation suggests that T. carolina may incorporate Ernst and Lovich 2009, op. cit.). Ecologically, kangaroo rats previ-
non-native lepidopteran larvae into its diet. I note that the obser- ously were known to provide box turtles with summer and winter
vation reported herein occurred incidentally and the turtle was refugia in burrows from Nebraska to New Mexico (Degenhardt et
observed but not disturbed. al. 1996. The Amphibians and Reptiles of New Mexico. University
SEAN M. HARTZELL, Department of Biological and Allied Health Sci- of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 431 pp.; Nieuwolt 1996. Her-
ences, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania petologica 52:487–495), but at least occasionally, the two species
17815, USA; e-mail: [email protected]. interact trophically.
MICHAEL L. FORSBERG, Michael Forsberg Photography, Lincoln,
TERRAPENE ORNATA (Ornate Box Turtle). SCAVENGING. Box Nebraska 68502, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); KEITH GELUSO,
turtles in North America are omnivores that feed on a variety of Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Kearney, Kearney,
plants and animals, along with scavenging on dead vertebrates Nebraska 68849, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
(Dodd 2001. North American Box Turtles: A Natural History. Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma. 231 pp.; Ernst TERRAPENE CAROLINA MAJOR (Gulf Coast Box Turtle).
and Lovich 2009. Turtles of the United States and Canada. 2nd AQUATIC HABITAT USE. Although Terrapene carolina is
Edition. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. a primarily terrestrial species, aquatic behavior has been
827 pp.). Known carrion consumed by T. ornata is comprised anecdotally noted over the past century. The bulk of aquatic
PHOTO BY MICHAEL FORSBERG
Fig. 1. Adult female Terrapene ornata feeding on a road-killed Ord’s Fig. 1. Site of collected Terrapene carolina major in Gulfport, Missis-
Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys ordii) in western Nebraska. sippi, USA.

ANDREW J. HEATON, Department of Biology, University of South Ala-

bama, Mobile, Alabama 36608, USA; e-mail: [email protected].
CROCODYLIA — CROCODILIANS
ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS (American Alligator).

FRUGIVORY. Because crocodilians are generally assumed to be
obligate carnivores (Neill 1971. The Last of the Ruling Reptiles:
Alligators, Crocodiles, and their Kin. Columbia University
Press, New York. 486 pp.), frugivory among this group has been
under-reported and received comparatively little attention in
comparison to other reptiles (Platt et al. 2013. J. Zool. 291:87–99).
Here, we report two observations of frugivory in A. mississippiensis
at Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge (MINWR), Brevard
County, Florida, USA (28.60282˚N, 80.66897˚W, WGS84).
On 28 September 2012, an adult male A. mississippiensis (total
length [TL] = 273 cm) was captured and euthanized by a licensed
Fig. 2. Observation of swimming Terrapene carolina major on 12 Oc-
tober 2016. trapper as part of the Statewide Nuisance Alligator Program. Im-
mediately following euthanization, the animal was necropsied,
and examination of the stomach revealed a large number (ap-
behavior observed in T. carolina to date has involved soaking proximately 300) of saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) fruits and
or estivating, which they are known to do regularly (Dodd 2001. seeds. No other food or non-food items (e.g., gastroliths) were
North American Box Turtles: A Natural History. University of found in the stomach. On 24 February 2016, another adult male
Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma. 231 pp.; Donaldson and A. mississippiensis (TL = 259 cm) was found dead on MINWR and
Echternacht 2005. J. Herpetol. 39:278–284). Reports of swimming transported to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Com-
or feeding in water are less frequent. Terrapene carolina major mission Wildlife Research Laboratory for necropsy. The animal’s
has been frequently identified as being more aquatic in nature estimated time of death was 2–3 d prior to necropsy, and cause
than the other T. carolina subspecies, with research literature and of death was undetermined. Examination of stomach contents
field guides often noting its occupancy of coastal wetland habitat revealed small unidentified bones (possibly fish) and approxi-
(Carr 1952. Handbook of Turtles: The Turtles of the United States, mately 10 immature S. repens fruits. Serenoa repens is common
Canada, and Baja California. Comstock Publishing Associates, on MINWR and typically found adjacent to freshwater swales,
Ithaca, New York. 542 pp.; Ernst and Lovich 2009. Turtles of the ditches and ponds.
United States and Canada. Johns Hopkins University Press, In a recent review of frugivory among the Crocodylia, Platt et
Baltimore, Maryland. 827 pp.). al. (op. cit.) found 34 families and 46 genera of plants represented
At 1330 h on 12 October 2016 in Gulfport, Mississippi, USA, an among fruits and seeds reportedly consumed by crocodilians.
adult female T. c. major (16.0 cm SCL) was found at 30.426528°N, The fruit of S. repens is a single-seeded drupe, and fleshy fruits
89.039762°W swimming north across a roughly 100-m wide (aggregate, berry, and drupe) comprise the bulk (52.1%) of
brackish industrial seaway which connects the Biloxi Back Bay to reported frugivory among the Crocodylia (Platt et al., op. cit.).
Big Lake (Figs. 1, 2). This individual was photographed, collected, Our findings complement previous observations of frugivory
measured, and released in the direction it was traveling. Another in A. mississippiensis, which is known to consume the fruit and
T. c. major had been observed swimming in the area on 4 August seeds of at least 24 plant species, including S. repens (Platt et al.,
2016 at 30.415955°N, 89.040097°W, though photographs were not op. cit.). The significance of the present observation is the large
taken. Both events provide examples of T. carolina swimming to quantity of fruits and seeds found in the stomach of the first
cross fairly broad aquatic barriers between terrestrial sites. animal. Platt et al. (op. cit.) reported the occurrence of S. repens
The first vouchered report of a T. carolina hosting leeches also seeds in the stomachs of five A. mississippiensis in quantities
comes from an individual within the Gulfport study site (Rich- ranging from 1–10 seeds per stomach. The number of fruits and
ardson et al. 2016. Comp. Parasitol. 83[2]:272–274). These obser- seeds we observed in the stomach of the first animal far exceeds
vations provide insight into the aquatic habitat use of T. carolina these numbers, while those in the second animal agree closely
in a Gulf Coast locality. Despite current uncertainties regarding with previous observations.
the taxonomic classification of T. c. major and other subspecies Because gastric contents analyses reveal only the composi-
of T. carolina, it is possible that the frequency of aquatic habitat tion of the diet and not the foraging mode (DeVault and Rhodes
use of T. carolina at the southern limits of its range could vary 2002. Acta Theriol. 47:185–192), it is possible seeds recovered
from other parts of the range. Prolonged periods of warm weath- from the stomachs of crocodilians result from behaviors other
er in the southern U.S. have the potential to increase the use of than deliberate consumption of fruits as food. Crocodilians
water for soaking/estivating by box turtles, and these turtles may may ingest seeds accidentally during prey capture (Diefenbach
be more likely to swim in areas where terrestrial sites are regu- 1979. Copeia 1979:162–163), floating seeds could be mistaken for
larly inundated or separated by aquatic barriers. The described swimming prey (Webb and Manolis 1989. Crocodiles of Austra-
instances of swimming also suggest that the presence and size of lia. Reed Books Pty., Ltd., French Forest. 160 pp.), or hard seeds
aquatic barriers may be a variable to consider in terms of defin- might be consumed as gastroliths (Platt et al. 2002. Herpetol. J.
ing “closed populations.” 12:81–84). Seeds found among stomach contents could also re-
Scientific collection was permitted by the Mississippi sult from secondary ingestion, i.e., the acquisition of items con-
Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks (Permit #0801151). tained in the gut of primary prey (Cott 1961. Trans. Zool. Soc.

London 29:211–357). However, the large quantity of S. repens Zoology, Berkeley, California. 388 pp.). Although documentation
fruits and seeds found in the stomach of the first alligator de- of crocodilian parasites dates back to the mid-1800s, few host
scribed above and the lack of any primary prey that could have species within the taxon contain comprehensive records of
eaten these fruits likely precludes all of these possibilities. Rath- parasites (Tellez 2013, op. cit.). Parasite records for crocodilian
er, such a large number of fruits and seeds in a single stomach, species are particularly deficient in southern Mexico. Herein, we
particularly with a concurrent lack of other food items present, report on nematode parasites discovered in Crocodylus acutus,
suggests the S. repens fruits in this case were consumed inten- Crocodylus moreletii, and Caiman crocodilus chiapasius from
tionally rather than secondarily or accidentally. In addition, be- southern Mexico.
cause S. repens fruits and seeds have been recovered from the During 3–10 January 2011, a total of 16 crocodilians (C. acutus
stomachs of A. mississippiensis in different areas of its geograph- = 1; C. moreletii = 12; C. c. chiapasius = 3) were captured from four
ic range (e.g., Georgia, Florida; Platt et al., op. cit.), consumption locations in southern Mexico: 1) La Laguna de Ilusiones, Tabasco
of these fruits by alligators does not appear to be an isolated oc- (18.0032ºN, 92.9324ºW, C. moreletii = 3); 2) Rio Hondo, Chetumal
currence. Conversely, it is possible the S. repens fruits found in (18.4800°N, 88.4828°W; C. moreletii = 9); 3) Puerto Arista, Chiapas
the stomach of the second alligator may have been the result of (15.9522°N, 93.7984°W; C. c. chiapasius = 2; C. acutus = 1); and 4)
secondary ingestion, as putative fish bones were also present in Boco Del Cielo, Chiapas (15.8497°N, 93.6724°W; C. c. chiapasius
the stomach, and fish have been known to consume the fruits of = 1). Crocodilians were spotted at night via eyeshine and were
S. repens (Hale 1898. Saw Palmetto: Its History, Botany, Chemis- captured by hand or noose. Parasitic nematodes were collected
try, Pharmacology, Provings, Clinical Experience and Therapeu- via stomach flushes following the methods of Fitzgerald (1989.
tic Applications. Boericke & Tafel, Philadelphia. 103 pp.). J. Herpetol. 23:170–172). Once collected, the nematodes were
Given these caveats, there is no doubt that some fruit con- cleaned in distilled water, stunned with boiling hot water, and
sumption is attributable to accidental or secondary ingestion; then placed into labeled vials of 70% ethanol for subsequent
however, there are no a priori reasons to assume that fruits are identification.
not deliberately eaten by crocodilians as food. Despite early re- A total of 35 nematodes from C. acutus (N = 25), C. moreletii (N
ports to the contrary (Coulson and Hernandez 1983. Alligator = 8), and C. c. chiapasius (N = 2) were collected. Nematode spe-
Metabolism: Studies on Chemical Reactions In vivo. Pergamon cies were identified as: Dujardinascaris helicina (N = 26), larval
Press, New York. 182 pp.), crocodilians are capable of digesting D. helicina (N = 5), juvenile Dujardinascaris sp. (N = 1), Terranova
carbohydrates, plant-based proteins, and vegetable fats (Coul- lanceolata (N = 1), Brevimulticaecum sp. (N = 1), and Unknown
son et al. 1987. Biochem. Physiol. 87A:449–459; Staton et al. 1990. (N = 1). Examining parasites among the geographic locations, the
J. Nutrit. 120:775–785), strongly suggesting that nutritional ben- following parasitic relations were found: D. helicina in C. more-
efits accrue from frugivory (Platt et al., op. cit.). Our observations letii from Rio Hondo (N = 1), and in C. acutus from Puerto Arista
of frugivory by A. mississippiensis in Florida add to the growing (N = 25). Larval D. helicina were found in C. moreletii from Rio
body of evidence suggesting crocodilians should be considered Hondo (N = 4) and from Lagoon Illusion (N = 1) in conjunction
“occasional frugivores” (sensu Willson 1993. Oikos 67:159–176), with discovering an unknown juvenile Dujardinascaris sp. from
i.e., generalist predators that complement an otherwise carniv- Lagoon Illusion (N = 1). Finally, Terranova lanceolata was collect-
orous diet with fruit, which is consumed infrequently but not ed from C. moreletii in Rio Hondo (N = 1), and Brevimulticaecum
always in small quantities (Platt et al., op. cit.). Whether or not sp. and an unknown nematode species from C. c. chiapasius in
A. mississippiensis or other crocodilians play any role as aquatic Puerto Arista (N = 2).
seed dispersal agents has yet to be determined, although a recent To our knowledge these are the first records of parasitism
experiment by Rosenblatt et al. (2015. Southeast. Nat. 13:N26– of C. acutus from the region of Chiapas, expanding the known
N29) suggests at least in some cases alligators may instead act as geographical range of D. helicina, as previous records of this
seed predators. nematode parasite infecting C. acutus were restricted to inland
This paper is technical contribution number 6543 of the and coastal Atlantic regions (Villegas et al. 2009. Herpetol.
Clemson University Experiment Station. Conserv. Biol. 4:346–351; Tellez 2013, op. cit.). The expansive
THOMAS R. RAINWATER, Tom Yawkey Wildlife Center & Belle W. Ba- geographical range of D. helicina parallels the various habitat
ruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science, Clemson University, and localities inhabited by its definitive host C. acutus, likely
P.O. Box 596, Georgetown, South Carolina 29442, USA (e-mail: trrainwater@ reflecting an archaic relationship between Dujardinascaris
gmail.com); RUSSEL H. LOWERS, Integrated Mission Support Services, spp. and crocodilians. Examination of the population genetic
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Kennedy Space Center, patterns of D. helicina is warranted to reveal cryptic details about
Florida 32899, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); CAMERON CART- this host-parasite relationship, which includes illuminating the
ER, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 1105 SW Williston evolutionary dispersal and diet patterns of C. acutus in the region
Road, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA (e-mail: cameron.carter@myfwc. (Whiteman and Parker 2005. Anim. Conserv. 8:175–181).
com); STEVEN G. PLATT, Wildlife Conservation Society - Myanmar Pro- Our study also provides the first documentation of parasitism
gram, No. 12, Nanrattaw St., Kamayut Township, Yangon, Myanmar (e-mail: in C. c. chiapasius, with the potential discovery of two new parasite
[email protected]). species. Crocodylus acutus, C. moreletii, and C. c. chiapsius live
in general sympatry in a few areas in southern Mexico (Platt
CROCODYLUS ACUTUS (American Crocodile), CROCODYLUS et al. 2010. In Manolis and Stevenson [eds.], Crocodiles. Status
MORELETII (Morelet’s Crocodile), CAIMAN CROCODILIUS Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Third Edition, pp. 79–83.
CHIAPASIUS (Chiapas Spectacled Caiman). ENDOPARASITISM. Crocodile Specialist Group, Darwin, Australia; Thorbjarnarson
Parasitism is a common phenomenon among wild crocodilians, 2010. In Manolis and Stevenson [eds.], Crocodiles. Status
evolving into a unique and host specific relationship relative Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Third Edition, pp. 46–
to other reptiles (Tellez 2013. A Checklist of Host-Parasite 53. Crocodile Specialist Group, Darwin, Australia; Escobedo-
Interactions of the Order Crocodylia. UC Publications in Galvan et al. 2011. Zootaxa 2015:66–68). They are thus likely

exposed to similar intermediate hosts of nematode parasites. and Wrege, op. cit.). An ongoing mark-recapture study suggests
However, C. c. chiapasius was the only crocodilian that lacked that some iguanas in this area lost weight in the months before
D. helicina (instead exhibiting its own unique parasite fauna). our arrival, perhaps due to a change in food availability resulting
This may reflect the difference of foraging or prey preference by from a moderate El Niño event in the recent past. Food shortages
C. c. chiapasius relative to C. acutus and C. moreletii. Additional from El Niño events are known to negatively affect Marine
parasite and diet studies could help elucidate the causes of Iguanas and can lead to the unusual phenomenon of shrinking
parasitic diversity among the three crocodilian species in this in size (Wikelski and Thom 2000. Nature 403:37–38).
region, while also providing greater insight to the ecology of each GREGORY A. LEWBART, North Carolina State University College of
crocodilian species. Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA (e-mail: greg_lew-
We thank Ralph Appy for assistance in nematode identifi- [email protected]); MAXIMILLIAN HIRSCHFELD, University San Francisco
cation, as well as Dhithya Ramaswamy, Jiazi Wong, and Nicole de Quito, Galápagos Science Center, Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, Galápagos,
Sarmiento. We would also like to extend our gratitude to Arman- Ecuador; ONIVID RICAURTE, Galápagos National Park Service, Puerto
do Escobedo, Jeronimo Domínguez Laso, Berenice Baudinii, José Ayora, Galápagos, Ecuador; KENNETH J. LOHMANN, Department of Biol-
Rogelio Cedeño Vázquez, and Marco A. López Luna for facilita- ogy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA.
tion in the capture of crocodilians.
HELEN SUNG, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Cali- AMPHISBAENA BRASILIANA. REPRODUCTION. The biology
fornia, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA (e-mail: helenwsung@ of amphisbaenians is poorly known, mainly because of their
gmail.com); MARISA TELLEZ, Crocodile Research Coalition, Placencia, fossorial habits, and their reproductive biology is also little-
Stan Creek, Belize (e-mail: [email protected]); MARK MER- studied. Although some species are viviparous, most are
CHANT, McNeese State University, Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA (e-mail: oviparous, and at least some species lay their eggs in the nests
[email protected]). of termites or ants (Gans 1978. Am. Mus. Novit. 2475:1–32;
Barros-Filho and Nascimento 2003. Herpeto. Rev. 34:243–244).
SQUAMATA — LIZARDS However, few data exist on their eggs or embryos. Andrade et al.
2006 (Amphibia-Reptilia 27:207–217) reviewed the reproductive
AMBLYRHYNCHUS CRISTATUS (Marine Iguana). DIET. biology of amphisbaenians, including 22 neotropical species.
Amblyrhynchus cristatus feeds almost exclusively on marine However, their review did not include Amphisbaena brasiliana, a
algae. Most of the adult animal’s diet is derived from three red species first described in the genus Bronia (Gray 1865. Proc. Zool.
algal genera (Centroceras, Gelidium, Pterocladia) and the green Soc. Lond. 1865:442–455), an endemic Brazilian genus that was
algal genus Ulva (Carpenter 1966. Proc. California Acad. Sci. later synonymized with Amphisbaena (Mott and Vieites 2009.
34:329–376; Trillmich 1979. Noticias de Galapagos 29:17–20; Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 51:190–200). Since its description, based
Nagy and Shoemaker 1984. Physiol. Zool. 57:281–290; Wikelski on a single specimen from Santarém, western Pará state, Brazil,
et al. 1993. Oecologia 94:373–379; Wikelski and Wrege 2000. the species has been recorded a few times in Pará. Dorado-
Oecologia 124:107–115). On 23 June 2015 we found a deceased Rodrigues et al. (2013. Herpetol. Notes 6:331–333) reviewed its
adult A. cristatus on Isla Lobos, Galápagos, Ecuador (51.35183°S, distribution for Pará, and added new records for Mato Grosso.
34.00066°W, 1 m elev.). A dissection of the animal revealed a Herein we provide new data on A. brasiliana reproduction, eggs,
stomach filled with recent ingesta that included at least four adult and neonates, and a new habitat utilized within the known
beetles belonging to the family Tenebrionidae (Fig. 1). Although distribution.
juvenile A. cristatus have been known to consume crustaceans, On 2 October 2016, during daily work at Nova Floresta farm
mollusks, flies, and arachnids as a small percentage of their diet, (3.3574°S, 52.6362°W; 217 m. elev.), about 13 km from Brasil Novo
this is the first record of beetle consumption by an adult (Nagy and municipality, a fallen tree trunk was moved, exposing an egg
Shoemaker, op. cit.). The stomach also contained unidentified clutch consisting of nine partially buried eggs. As the trunk was
terrestrial plant matter (Fig. 1). Marine Iguanas on the island are moved an adult A. brasiliana moved away from the nest. Two of
known to consume the succulent plant, Batis maritima (Wikelski the eggs were cracked and discarded; the remaining seven eggs
were collected and incubated in a vase with soil from the ground
Fig. 1. Stomach contents of a dissected Amblyrhynchus cristatus from Fig. 1. Adult female Amphisbaena brasiliana after capture, from Bra-
Isla Lobos, showing beetles and terrestrial plant matter. sil Novo, Pará, Brazil.

soil with a tractor (A. Oliveira, pers. obs.). The number and char-
acteristics of the eggs found in the present clutch are quite simi-
lar to other amphisbaenid species, such as Amphisbaena alba (N
= 8) (Barros-Filho and Nascimento, op. cit.), A. mertensii (N = 6)
(Pramuk and Alamillo 2003. Herpetol. Rev. 34:221–223), Lepos-
ternon microcephalum and L. infraorbitale (N = 6 each) (Jared et
al. 1997. Herpetol. Rev. 28:44–45; Barros-Filho and Valverde 1996.
Sitientibus 14:57–68). An egg-tooth was previously recorded for
Anops kingii (Smith et al. 1952. J. Linn. Soc. Zool. 42:260–268), L.
infraorbitale (Jared et al., op. cit.), and A. mertensii (Andrade et
al., op. cit.). Like these authors, we observed the loss of egg-teeth
at two weeks of age; however, the egg teeth in A. mertensii were
darkish in color while those in A. brasiliana were whitish. Berg
(1898. Ver. Ges. D. N. 69:164–165) suggested parental care in A.
darwinii, and our observations of the female A. brasiliana mov-
ing away from the clutch during the trunk removal could indi-
Fig. 2. Amphisbaena brasiliana hatching. cates the same. Finally, it was apparent during handling that the
A. brasiliana female was docile compared to A. alba; the latter is
where they were found. The adult was collected, photographed, known to bite. Our report contributes to the reproductive behav-
and released without measurements (Fig. 1). Only one egg was ior and biology of amphisbeanids, and thus their conservation.
measured (length = 28.22, width = 14.74 mm). During incubation ANDRESSA S. Q. ALVES OLIVEIRA, Faculdade de Biologia, Universi-
two eggs were preyed by Solenopsidini ants; these eggs may have dade Federal do Pará - UFPA Campus Altamira, Rua Cel. José Porfírio, 2515,
also been cracked. On 19 October the neonates began to hatch, São Sebastião, Altamira, Pará, 68372-040, Brazil (e-mail: andressa-sacha@
and by 20 October all five neonates had hatched (Fig. 2). The neo- hotmail.com); FELIPE BITTIOLI R. GOMES, Faculdade de Etnodiversidade,
nates were pink in color, with the region behind the head (neck) Educação do Campo, Universidade Federal do Pará, UFPA Campus Altami-
slightly lighter, and measured, in total length and weight, respec- ra, Rua Cel. José Porfírio, 2515, São Sebastião, Altamira, Pará, 68372-040,
tively: 132 mm, 2.44 g; 128 mm, 2.16 g; 122 mm, 1.97 g; 135 mm, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]).
2.44 g; 132 mm, 2.57 g. A whitish egg-tooth was present on the
lower edge of the upper lip on the inner face of the rostral scale. ANOLIS ANTONII (Anton’s Anole). ECTOPARASITES. Lizards are
The neonates were kept in an aquarium with a mixture of soil and frequently infested with ectoparasites, and several researchers
sand to facilitate excavation, and were fed fly larvae, termites, have demonstrated the relationship between parasite load and
and small winged ants. By 23 November, two neonates exhibited lizard body size, behavior, sex, reproductive condition, and hor-
dark pigmentation (139 mm, 3.8 g and 150 mm, 3.6 g), while the mone levels (Espinoza-Carniglia et al. 2016. Rev. Mex. Biodivers.
other three neaontes were dark-pink to gray (128 mm, 2.8 g, 135 87:101–108). However, there is a lack of information on the type
mm, 3.5 g, and 130 mm, 3 g). After 33 days, the mean increase in of ectoparasites for many lizard species, as well as host-parasite
length was 5% and the mean increase in weight was 44.5%. The interactions. Anolis antonii is an endemic lizard from Colombia
egg-teeth were lost by day 33. On 24 November one neonate died but its natural history is not well described (http://www.reptile-
and was fixed. On 30 November, one of the neonates molted, and database.org; 31 July 2016). Herein, for the first time, we report a
the four remaining neonates were released in a shaded 500-liter trombiculid mite for A. antonii from Columbia.
plastic tank with soil, decomposing vegetation, earthworms and From November 2011 to July 2012, in Llanitos (4.483333°N,
larva at UFPA University for later study. 75.266667°W; WGS 84; 1540 m elev.), municipality of Ibagué, To-
In the species description of A. brasiliana (Gray 1865), the lima, Colombia, we counted the number of ectoparasites found
habitat occupied by the type specimen was uncertain, but more in 78 individual A. antonii. The locality is characterized by small
recent observations confirm that the species uses a mosaic of patches of forest and cultivated areas with coffee (Coffea arabica)
landscapes (Castro-Mello 2003. Pap. Avul. Zool. 43:139–143), and Plantains (Musa paradisiaca). We also recorded the attach-
including semi-decidous forests, alluvial forests, and hypersea- ment site of the ectoparasites, as well as the snout–vent length
sonal savannah (Dorado-Rodrigues et al. 2013. Herpetol. Notes (SVL) and the perch height and diameter where the lizards were
6:331–333). Our observation allows us to add “agricultural area captured (Table 1).
without forest cover,” at least in Brasil Novo municipality, where Mites were clarified in the middle Nesbitt and mounted
it is possible to find a great number of individuals while tilling the on individual slides in the middle Berlese (Walter and Krantz
Table 1. Parasite data for Anolis antonii population located at Llanitos, Tolima Department, Colombia (TL: Total liz-
ards; TIL: Total infested lizards; TCP: Total collected parasites; PL: Parasite load; SVL: Snout–vent length; PH: Perch
height; PD: Perch diameter).
TL TIL TCP PL SVL (mm) PH (cm) PD (cm)

Category N N N Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Males 23 5 15 0.65 1.73 45.6 3.30 158.86 50.25 12.76 4.91

Females 22 13 27 1.22 1.44 46.3 3.87 70.18 59.44 12.64 8.94
Juveniles 33 5 13 0.39 0.95 31.1 5.67 85.81 73.62 11.63 7.39

and lesions caused by MAUD notably affected the dewlap struc-

ture, limiting its normal extension and retraction (Fig. 1). Since
it is known that the dewlap display in male anoles is related to
many vital functions, such as species recognition, territory de-
fense (Losos 1985. Copeia 1985:905–910), courtship (Rand 1967.
Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 122:1–79), and predator defense (Leal and
Rodríguez-Robles 1995. Copeia 1995:155–161), the severe infes-
tation generated by the Microtrombicula sp. could affect the be-
havior and population size of A. antonii.
CRISTIAN ALFONSO GALLEGO CARMONA (e-mail: cristian.
[email protected]); KRISTIAN ALBERTO TORRES BONILLA,
CRISTIAN FABIAN CASTRO MORALES, JUAN SEBASTIAN FORERO
RODRIGUEZ, MANUEL HERNANDO BERNAL BAUTISTA, Grupo de
Investigación en Herpetología, Eco-Fisiología and Etología, Universidad del
Tolima, Barrio Santa Helena Parte Alta / A.A. 546, Código postal 730006299,
Ibagué, Tolima, Colombia; MARÍA CAROLINA SILVA-DE LA FUENTE,
Departamento de Ciencias Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias,
Universidad de Concepción, Avenida Vicente Méndez, 595, Chillán, Chile.
ANOLIS CAROLINENSIS (American Green Anole). POSSIBLE

KLEPTOTHERMY. Kleptothermy describes a mode of
thermoregulation by which one animal shares or steals the body
heat of another (Brischoux et al. 2009. Biol. Lett. 5:729–731). This
behavior is common across a broad range of taxa and manifests
primarily as aggregations where effective size is increased to
reduce the loss of heat. When aggregated, individuals are able
to increase the thermal inertia of the group as a whole, which
serves to both reduce metabolic cost of body temperature
maintainence and reduce external heat loss (Canals et al. 1989.
J. Theor. Biol. 141:181–189). These behaviors are common in
mammals (Arends et al. 1995. J. Mammal. 76:947–956) and
birds (Ancel et al. 1997. Nature 385:304–305) found in cold
environments, but appear particularly attractive to reptiles,
which—as ectotherms—must rely on external sources for the
Fig. 1. Male Anolis antonii parasitized by Microtrombicula sp. A) left maintenance of body temperature. Subsequently, kleptothermy
side view; B) dewlap extension (right side view). has been reported in both snakes (Aubert and Shine 2009.
Aust. Ecol. 34:210–217) and lizards (Shah et al. 2003. Behaviour
2009 In Krantz and Walter [eds.], A Manual of Acarology. 3 rd
140:1039–1052). Often these interactions occur among members
Edition, pp. 83–96. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, of the same species, but many possible instances of interspecific
Texas). Mites were then observed under light microscopy 400x kleptothermic behavior have been noted (Brischoux et al., op.
(Leica DM 1000 LED), and subsequently identified as within the cit.). For example, Notechis scutatus (Australian Tiger Snake)
genus Microtrombicula (Acariformes: Trombiculidae), following (Worrell 1958. Song of the Snake. Angus and Robertson,
Brennan and Goff (1977 J. Parasitol. 63:554–566). Mites from the Sydney, Australia. 210 pp.) and Sphenodon punctatus (New
genus Microtrombicula are characterized by six branched and Zealand Tuatara) (Corkery et al. 2014. Physiol. Biochem.
nude setae in palp without the subterminal seta, a dorsal scutum Zool. 2:216–221) are both known to utilize seabird burrows as
subpentagonal, flagelliform sensilla, and leg II with pretarsala thermal refuges. Few studies actually quantify heat transfer in
present. supposed instances of kleptothermy, so many observations
The prevalence of Microtrombicula sp. was 21.7% in males, purporting this behavior are conjectural (Corkery et al., op.
59.1% in females, and 15.2% in juveniles. The parasite load of the cit.). Nevertheless, noting unique natural history observations
infested population was low (mean = 2.39, SD = 1.63), and the such as these is important in furthering our knowledge of both
size (SVL) of the parasitized lizards ranged from 20–51 mm. No species’ ecology, and interspecific relationships. Here I report
significant correlations were found between the parasite load a possible case of kleptothermy in A. carolinensis from the Red
and SVL (Pearson r = 0.09, p = 0.50), perch height (Pearson r = Ratsnake, Pantherophis guttatus.
0.08, p = 0.57) or perch diameter (Pearson r = 0.08, p = 0.54) where At 0803 h on 10 February 2016 in Miami, Florida, USA
the lizards were found. The axillary pockets and the dewlap were (25.543°N, 80.575°W; WGS 84), I observed a possible incident
the main body regions of the lizards used as infestation sites by of kleptothermy in the external battery housing of an Isco 6712
mites. portable automatic water sampler. The sampling unit and battery
In particular, at 1041 h on 15 November 2011, we found an housing were located on a 1.5-m-tall wooden platform ca. 40
adult male A. antonii (SVL = 42 mm) with six individual Mi- m from a levee embankment in a thicket of Salix caroliniana
crotrombicula sp. on the dewlap and severe injuries known as (Coastal Plain Willow) surrounded by inundated marsh
mite-associated ulcerative dermatitis (MAUD) (Dawson et al. composed of Cladium jamaicense (Sawgrass) and Muhlenbergia
1986. Lab Anim. Sci. 36:262–267). The inflammatory response capillaris (Hairawn Muhly Grass). The water level directly below

A sample of five C. semenanjungensis consisting of three

males (mean SVL = 61 mm ± 3.6 SD, range = 58–65 mm) and two
females (SVLs = 60, 68 mm) were collected in June 2008, in West
Malaysia, Johor State, Gunung Panti (1.8344°N, 103.9006°E, WGS
84) and deposited in the herpetology collection of La Sierra Uni-
versity (LSUHC), Riverside California, USA as LSUHC 8900, 8901,
8926, 8927, 8930 was examined. Lizards were sacrificed by an
overdose of pentobarbital.
A cut was made in the lower abdominal cavity and the left
testis or ovary was removed, embedded in paraffin, cut into 5-µm
sections, and stained with Harris hematoxylin followed by eosin
counterstain. Histology slides were deposited at LSUHC.
All three males were producing sperm (spermiogenesis). The
lumina of the seminiferous tubules were lined by sperm or clus-
ters of metamorphosing spermatids. The smallest reproductively
active male measured 58 mm SVL (LSUHC 8927). One female
(SVL = 68 mm, LSUHC 8930) exhibited early yolk deposition (vi-
tellogenic granules in the ooplasm) indicating she was an adult.
Fig. 1. Circled in white between the coils of the Pantherophis guttatus
The other female (SVL = 60 mm, LSUHC 8926) was not repro-
(Red Ratsnake) is the head of an Anolis carolinensis (American Green
Anole) as found in situ. The lizard remained briefly in this position ductively active and possessed quiescent ovaries. While adults
before retreating its entire head back underneath the snake’s body. may reach an SVL of 71.1 mm SVL (Grismer 2011, op. cit.), C. se-
menanjungensis males as small as 58 mm SVL have commenced
reproductive activity. Examination of C. semenanjungensis from
the platform was ca. 35 cm. Weather conditions were overcast additional months is needed to elucidate the reproductive cycle
skies, with an air temperature of ca. 15.5°C. During a routine of this species.
sample retrieval and battery check, the battery housing cover STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
was removed and inside next to the battery was a large (SVL ca. Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); L. LEE
75.0 cm) Pantherophis guttatus. Nested within the body of the P. GRISMER, La Sierra University, Department of Biology, Riverside, California
guttatus was an Anolis carolinensis (SVL ca. 5.0 cm; Fig. 1). The 92515, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
lizard did not appear to be constrained in any way and had free
movement in the snake’s coils, and therefore this observation CYCLURA LEWISI (Blue Iguana). SOCIAL BEHAVIOR. Extensive
was not perceived in any way to be a predation event. Further, tongue-touching of substrates and inspection of retreats and
the snake was visibly distended from a previous meal. After less feces suggest that chemical cues play an important role in
than a minute the A. carolinensis withdrew its exposed head back Cyclura lewisi communication and behavior (Goodman 2007.
underneath the P. guttatus. Carib. J. Sci. 43:73–86; pers. obs). The purpose of this note is to
This particular observation was interesting because P. document a new observed interaction between adult specimens
guttatus is a predator of A. carolinensis (pers. obs.). In addition that further support the importance of chemical cues in C. lewisi
to potential thermoregulation benefits, it is possible the anole social behavior. I observed C. lewisi behavior during summer 2010
was also afforded some degree of protection from predators at Queen Elizabeth Royal Botanic Park (19.31816°N, 81.16718°W)
such as smaller snakes, which may have been more appropriate in Grand Cayman. I observed specimens free to roam in the Park
size-matched predators. The space inside the battery housing and breeding adults hosted in pens (ca. 12 x 15m) delimitated
was noticeably warmer than the surrounding air, and there by 1-m-high concrete walls that prevent lizards from seeing
was ample space for the anole such that it was not necessary one another. Males are territorial and head-bob to rivals. On
to be in direct contact with the snake. This is the first recorded
observation of an individual A. carolinensis taking shelter in the
coils of a P. guttatus.
OLIVER LJUSTINA, Department of Biology, Southeastern Louisiana
University, Hammond, Louisiana, USA (e-mail: [email protected]);
JAMES T. STROUD, Department of Biology, Florida International Univer-
sity, Miami, Florida 33199, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
CYRTODACTYLUS SEMENANJUNGENSIS (Peninsular Bent-

toed Gecko). REPRODUCTION. Cyrtodactylus semenanjungen-
sis is a gecko that is likely to range throughout the lowlands of
southern Johor, Peninsular Malaysia from at least the vicinity of
Jemaluang, south to the foothills of Gunung Panti (Grismer and
Leong. 2005. J. Herpetol. 39:584–591). Grismer (2011. Lizards of
Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and their Adjacent Archipelagos.
Edition Chimaira, Franfurt am Main, Germany. 728 pp.) reported
gravid C. semenanjungensis females carrying two eggs during
Fig. 1. Two adult Cyclura lewisi interacting socially without visual
June. In this note we present additional information on its repro-
contact.
ductive cycle.

two occasions, I observed free-ranging adult males intensively there are no reports of parasites from this species. In this note we
tongue-flicking when approaching pens at a distance of 3 m from establish a parasite list for C. yoshii.
the wall. Then, they stopped exactly opposite to males in the pen We examined the body cavity of one female C. yoshii (SVL =
and both individuals began displaying and head-bobbing to one 100 mm) collected at Tawau Hills Park, (4°37'N, 117°54'E; WGS 84)
another for several minutes. This entire behavior was performed Tawau District, Sabah, Malaysia, collected November 1991, and
without visual contact because a concrete wall separated them. deposited in the herpetology collection of the Field Museum of
The two observations involved different individuals and on both Natural History (FMNH), Chicago, Illinois, USA, as FMNH 248980.
occasions, at the beginning of the interaction, the males in the A cut was made in the body cavity, which was then examined
pens were located in the proximity of the inner side of the wall, for parasites. One nematode was found embedded in the
closest to the outside lizard. Free-ranging males did not show the body wall. It was cleared in several drops of lactophenol on a
described behavior near empty pens or pens where males were microscope slide, cover slipped, studied under a compound
far from the walls, suggesting that eventual residual chemical microscope, and identified as a larval nematode Ascarididae gen.
signals do not play a role in this interaction. My observations sp., utilizing Smyth (1994. Introduction to Animal Parasitology.
represent further evidence that C. lewisi has acute senses and Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 549 pp.) We were
relies strongly on chemical cues to detect and interact with unable to make a generic identification based on only a single
conspecifics. The chemical signals can apparently be strong specimen. The parasite was deposited in the Harold W. Manter
enough to produce a response in adults without visual contact. Laboratory (HWML), University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA as
Finally, since the interactions started with intense tongue- HWML 99873.
flicking of the air, presumably these cues are airborne. It is likely that C. yoshii was a paratenic (= transport) host for
Special thanks go to Frederick J. Burton, John Marotta, Doug the larval Ascarididae gen. sp. with development to the adult
Bell, and Alberto Estevanovich for their help and guidance during nematode occurring when it was eaten by a carnivore. Larval As-
my stay in Grand Cayman, and to Martin Whiting for his advice. carididae gen. sp. in C. yoshii is a new host record.
STEFANO RAMBALDI, via Gramsci 30, Sermide, Mantova, 46028 Italy; We thank Alan Resetar (FMNH) for permission to examine C.
e-mail: [email protected]. yoshii.
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biol-
CYRTODACTYLUS TEBUENSIS (Tebu Mountain Bent-toed ogy, Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: [email protected]);
Gecko). REPRODUCTION. Cyrtodactylus tebuensis is gecko that CHARLES R. BURSEY, Pennsylvania State University, Shenango Campus,
was described from Gunung Tebu (05°36'N, 102°36'E; WGS 84) Department of Biology, Sharon, Pennsylvania 16146, USA (e-mail: cxb13@
Terengganu State, Peninsular Malaysia (Grismer et al. 2013. Zoo- psu.edu).
taxa 3616:239–252). In this note we provide the first information
on C. tebuensis reproduction from a histological examination of CYRTOPODION SCABRUM (Rough Bent-toed Gecko). REPRO-
museum specimens. DUCTION. Cyrtopodion scabrum occurs in southwestern Asia
We examined a sample of 8 C. tebuensis consisting of two from Syria and Jordan eastward through Iran to northwestern
adult males (SVL = 68 mm), three adult females (SVL = 73, 80, India and northeastern Africa (Werner 2016. Reptile Life in the
80 mm), and three juveniles (SVL = 31, 33, 35 mm) collected at Land of Israel with Comments on Adjacent Regions. Edition
the type locality and deposited in the herpetology collection of Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main. 494 pp.). It was discovered in the
La Sierra University (LSUHC), Riverside, California, USA (LSUHC Port of Galveston, Galveston County, Texas, USA, in 1983 (Selcer
10902, 11191, 11192–11194, 11197, 11199, 11670). and Bloom 1984. Southwest. Nat. 29:499–500) and presumably
A cut was made in the lower abdominal cavity and the left arrived as a stowaway in cargo (Kraus 2009. Alien Reptiles and
testis or ovary was removed, embedded in paraffin, cut into 5-µm Amphibians: a Scientific Compendium and Analysis. Springer
sections and stained with Harris hematoxylin followed by eosin Science, New York. 563 pp.).
counterstain. Histology slides were deposited in LSUHC. Bloom et al. (1986. Southwest. Nat. 31:129–131) provided
Both males (LSUHC 11197) (collected January 2013) and evidence that C. scabrum was reproducing in Texas. In Egypt, C.
(LSUHC 10902) (collected September 2012) exhibited spermio- scabrum reproduction occurs from March through September;
genesis in which the seminiferous tubules were lined by sperm peak activity was in June–July (Ibrahim 2013. J. Herpetol. 47:148–
or clusters of metamorphosing spermatids, indicating males 155). In this note I provide additional information on C. scabrum
of C. tebuensis are mature at 68 mm SVL. Two females (LSUHC reproduction in Texas.
11194, 11199) collected January 2013 exhibited quiescent ovaries
(no yolk deposition). One female (LSUHC 11670), SVL = 73 mm Table 1. Monthly stages in the ovarian cycle of 20 adult Cyrtopodion
collected September 2012 contained 2 oviductal eggs which is scabrum from Galveston, Texas; * = one oviductal female, collected in
the first clutch size reported for C. tebuensis females. Three ju- May, with a concurrent vitellogenic follicle indicating production of
veniles from January 2013 contained tiny gonads that were not multiple clutches in the same reproductive season.
histologically examined.
Month N Quiescent Early yolk Follicles Oviductal
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology, deposition > 3 mm eggs
Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); L. LEE
GRISMER, La Sierra University, Department of Biology, Riverside, California May 2 0 1 0 1*
92505, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
June 11 1 0 7 3
July 2 0 0 2 0
CYRTODACTYLUS YOSHII (Yoshi’s Bow-fingered Gecko).
August 1 0 0 0 1
ENDOPARASITE. Cyrtodactylus yoshii is a gecko endemic to
northern Borneo (Das 2004. Lizards of Borneo. Natural History October 4 3 0 1 0
Publications, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia. 83 pp.). To our knowledge

Twenty-seven adult C. scabrum (7 males: mean SVL = 48.4

mm, 2.4 SD, range = 44–52 mm; 20 females: mean SVL = 48.5
mm ± 3.3 SD, range = 42–53 mm) were collected at the Port of
Galveston (29.3007°N, 94.8172°W; WGS 84), Galveston, Galveston
County, Texas 1988 to 2009 and deposited in the herpetology col-
lection Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences (TCWC),
Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, as TCWC 71329–
71333, 71337, 71363–71365, 71369, 71371–71376, 71379, 71386,
71388, 71390, 71392, 78667, 78668, 94096–94099.
The only stage present in the testicular cycle was sperm for-
mation (spermiogenesis) in which the seminiferous tubules are
lined by clusters of sperm or metamorphosing spermatids. Males
were present from the following months: May (N = 2), June (N =
4), August (N = 1). The smallest reproductively active male (sper-
miogenesis) measured 44 mm SVL (TCWC 71373) and was col-
lected in June.
Four stages were present in the ovarian cycle (Table 1): 1) qui-
escent, no yolk deposition; 2) early yolk deposition, vitellogenic Fig. 1. Predation on Ecpleopus gaudichaudii by the spider Ctenus cf.
basophilic granules in the ooplasm; 3) enlarged ovarian follicles ornatus.
> 3 mm; 4) oviductal eggs. One May female (TCWC 94099) with
two oviductal eggs contained an enlarged (5 mm) vitellogenic vehemens, and C. paubrasil), with C. medius and C. ornatus being
follicle for a subsequent clutch indicating C. scabrum can pro- the most common (Brescovit and Simó 2007. Bull. Br. Arachnol.
duce more than one clutch in the same reproductive season in Soc. 14:1–17). Ctenid spiders are known to prey on amphibians in
Texas. The smallest reproductively active female (TCWC 71374) neotropical regions (Menin et al. 2005. Phyllomedusa 4:39–47),
measured 42 mm SVL (1 follicle > 4 mm) and was collected in but records of predation on lizards remain scarce (Waldez and
June. Mean clutch size = 1.92 ± 0.28 SD (range = 1–2, N = 13). Lima 2006. Herpetol. Rev. 37:462). Our observation represents
Reproductive activity from May into October (Table 1) indicates the first record of C. cf. ornatus preying on E. gaudichaudii in the
C. scabrum exhibits a prolonged period of reproduction although Atlantic Forest region of southeastern Brazil.
it is not known if the one enlarged follicle (5 mm) in the October Jane C. F. Oliveira provided suggestions on the manuscript.
female (TCWC 71329) would have completed development or Permit for the study was provided by ICMBio (Permit No.
undergone follicular atresia (= resorption). Follicular atresia in 46327-3). The Vale Natural Reserve provided permit and logisti-
lizards is commonly seen late in the reproductive season (Gold- cal support for the study in the Reserve, the Conselho Nacional
berg 1973. J. Herpetol. 29:284–289) when yolk from unovulated do Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), and the
follicles are engulfed by enlarged granulosa cells to be presum- Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
ably utilized in production of eggs during a subsequent period (FAPERJ) for financial support to HGB and CFDR. JPR and ACF
of reproduction. thank the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível
I thank T. Hibbitts (TCWC) for permission to examine C. sca- Superior (CAPES) for the scholarship granted. Lizard identifica-
brum. tion was verified by M. W. Cardoso, and the spider was identified
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology, by D. Polotow.
Whittier, California 90608, USA; e-mail: [email protected]. JULIANE PEREIRA-RIBEIRO (e-mail: [email protected]),
ÁTILLA C. FERREGUETTI, HELENA G. BERGALLO, and CARLOS FRED-
ECPLEOPUS GAUDICHAUDII. PREDATION. The gymnophthal- ERICO D. ROCHA, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade do Estado do
mid Ecpleopus gaudichaudii is a monotypic species endemic to Rio de Janeiro, 20550-13, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
the Atlantic Rainforest of Brazil (Peters et al. 1986. Bull. U.S. Nat.
Mus. 297:1–293). It inhabits leaf litter on the forest floor, but its HEMIDACTYLUS FRENATUS (Common House Gecko). TAIL
ecology is poorly known. Herein we report on observation of pre- BIFURCATION. Native to tropical Asia and the Indo-Pacific (Case
dation on E. gaudichaudii by a spider in Brazil. et al. 1994. Ecology 75:464–477), Hemidactylus frenatus now has
During field work, at 1857 h on 4 June 2015, in the Vale Nat- a circumglobal distribution in tropical and sub-tropical habitats
ural Reserve (19.0645°S, 40.0303°W; 22 m elev.), municipality (Rödder et al. 2008. Northwest. J. Zool. 4:236–246). Despite
of Linhares, in north Espírito Santo state, Brazil, we observed the broad distribution of H. frenatus, little is known about this
a specimen of E. gaudichaudii (SVL = 24.0 mm; TL = 30.0 mm; species’ biology, particularly in its introduced range. Among
weight = 0.8 g) being preyed upon by a spider Ctenus cf. ornatus the limited reports of the species is one description of several
(Ctenidae) (Fig. 1). The spider was moving on a palm leaf at 20 specimens from Hawaii with unusual morphologies, including
cm height above ground, while holding the lizard in its chelic- exopthalmia, pseudotumors, and bifurcated tails (Chan et al.
erae. When we approached, the spider released the lizard and 1984. Proc. of 5th Conf. Nat. Sci. Hawaii Volcanoes National
retreated into a tree orifice 3 m away. The lizard was dead upon Park, pp. 41–50). Herein we report only the second published
collection, and was deposited as voucher specimen in the herpe- case of tail bifurcation in this species, also from an introduced
tological collection of the Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro (MNRJ population.
25575). The spider was identified through photographic record At approximately 1800 h on 30 June 2014, AM observed an
as Ctenus cf. ornatus. adult H. frenatus climbing a wall in Choluteca, Choluteca Depart-
Four species of spiders of the genus Ctenus are currently ment, Honduras (13.317082°N, 87.165614°W, WGS 84; 54 m elev.),
known from the Vale Natural Reserve (C. medius, C. ornatus, C. where the species had been previously documented (Lovich et

al. 2010. Herpetol. Rev. 41:112–115). While a photograph was ob- Bergallo 2011. Braz. J. Biol. 71:447–450), although in recent de-
tained, the animal evaded capture. Consequently, no measure- cades it also has been establishing successfully in natural areas of
ments or other data were obtained. the country, with records in 13 states (Rocha et al. 2011, op. cit.).
From the photo it was determined that the specimen lost Apparently, the successful establishment of H. mabouia may be
its tail, perhaps due to a failed predation attempt, at a proximal in part related to its association with human dwellings, on which
position. The reduced length of the tail branches, relative to a it uses light sources to obtain food and as refuges against preda-
typical tail, suggests that the entire tail was removed and that tors (Howard et al. 2001. Carib. J. Sci. 37:285–288). Several studies
regrowth was not complete at the time of observation. Unlike highlight that H. mabouia is preyed upon by different taxa in an-
some other reports of tail bifurcation, where it is clear that the thropic areas, including invertebrates (e.g., spiders, Nephilengys
breakage was not entire (see Heyborne and McMullin 2016. cruentata, Diniz 2011. Herpetol. Notes 4:357–358; Lycosidae, Kos-
Herpetol. Rev. 47:674), resulting in one branch consisting of ki et al. 2013. Herpetol. Rev. 44:509) and vertebrates (e.g,. snakes,
the original tail and the other branch a regenerated tail, in this Leptodeira annulata, Cantor and Pizzato 2008. Herpetol. Rev.
individual, both branches appeared to be regenerated. Thus, the 39:470–471; Oxybelis fulgidus, Santos et al. 2011. Herpetol. Notes
cause of the bifurcation is unknown. 4:429–430; Philodryas nattereri, Godinho et al. 2012. Salamandra
Although tail bifurcation is not widely known from this spe- 48:233–234; birds, Crotophaga ani, Figueiredo-de-Andrade and
cies, bifurcated tails have been reported from other members of Silveira 2012. Herpetol. Bull. 121:40–41; primates, Callithrix pen-
the genus, including: H. flaviviridis (Mehra 1963. Agar Univ. J. icillata, Rocha-Santos et al. 2013. Herpetol. Rev. 44:674).
Res. 12:3), H. giganteus (Gandia and Srinivasulu 2015. Taproban- Scinax x-signatus is an endemic frog from South America
ica 7:263–265), and H. prashadi (Yankanchi and Kumbar 2016. with a wide geographical distribution mainly in the north of the
Reptile Rap 18:34–35). continent, where it inhabits tropical savannahs, forest edges, and
WILLIAM H. HEYBORNE, Department of Biology, Southern Utah Uni- open areas, occurring in abundance in temporary water bodies
versity, Cedar City, Utah 84720, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); during the wet season (Figueiredo de Andrade et al. 2010. Herpe-
ASPEN MAHAN, St. George, Utah 84770, USA. tol. Notes 3:53–54). Previous studies indicated that some species
from the genus are generalist predators that consume a variety
HEMIDACTYLUS MABOUIA (Tropical House Gecko). PREDA- of arthropods, mainly insects (e.g., S. argyreornatus, Teixeira and
TION. Hemidactylus mabouia is native to Africa and has become Vrcibradic 2004. Bol. Mus. Biol. Mello Leitão 17:35–43; Teixeira
established successfully in the New World, occurring in several and Röder 2007. Herpetozoa 19:161–173; S. arduous, Pertel et al.
countries from South America, Central America, parts of North 2010. Caldasia 32:149–159; S. squalirostris, Kittel and Solé 2015.
America, and in the Caribbean, with the exception of Jamaica Herpetol. Notes 8:157–160). Herein we report the first observa-
(Rocha et al. 2011. Zoologia 28:747–754). In Brazil, it is frequently tion of predation on H. mabouia by Scinax x-signatus.
founded in perianthropic areas within the great biomes of the At 2237 h on 17 June 2015, an adult S. x-signatus (SVL = 28.81
Amazon, the Cerrado and the Caatinga (Vanzolini et al. 1980. In mm) was observed approaching a juvenile H. mabouia (SVL =
Vanzolini et al. [eds.], Répteis das Caatingas: Lagartos, pp. 69– 23.42 mm) (Fig. 1A), in a residence at Maracanaú municipality
132. Academia Brasileira de Ciências, Rio de Janeiro; Rocha and (3.880353°S, 38.632562°W; WGS84), Ceará state, in northeast
PHOTOS BY DJAN ZANCHI-SILVA
Fig. 1. A) An adult Scinax x-signatus rapidly advances upon a juvenile Hemidactylus mabouia. B) The frog approaches the lizard, but the lizard
runs away. C) The frog preying upon the lizard, with the last portion of the tail remaining outside of the frog’s mouth. D–G) Dissection of S.
x-signatus.

Brazil. The residence is located in an open perianthropic area,

surrounded by “mata ciliar com carnaúba” and wetlands. The
anuran approached until ca. 20 cm from the lizard, the latter
which moved rapidly away, remaining ca. 5 cm from the roof.
For about an hour the anuran reduced the distance between
them (Fig. 1B), while, at the same time, the lizard seemed to be
increasingly secure in its ability to escape from the predator.
However, at 2325 h the anuran crossed the short distance
between them (ca. 15 cm), and jumped upon the juvenile H.
mabouia, grabbing it with the mouth, and causing them both
to fall to the ground. Once on the ground, only the back of the
lizard’s tail remained outside of the frog’s mouth (Fig. 1C). The
frog remained motionless until 2338 h, when it completely
swallowed the lizard. The frog was captured and euthanized
with an injection of sodium pentobarbital (AVMA 2013. Am. Vet.
Med. Assoc. 1:1–102). Subsequently, the anuran was taken to the
Núcleo Regional de Ofiologia da Universidade Federal do Ceará
(NUROF-UFC), where we dissected it to remove the lizard from Fig. 1. Lygodactylus klugei consuming nectar from flowers of Euphor-
its stomach (Fig. 1D–G). Finally, both the predator and the prey bia phosphorea (Euphorbiaceae).
were deposited in the Coleção Herpetológica da Universidade
Federal do Ceará, accession numbers CHUFC A6765 and CHUFC
L6073, respectively. About an hour before the predation event, consuming nectar at lower heights of the plant (about 100 cm
the same individuals were seen about 20 cm from each other, just above ground). By midafternoon the lizards moved less and re-
in the moment that the anuran jumped in the direction of the mained under the canopy of a tree in which the Euphorbia was
lizard, trying to capture it. However, the frog missed and fell to supported.
the ground, while the gecko remained still in the same location. Carnivorous lizards can switch to omnivory depending on
Predation upon lizards by frogs is relatively common (Ribeiro prey availability, seasonality, abundance and quality of plant
and Freire 2009. Herpetol. Rev. 40:228; Price-Rees et al. 2010. material, in order to avoid energy loss and to maintain a posi-
Wildl. Res. 37:166–173), although the opposite may also occur tive energy balance (Cooper and Vitt 2002. J. Zool. 257:487–517).
(Couto and Menin 2014. Herpetol. Notes 7:37–39). The present Furthermore, the use of resources such as pollen, sap, and nectar
record, although unprecedented, suggests that the predation of are of great value due to their high concentrations of sugars and
H. mabouia by S. x-signatus may be common in areas where hu- easy of digestion (Cooper and Vitt, op. cit.). Recently it was sug-
man occupation allows the interaction between these species gested that phloem sap feeding behavior can play an important
that naturally would not occur in sympatry. role in L. klugei diet, providing high energetic source of nutrients,
DJAN ZANCHI-SILVA, Núcleo Regional de Ofiologia da Universidade especially during the dry season, when food sources can became
Federal do Ceará (NUROF-UFC), Campus do Pici, Centro de Ciências, Blo- scarce in the caatinga. Thus, our findings represent the first re-
co 905, Pici, CEP 60.455-760, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil (e-mail: djanzanchi@ port of particular feeding behavior for Lygodactylus klugei and
gmail.com); DIVA MARIA BORGES-NOJOSA, Núcleo Regional de Ofio- may also represent an important food resource.
logia da Universidade Federal do Ceará (NUROF-UFC), Campus do Pici, We are grateful to Biodinâmica Engenharia e Meio Ambiente
Centro de Ciências, Bloco 905, Pici, CEP 60.455-760, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil Ltda. to authorize the disclosure of information and financial
(e-mail: [email protected]). support regarding the diagnosis of fauna and flora of the Serra da
Babilônia, in the municipalities of Morro do Chapéu and Várzea
LYGODACTYLUS KLUGEI (Kluge’s Dwarf Gecko). DIET. Nova, Bahia State.
Lygodactylus klugei is a small-bodied, diurnal, and arboreal IZAR AXIMOFF, Post-graduate Program in Botany, Research Institute
gecko (Vitt 1995. Occas. Pap. Oklahoma Mus. Nat. Hist. 1:1–29). of the Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden, Rua Pacheco Leão 2040, Solar da
This species occurs almost exclusively within the Caatinga (i.e., Imperatriz, Horto – Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22460-036, Brazil (e-mail: izar.axi-
a Brazilian semiarid ecosystem), with the exception of a few [email protected]); EDESIO FELIX, Rua Marques de Monte Santo 59, Ap.
isolated records in Cerrado areas in northeastern Brazil (Passos 401, Água Marinha, Rio Vermelho – Salvador, BA, 41940-330, Brazil (e-mail:
et al. 2016. Stud. Neotrop. Fauna and Env. 1:19–28). This lizard is [email protected]).
an active forager, feeding mostly on arthropods as coleopterans,
hemipterans, termites, and spiders (Galdino et al. 2011. Herpetol. PHRYNOSOMA ASIO (Giant Horned Lizard). NATURAL
Rev. 42:275–276). In the present study, we report the first case of LONGEVITY. Decade-long monitoring of natural populations of
nectar consumption by L. klugei. horned lizards is infrequent, but we have been studying various
Nectar consumption by L. klugei was observed on 19 and aspects of the natural history of Phrynosoma asio since 1996
20 October 2016, near the northern boundary of the Morro do (Sherbrooke and Beltrán-Sánchez 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:64–65;
Chapéu State Park (11.168267°S, 41.336498°W, SAD69; elev. 795 Barbosa Rodriguez 2010. Phrynosomatics 15:1,3; Granados-
m), Bahia State, northeastern Brazil. Geckos fed on nectar in the Calixto and González-Alvarado 2010. Phrynosomatics 15:6–8)
flowers of Euphorbia phosphorea (Euphorbiaceae), a shrub (300 at Cerro Tepetlayo, Zumpango de Neri, north of Chilpancingo,
cm) found in the Caatinga domain in northeastern and south- Municipio de Eduardo Neri, Guerrero, México.
eastern Brazil. The flowers of this shrub are also visited by ants. In captivity, some Phrynosoma species may be long lived,
We identified five individual L. klugei foraging on the flowers. including P. asio (Baur 1986. Bull. Maryland Herpetol. Soc.
In the early morning and late afternoon the lizards were seen 22:149–151, 10 years, 10 months, 19 days; Montanucci 1989. Bull.

Chicago Herpetol. Soc. 24:229–238, 13 years, 8 months, 29 days) should be considered conservative. The mean number of
but survival longevity in nature is poorly known in the genus individual common ground beetles (Carabidae) per sample was
and unknown in this tropical latitude species. Here we report on low (adult samples 7.2 ± 1.49 SE and juvenile samples 2.3 ± 1.66
three captures (15 May 1998, 8 June 1999, 26 June 2010) of a single SE) compared to the mean number of individual ants per sample
female P. asio (sequential SVLs, 41, 92, 112 mm and mass, 44, 65, (adult samples 253.8 ± 34.39 SE and juvenile samples 215.83 ±
76 g), whose documented survived was over 12 years, 1 month, 110.64 SE). However, carabid remains were found in 83% of the
and 11 days. This female hatched in November 1997, probably fecal samples obtained from juvenile horned lizards and 100%
seven months before first being encountered (hatching occurs of adult samples. The diversity of non-ant prey items found in
in November at this location; first SVL is in the range of hatchling adult horned lizard fecal samples included bees from the family
sizes; García Pareja 2012. Thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Halictidae (N = 2), Zygogramma beetles (N = 5), a single weevil
Guerrero, Chilpancingo, México). The longevity of this lizard (Curculionoidea), and beetles from the family Histeridae (N = 2).
(about 12 years, 8 months) in the wild allows comparisons with Non-ant prey items from juvenile horned lizard samples were
records of longevity for conspecific captives, and with other limited to Zygogramma beetles (Chrysomelidae) and ground
species of Phrynosoma, captive or wild. beetles (Carabidae). The most unexpected find was a cluster
MARCOS GARCÍA PAREJA, Laboratorio de Herpetología, Departa- of Side Oats Gramma seed (Bouteloua curtipendula) from an
mento de Zoología, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma adult male sample. This is most likely incidental consumption,
de México, A.P. 70515, C.P. 04510, Distrito Federal, México (e-mail: mar- since seeds are a common food of the harvester ant. Our sample
[email protected]); ELIZABETH BELTRÁN-SÁNCHEZ, Instituto de represents the first record of these prey items from P. cornutum
Investigación Cientifica Área Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma in this region. Representatives of each group of prey items were
de Guerrero, Chilpancingo, Guerrero, México (e-mail: elizabeltran@yahoo. photographed as vouchers (Fig. 1).
com.mx); WADE C. SHERBROOKE, Southwestern Research Station, Ameri- This work was conducted under Texas Parks and Wildlife Sci-
can Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 16553, Portal, Arizona 85632, USA entific Research Permit # SPR-0315-023 issued to CMW.
(e-mail: [email protected]). MARCUS THIBODEAU, Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conserva-
tion, 184451 E CR 77, Arnett, Oklahoma, USA (e-mail: marcus.thibodeau@
PHRYNOSOMA CORNUTUM (Texas Horned Lizard). PREY. odwc.ok.gov); ROY VOGTSBERGER (e-mail: [email protected]),
Texas Horned Lizards primarily eat harvester ants (mostly and CHARLES M. WATSON, Midwestern State University, 3410 Taft Blvd.,
Pogonomyrmex), but consumption of other invertebrates such Wichita Falls, Texas, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
as spiders, crickets, and beetles has been recorded (Montanucci,
1989. Herpetologica 45:208–216). Thirty Phrynosoma SPHAERODACTYLUS NOTATUS (Florida Reef Gecko). ARBO-
cornutum were collected in July of 2015 at the Gene Howe REAL BEHAVIOR. The diminutive size and cryptic behavior of
Wildlife Management Area near Canadian, Texas (35.91296°N, Sphaerodactylus notatus makes in situ observation difficult. This
100.2881°W) and placed into individual containers until they species is Florida’s only native gecko, and reaches lengths of up to
defecated. The samples were dried and individually dissected 34 mm (Henderson 2009. Natural History of West Indian Reptiles
under a stereomicroscope. They contained large numbers of and Amphibians. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, Flori-
insects (adult samples 262.13 ± 35.37 SE and juvenile samples 218 da. 310 pp.). It is described as being primarily terrestrial, mostly
± 32.21 SE). Only ant heads were counted, so reported numbers found on the ground among leaf litter, and under rocks and logs
(Henderson, op. cit.) However, communal nests containing S. no-
tatus eggs found as high as 2.5 m above the ground under the
bark of Australian Pines (Causarina equisetifolia) in the Florida
Keys suggest S. notatus can climb for breeding purposes (Krysko
et al. 2003. Amphibia-Reptilia 24:390–396).
At 1556 h on 2 January 2016 in Miami, Florida (25.623°N,
80.310°W; WGS 84), I observed a juvenile (SVL = ca. 18 mm) S.
notatus crawling from the distal portion of a Sabal Palm frond
(Sabal palmetto) toward the base of the frond, approximately 3
m above the ground. The portion of the frond on which the gecko
was observed was approximately 20 mm wide. I was able to ob-
serve the animal at this height because my vantage point from
a bridge had placed the frond at roughly waist level. The gecko
appeared to be in good health. The area immediately underneath
the palm tree was inundated under approximately 0.2 m of wa-
ter, which may be related to that individual’s arboreal behavior.
Individuals of Sphaerodactylus notatus do compete for terrestrial
spaces (Allen et al. 2015. J. Herpetol. 49:165–169), so arboreal
habitat possibly represents another space for which competition
might occur. This is the first published instance of directly ob-
served arboreality in S. notatus.
OLIVER LJUSTINA, Department of Biology, Southeastern Louisiana
Fig. 1. Representative specimens of Phrynosoma cornutum prey in-
University, Hammond, Louisiana, USA; e-mail: [email protected].
cluding A) ground beetle (Carabidae); B) Zygogramma (Chrysomeli-
dae); C) weevil (Curculionoidea); D) Pogonomyrmex (Formicidae); E)
Halictidae; F) Histeridae; and G) Bouteloua curtipendula (Poaceae). TEIRA DUGESII (Madeiran Wall Lizard). TAIL BIFURCATION.
Teira dugesii is a small lacertid lizard inhabiting the Madeira

archipelago (Kwet 2009. New Holland European Reptile and 184:1–6). Our record is the first documenting G. polyosoma as a
Amphibian Guide. New Holland Publishers. 252 pp.), the central predator of T. teyou.
part of Lisbon (Sá-Sousa 1995. Amphibia-Reptilia 16:211–214), RODRIGO GÓMEZ ALÉS (e-mail: [email protected]),
the Selvagens Islands (Bischoff et al. 1989. Salamandra. 25:237– RODRIGO ACOSTA, GUSTAVO FAVA, JUAN CARLOS ACOSTA (e-mail:
259), and several islands of the Azore Archipelago (Malkmus [email protected]), GRACIELA BLANCO, MELINA RODRIGUEZ,
1984. Nachr. Naturwiss. Mus. Aschaffenb. 92:37–69). It uses tail TOMAS MARTÍNEZ and LUCAS CORRALES, CONICET, Departamento
autotomy to avoid predation, an adaptation utilized by many de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales. Universidad
lizard species (Fitch 2003. J. Herpetol. 37:395–399; Pafilis et Nacional de San Juan, Avenida Ignacio de la Roza 590 (N), Caixa Postal
al. 2009. Evol. 63:1262–1278). However, the loss of a tail might J5402DCS, San Juan, Argentina.
result in a significant disadvantage, e.g., due to loss of nutrients
(Smyth 1974. Aust. J. Zool. 22:135–45) or during interspecific TROPIDURUS HISPIDUS (Peters’ Lava Lizard). ANTIPREDATOR
competition (Mariappan and Balasundaram 2003. Acta Ethol. MECHANISMS. Tropidurus hispidus (Squamata, Tropiduridae)
5:89–94). Tail bifurcation might occur as a result of a previous is a small lizard species that occurs across South America
injury (Lynn 1950. Herpetologica 6:81–84). Herein we report a (Carvalho 2013. Zootaxa 3640:42–56). These lizards may fall prey
case of tail bifurcation in T. dugesii. to other lizards (Sales et al. 2011. Herpetol. Notes 4:265–267;
At 1700 h on 23 September 2016, we observed an adult Silva et al. 2013. Herpetol. Notes 6:51–53), snakes (Mesquita et
male T. dugesii with a bifurcated tail in Porto Moniz, Madeira, al. 2011. Herpetol. J. 21:193–198; Menezes et al. 2013. Herpetol.
Portugal (32.8677°N, 17.1688°W; 15 m elev.). The specimen was Notes 6:55–57; Maia-Carneiro et al. 2016. Neotrop. Biol. Conserv.
found on a low concrete wall near a rocky slope by the sea. The 11:47–50) and spiders (Vieira et al. 2012. Biota Neotrop. 12:263–
lizard, along with > 20 conspecifics (both males and females), 265), and thus may display different defensive behaviors for
was feeding on raisins left behind by tourists. Tail bifurcation predation avoidance (e.g., immobility, squirreling, and locomotor
of the specimen mentioned above was located approximately escape (Díaz-Uriarte 1999. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 266:2457–2464;
40 mm posterior to the cloaca. Both tails were about the same Carneiro and Rocha 2015. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 10:661–665).
size (approximately 50 mm). Such cases of “twin tails” have Besides behavioral responses, their morphology also may be
been previously reported (e.g., Mitchell et al. 2012. Herpetol. useful to hamper or frustrate capture attempts. For instance,
Rev. 43:650; Cordes and Walker 2013. Herpetol. Rev. 44:319). We the skin of lizards might act for defense through crypsis,
suggest that this tail malformation might have been caused by aposematism, mimicry, voluntary release of large patches
an injury suffered during a predation attempt or more likely of peel, and by possessing spines (Broom 1981. Biology of
(due to the presence of many other individuals on the site) by Behaviour: Mechanisms, Functions and Applications. Cambridge
another individual of the same species during a fight over a University Press, Cambridge, UK. 332 pp.; Pianka and Vitt 2006.
female or territory. As far as we know, this is the first record of Lizards: Windows to the Evolution of Diversity. University of
tail bifurcation in T. dugesii. California Press, Berkeley, California. 348 pp.; Vitt and Caldwell
We are grateful to L. Melen for his expert advice on our ob- 2014. Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and
servation and L. Benešová for assistance during fieldwork. This Reptiles. Academic Press, London, UK. 776 pp.). Here, we report
work was supported by the BIOTOP foundation and the Inter- and discuss a previously unpublished antipredator mechanism
nal Grant Agency of the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague for the spiny scales of T. hispidus lizards.
(CIGA) through Project No. 20172002. Our observations were made while studying the ecology
DANIEL KOLESKA (e-mail: [email protected]), MARTIN KULMA, of T. hispidus in Igatu (12.88333°S, 41.31666°W), municipality
VLADIMIR VRABEC, Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Czech Univer- of Andaraí, state of Bahia, northeast Brazil, during January,
sity of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Praha, Czech Republic. February and March 2013. Rock outcrops dominated the area
with sparse sandy soils covered by undergrowth, herbaceous,
TEIUS TEYOU (Four-toed Tegu). PREDATION. Teius teyou is a and shrubby vegetation and small trees. During the study we
medium-sized lizard with a wide distribution in Argentina, spe- frequently sighted T. hispidus individuals fleeing into rock
cifically in the phytogeographical region of Monte and Chaco crevices upon the investigator’s approach. On some occasions,
Forest (Abdala et al. 2012. Cuad. Herpetol. 26:215–248). Records after the lizards were captured (noose technique), they escaped
of predators of this species do not exist; however, these lizards into crevices and anchored on rocks by using their claws and
are probably common prey for snakes (Cei 1993. Reptiles del their spiny (mucronate) scales. When in rock crevices, T. hispidus
Noroeste, Nordeste y Este de la Argentina. Herpetofauna de las individuals sometimes elevated their bodies to touch a portion
Selvas Subtropicales, Puna y Pampas. Mus. Reg. Sci. Nat. Torino. of the dorsal region to the roof, which clearly increased the
945 pp.). Here we report direct evidence of predation on T. teyou contact with rock surfaces and improved the ability to anchor
by the Red-backed Hawk, Geranoaetus polyosoma. on rocks using their pointed scales. The removal of lizards that
On 7 November 2015, during field work in an arid area of displayed this behavior from rock crevices was considerably
Monte in the locality of Encon, 25 de Mayo, San Juan, Argentina more difficult given their ability to remain wedged in the rocky
(32°S, 68.02°W, WGS84; 542 m elev.), we observed an individual surfaces. Besides the dorsum, the scales of the neck, arms, legs,
Red-backed Hawk carrying an adult female T. teyou. The event and tail may also facilitate the attachment to rock surfaces.
was recorded by photos as the bird was in flight. Previously, sau- Although we did not quantify how often lizards fled into rock
rophagy in G. polyosoma was reported (Jiménez 1995. Hornero crevices and adopted the posture, several different individuals
14:1–9) but the only specific record was on the Andean lizard (which we had marked by body painting and toe clipping)
Phymaturus extrillidus (Pérez et al. 2013. Herpetol. Rev. 44:679). displayed the behaviors. A similar behavior was reported in
Birds and mammals have also been reported as prey (Figueroa frogs, where individuals tilted their heads to close their burrows
Rojas et al. 2003. Hornero 18:43–52; Baladrón et al. 2014. Nótulas and inflate their bodies into the burrows to avoid predation (Vitt
Faunísticas 143:1–5; Morici and Vega 2015. Nótulas Faunísticas and Caldwell, op. cit.).

Dermal structures on the outside of bodies of reptiles might UROSAURUS ORNATUS (Ornate Tree Lizard). NECROPHILIA
allow them to frustrate predator attacks because they can make and FEEDING BEHAVIOR. To date, necrophilia or Davian
handling and swallowing difficult (Broom, op. cit.; Pianka and behavior has been reported in eight species of lizards: Ameiva
Vitt, op. cit.; Vitt and Caldwell, op. cit.), and spiny scales in T. ameiva (Vitt 2003. In Pianka and Vitt [eds.], Lizards: Windows
hispidus might reduce predation risk in the same way (Rocha to the Evolution of Diversity. University of California Press,
et al. 1997. Herpetol. Rev. 28:153‒154). Claws and scales might Berkeley; Caldeira-Costa et al. 2010. Herpetol. Notes 3:79–83),
inflict discomfort and wounds that may favor escape of lizards. Gambelia wislizenii (Fallahpour 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:177–
Predators may die due to swallowing lizards with spines due to 178), Holbrookia maculata (Brinker and Bucklin 2006. Herpetol.
perforation of tissues and organs and of asphyxia (Pianka and Rev. 37:466), Phrynosoma cornutum (Lane and Van Buren 2013.
Vitt, op. cit.; Vitt and Caldwell, op. cit.; Rocha et al., op. cit.). The Herpetol. Rev. 44:146–147), P. mcallii (Park et al. 2016. Herpetol.
arrangement of the mucronate spiny scales around the bodies Rev. 47:139), Salvator merianae (Sazima 2015. Herpetol. Notes
of T. hispidus lizards may be an additional defensive mechanism 8:15–18), Sceloporus occidentalis (Shedd and Eisenberg 2012.
for predation avoidance. This scale morphology may be an Herpetol. Rev. 43:338), and Tiliqua rugosa (How and Bull 1998.
adaptation for living in crevices and, together with behavioral Herpetol. Rev. 29:240). Herein, we report an observation of
responses (Díaz-Uriarte, op. cit.; Carneiro and Rocha, op. cit.), necrophilia by Urosaurus ornatus in the Chihuahuan Desert of
might reduce predation risk. far west Texas.
THIAGO MAIA-CARNEIRO (e-mail: [email protected]) and At 1655 h on 20 May 2015, we observed an adult male U.
CARLOS FREDERICO DUARTE ROCHA, Departamento de Ecologia, Uni- ornatus attempting to copulate with a female conspecific.
versidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rua São Francisco Xavier 524, CEP The pair was located on a wooden fence post ca. 2 m above
20550-013, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]). the ground, at the headquarters of Indio Mountains Research
Station, situated ca. 40 km SW of Van Horn, Hudspeth County,
TROPIDURUS HISPIDUS (Peters’ Lava Lizard). SAPROPHAGY. Texas, USA (30.776728°N, 105.016122°W, WGS84; 1233 m elev.).
Tropidurus hispidus is a small tropidurid lizard species with After approaching the lizards, we realized that the female was
widespread distribution in South America (Carvalho 2013. deceased (Fig. 1). Upon closer examination, it was determined
Zootaxa 3640:42–56). This species feeds on invertebrates, that one of the female’s hind limbs had been trapped behind a
vertebrates, and plant material (leaves, flowers, seeds, and fruits) splintered piece of the wooden post, consequently preventing
(Ribeiro and Freire 2011. Iheringia 101:225–232; Maia-Carneiro the female from falling to the ground. We assumed that the
et al. 2017. Herpetol. J. in press). Here we present evidence for inability of the female to release her hind limb and eventually
saprophagy (consumption of dead matter; carrion eating), a overheating was likely the cause of her death. It appeared that
behavior previously unpublished for T. hispidus. the female lizard had been dead for several days due to the fetid
Our observation was made in January 2013 during studies smell, distended body, and presence of maggots in body orifices.
on the ecology of T. hispidus in Igatu (12.88333°S, 41.31666°W), Because the dead female was permanently stuck on the post, the
municipality of Andaraí, state of Bahia, northeastern Brazil. The male attempted copulation numerous times while also pausing
area was composed predominantly of rock outcrops, containing to feed on the maggots coming out of the female’s body. Every
small portions of sandy soils covered by vegetation. When mov- time a mating attempt took place, the male would bite the female
ing in the area, we sighted an individual T. hispidus holding an by the neck or the dorsum and shake her violently, consequently
unidentified food item its mouth. We made immediate attempts pulling pieces of her skin and expelling more maggots. To the
to capture the lizard to identify the food item, but we were not best of our knowledge, we consider this observation to represent
able to capture the lizard. However, the lizard released the food the first published report of necrophilia in U. ornatus; and thus
item as it escaped. Examination revealed that the food item was a far, this is the ninth known lizard species to display this behavior.
piece of fatty raw beef, apparently discarded by humans.
The ingestion of such food items is suggestive of the
PHOTO BY KAYLA R. GARZA

occurrence of saprophagy. Carrion eating occurs in organisms
of different biological groups, both invertebrates and vertebrates
(Begon et al. 2005. Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems.
4th Edition, Wiley-Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts. 752 pp.),
including lizards. Although we were not able to capture the
lizard, based on its head and body size, we could infer that it
was probably an adult. As argued by Kiefer and Sazima (op. cit.),
the consumption of dead material might be advantageous for
individuals because of avoidance of risks during manipulation
and ingestion and due to low costs for acquisition comparing
with capturing live prey. It is also possible that the lizard have
seen the piece of fatty meat yet in movement after being thrown
out and confused it with live prey (humans that commonly attend
the area may have discarded the food item), although we did not
notice anyone in the area where the observation occurred.
THIAGO MAIA-CARNEIRO (e-mail: [email protected]) and
CARLOS FREDERICO DUARTE ROCHA, Departamento de Ecologia, Uni-
Fig. 1. Male Urosaurus ornatus attempting to copulate with a dead
versidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rua São Francisco Xavier 524, CEP
female conspecific at Indio Mountains Research Station, Hudspeth
20550-013, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]). County, Texas, USA.

A special thanks to the Maymester 2015 field biology class for

their great company and assistance during the field trip.
KAYLA R. GARZA, JULIE SCHLICHTE, NATALIE PETERS, DOMINIC
L. DESANTIS, JERRY D. JOHNSON, and VICENTE MATA-SILVA, Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas
79968, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
SQUAMATA — SNAKES
AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS (Cottonmouth). DIET. Agkistro-

don piscivorus consumes a wide variety of prey including at least
25 mammal species (Ernst and Ernst 2011. Venomous Reptiles
of the United States, Canada, and Northern Mexico, Vol. 1. Johns
Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 352 pp.). Here,
I report the consumption of a novel mammal species by A. pi-
scivorus.
At 1617 h, 19 October 2016 (overcast, 26.5°C), I observed an
adult Tamias striatus (Eastern Chipmunk) near the edge of a wet-
land in Shawnee National Forest, Union County, Illinois, USA,
where large numbers of A. piscivorus pass between active- and
inactive-season habitats in spring and autumn (Palis 2015. Trans.
Illinois State Acad. Sci. 108:39–42). The T. striatus was unsteady
and having difficulty standing. It moved forward one body length,
collapsed within 30 cm of the wetland edge, and stopped breath-
ing. Suspecting envenomation by an adult A. piscivorus that I had
seen 1.75 m away beneath a thicket of greenbriar (Smilax sp.),
I briefly vacated the area to prevent interfering with the snake’s
prey searching behavior. Upon my return at 1624 h, I found the
A. piscivorus (total length = ca. 76 cm) swallowing the T. striatus
head first (Fig. 1). To my knowledge, this is the first report of A.
piscivorus consuming T. striatus.
I thank Mike Dloogatch for alerting me to the Ernst and Ernst Fig. 1. Food item in gut of juvenile Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma.
A) Storeria occipitomaculata obscura in situ. B) S. o. obscura removed
reference.
from gut.
Amphibians and Reptiles, Oxford, Ohio. 614 pp.; Ernst and Ernst
2003. Snakes of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, D.C. 668 pp.). Burkett (1966. Univ.
Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. 17:435–491) provided detailed
information on the opportunistic and indiscriminate diet of
A. piscivorus in Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas, finding that
nearly 70% of its prey were fishes, amphibians, and reptiles. In
adjacent Arkansas, A. piscivorus was reported to feed on fishes,
anurans, small mammals, and snakes (Nerodia spp.; Trauth and
McAllister 1995. Proc. Arkansas Acad. Sci. 49:188–192). Cottom
et al. (1959. Welder Wildl. Found. Contr. 45:1–12) found that
birds, not reptiles or fishes, were the chief food items in the diet
of A. piscivorus from southeastern Texas. However, the diet of
juvenile A. piscivorus consists almost entirely of small frogs and
perhaps some lizards (Werler and Dixon 2000. Texas Snakes:
Identification, Distribution, and Natural History. University of
Fig. 1. Adult Agkistrodon piscivorus ingesting an adult Tamias striatus
Texas Press, Austin. 437 pp.). Here, I report a noteworthy instance
in Union County, Illinois, USA.
of a juvenile A. p. leucostoma feeding on an uncommonly
encountered snake in southeastern Oklahoma.
JOHN G. PALIS, Palis Environmental Consulting, P.O. Box 387, Jones- On 21 September 2016, a juvenile (SVL = 336 mm) A. p. leu-
boro, Illinois 62952, USA; e-mail: [email protected]. costoma was collected outside a residence in Hochatown, Mc-
Curtain County, Oklahoma, USA (34.171077°N, 94.75184°W, WGS
AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS LEUCOSTOMA (Western 84). It was taken to the laboratory, killed by peritoneal injection
Cottonmouth). DIET. Agkistrodon piscivorus has been reported of sodium pentobarbital, and a mid-ventral incision was made
to feed on a variety of vertebrates, including snakes and other to expose the gastrointestinal contents, which contained an
reptiles (Gloyd and Conant 1990. Snakes of the Agkistrodon adult (SVL = 160 mm) Storeria occipitomaculata obscura (Flor-
Complex: A Monographic Review. Society for the Study of ida Red-bellied Snake; Fig. 1). Both snakes were deposited into

the Arkansas State University Museum of Zoology (ASUMZ) subjugation behavior, which agrees with biochemical evidence
Herpetological Collection, State University, Arkansas, USA as that A. nasuta venom is highly effective but is injected slowly
ASUMZ 33592–33593. Ernst and Ernst (op. cit.) reported a variety (Mackessy and Saviola 2016. Integr. Comp. Biol. 56:1004–1021).
of snakes in the diets of A. piscivorus, including Storeria dekayi SUBHADEEP CHOWDHURY, Krishnachak, Dhurkhali, Howrah 711
(Dekay’s Brownsnake). However, to my knowledge, this is the first 410, West Bengal, India (e-mail: [email protected]); JYOTIRMOY
time S. occipitomaculata has been reported in the diet of A. pi- MAJI, Ramkrishna Mandal Institute of Education, Rashpur, Amta, How-
scivorus. rah, West Bengal, India (e-mail: [email protected]); ANIRBAN
I thank S. E. Trauth (ASUMZ) for expert curatorial assistance CHAUDHURI, Jodhpur Park, West Bengal, India (e-mail: abchaudhuri@
and the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation for a gmail.com); SAURAV DWARI (e-mail: [email protected]) and
Scientific Collecting Permit. AMAL KUMAR MONDAL, Plant Taxonomy, Biosystematics and Molecular
CHRIS T. McALLISTER, Science and Mathematics Division, Eastern Taxonomy Laboratory, Department of Botany and Forestry, Vidyasagar Uni-
Oklahoma State College, Idabel, Oklahoma 74745, USA (e-mail: cmcallis- versity, Midnapore, West Bengal, India (e-mail: [email protected]).
[email protected]).
ATRACTASPIS ENGADDENSIS (Israeli Mole Viper). REPRO-
AHAETULLA NASUTA (Green Vine Snake). DIET. Ahaetulla na- DUCTION. Atrcataspis engaddensis is known from the Middle
suta is a medium-sized, diurnal colubrine snake found in south- East, Egypt, and Arabia (Wallach et al. 2014. Snakes of the World,
ern and southeastern Asia. Ahaetulla nasuta is represented in a Catalogue of Living and Extinct Species. CRC Press, London,
India by many distinct color morphs, which may represent dif- UK. 1209 pp.). They are burrowing snakes with long fangs which
ferent species. Because the exact status of these forms is not they can extrude individually (Russell and Campbell 2015. Ven-
clearly understood, we refer to the form from West Bengal, In- omous Terrestrial Snakes of the Middle East. Edition Chimaira,
dia, as Ahaetulla cf. nasuta. Ahaetulla nasuta is known to feed Frankfurt am Main. 186 pp.). Egg-laying occurs from September
primarily on small mammals, birds, lizards, frogs, and occasion- through November, with eggs hatching three months later (Bar
ally other snakes and fishes (De Silva 1990. Colour Guide to the and Haimovitch 2011. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphib-
Snakes of Sri Lanka. R & A Publishing Ltd., Portishead. 130 pp.; ians. Herzliuya, Israel. 245 pp.). There is a report of A. engadden-
Das 2010. A Field Guide to the Reptiles of South-East Asia. New sis mating in June and producing clutches of 2–3 eggs (Werner
Holland Publishers, London. 376 pp.). It has been also reported 2016. Reptile Life in the Land of Israel with Comments on Ad-
to feed on tadpoles (Kunte 1998. Hamadryad 22:125–128) and jacent Regions. Edition Chimaira, Franfurt am Main. 494 pp.),
leeches (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2009. Sauria 31:53–54). and The IUCN Red List of Endangered Species (http://dx.doi.
On 22 May 2016, at 1624 h, we observed an adult A. cf. org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T183147A1729605.en; ac-
nasuta, approximately 1.3 m in length, preying on a juvenile cessed 1 May 2017) reported A. engaddensis produced clutches
Varanus bengalensis (Bengal Monitor Lizard) at Amta, Howrah of 3–4 eggs. In this note we report information on clutch sizes
District, West Bengal, India (22.570785°N, 87.998204°E; WGS 84). from captive A. engaddensis and months of spermiogenesis from
The A. nasuta was perched on a branch, at about 0.5 m above field-collected males.
the ground, by the bank of the Damodar River. It grabbed the Our female data comes from A. engaddensis that were long-
V. bengalensis, which was foraging on the leaf litter below, by term captives at the I. Meier Garden for Zoological Research
its head. The A. nasuta held on to the V. bengalensis for about 7 at Tel-Aviv University from 1973 to 1989. Twenty egg clutches
min, until the lizard stopped struggling. Then it started feeding were catalogued in the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History
on the monitor lizard head first. The A. nasuta kept the rest of its (TAUM), University of Tel Aviv, Israel as TAUM 9313, 9341, 9862,
prehensile body anchored tightly to the perch from which it was 10434, 11556, 11558, 11793, 11825, 11874, 12049, 12067–12069,
hanging. After ca. 15 min, when the A. nasuta had consumed half 12084, 12102, 12119, 12466, 12759, 13949, 13977. Five males were
of the V. bengalensis, it climbed about 5 m higher into the canopy, collected, 1973 to 2014 from the following regions in Israel: Ne-
where it finished swallowing the V. bengalensis over ca. 10 min. gev Desert: TAUM 8995, Southern District: TAUM 10385, Yehuda
It then disappeared into the canopy. Wall (1905. J. Bombay Nat. Desert: TAUM 14637, Jordan Valley: TAUM 10558, Shomeron:
Hist. Soc. 16:533–554) described similar lizard prey capture and TAUM 15738.
Data on clutch sizes of A. engaddensis were obtained by
counting eggs deposited by 20 females in captivity. Mean clutch
size was 2.20 ± 1.15 SD, range = 1–5 eggs. This is close to the
clutch sizes for A. engaddensis in Werner (op. cit.) and the IUCN
Red List of Endangered Species (op. cit.). Thus, it appears A. en-
gaddensis produces clutches with small numbers of eggs. Dates
of egg deposition were available for only some females August:
(N = 2), October (N = 4), November (N = 2), December (N = 1).
These dates are close to those given for egg laying in Bar and
Haimovitch (op. cit.).
For males, the lower part of the body cavity was opened and
the left testis was removed, embedded in paraffin, histological
sections were cut at 5 µm and stained by Harris hematoxylin fol-
lowed by eosin counterstain. Histology slides were deposited at
TAUM. All males were undergoing spermiogenesis in which the
seminiferous tubules were lined by sperm or clusters of meta-
Fig. 1. Ahaetulla nasuta feeding on a juvenile Varanus bengalensis
(Bengal Monitor Lizard). morphosing spermatids. Males were from the following months:
April (N = 1), June (N = 1), July (N =2), November (N = 1). The

smallest reproductively active male measured 522 mm SVL and This species is characterized morphologically by having a spur
was collected in July (TAUM 10558). Sperm production in A. en- on each wing used in display and combat (Sick 2001. Ornitologia
gaddensis males appears to be synchronous with egg production Brasileira. Editora Rio de Janeiro, Nova Fronteira. 862 pp.). The
by females. defense behaviors are more common during the bird’s reproduc-
We thank Shai Meiri (TAUM) for permission to examine A. tive period, which occurs in the spring (Costa 2002. Rev. Etologia
engaddensis and the National Collections of Natural History at 40[2]:95–108).
Tel-Aviv University for providing the A. engaddensis to study. During a diurnal survey on 12 December 2016, a subadult
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology, male B. constrictor (total length = 120 cm) was observed on the
Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); RACHEL ground preying upon an adult V. chilensis in the area of Insti-
SCHWARZ, Tel-Aviv University, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv 6997801, tuto Capixaba de Pesquisa, Assistência Técnica e Extensão Ru-
Israel (e-mail: [email protected]); EREZ MAZA, Tel-Aviv Univer- ral (INCAPER), municipality of Linhares, Espírito Santo state,
sity, Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel (e-mail: southeastern Brazil (19.4174°S, 40.0792°W, WGS84; elev. 50 m).
[email protected]). The snake captured, constricted, and ingested the prey head-
first over ca. 20 min (Fig. 1A). However, the snake’s mouth was
BOA CONSTRICTOR (Common Boa; Jibóia). DIET. Boa constric- pierced by the spur of the bird (Fig. 1B, C). After attempting to
tor is a semi-arboreal snake (Vitt and Vangilder 1983. Amphib- reposition and swallow the bird for ca. 10 min, the snake reject-
ia-Reptilia 4:273–296) that displays ambush and active forag- ed the dead prey and retreated with a bleeding wound. To our
ing strategies (Rodríguez-Robles et al. 1999. J. Zool. 248:49–58). knowledge, this is the first report of predation on V. chilensis by
In addition to feeding on mammals and lizards, birds are fre- B. constrictor.
quently eaten by adult B. constrictor and are the primary prey of ALEXANDER T. MÔNICO, Programa de Capacitação Institucional,
subadults (Pizzatto et al. 2009. Amphibia-Reptilia 30:533–544). Laboratório de Zoologia, Instituto Nacional da Mata Atlântica, CEP 29650-
Vanellus chilensis is a bird widely distributed throughout Brazil. 000, Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo, Brazil (e-mail: alexandermonico@hotmail.
com); BASÍLIO CERRI-NETO, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Fac-
uldade Pitágoras, CEP 29901-396, Linhares, Espírito Santo, Brazil (e-mail:
[email protected]); RAFAEL RABELLO REIS, Laboratório de Ver-
tebrados Terrestres, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo campus São
Mateus, CEP 29932-540, São Mateus, Espírito Santo, Brazil (e-mail: basilio-
[email protected]); WELINTON D. LAUVERS, Laboratório de Zoologia,
Instituto Federal do Espírito Santo campus Santa Teresa, Santa Teresa, CEP:
29650-000, Espírito Santo, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]).
BOTHROPS LEUCURUS (White-tailed Lancehead). DIET. Bo-

throps leucurus is widely distributed in Brazil (Carvalho Jr. and
Nascimento 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:469; Lira-da-Silva 2009.
Gazeta Médica da Bahia 79[1]:56–65). This species is endemic to
the Atlantic Forest biome, where it is found at altitudes of up to
500 m above sea level in either humid or dry habitats (Campbell
and Lamar 2004. The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemi-
sphere. Comstock Publishing/Cornell University Press, Ithaca,
New York. 870 pp.). The diet of B. leucurus varies ontogenetically,
Fig. 1. Subadult Boa constrictor preying upon an adult Vanellus

chilensis, Atlantic forest, Espírito Santo, southeastern Brazil. A) Bird
being swallowed headfirst; B–C) spur of the bird piercing the skin of Fig. 1. Bothrops leucurus and regurgitated stomach content (Calli-
the B. constrictor. thrix geoffroyi).

cisco Xavier 524, Maracanã, 20550-019, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
(e-mail: [email protected]).
COLUBER CONSTRICTOR (North American Racer). PREDA-

TION. Although ophiophagy and snake entrapment in webs has
been documented in spiders of the families Araneidae (Burt 1949.
Herpetologica 5:127; Gudger 1931. Sci. Mon. 32:422–433; Pinkus
1932. Sci. Mon. 34:80–83), Nephilidae (Zippel and Kirkland 1998.
Herpetol. Rev. 29:46), Pisauridae (Lazcano et al. 2005. Herpetol.
Rev. 36:186; Gerald 2006. Herpetol. Rev. 37:480), and Therapho-
sidae (Gudger 1931, op. cit.; Nunes et al. 2010. Herpetol. Rev.
41:367–368; Jorge et al. 2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:308), most records
have involved the family Theridiidae. Theridiid spiders in the
genera Latrodectus (Neill 1948. Herpetologica 4:158; Kaston 1965.
Am. Midl. Nat. 73:336–356; Bayliss 2001. Herpetol. Rev. 32:48–49;
Smith 2004. Afr. Wildl. 58:23; Ervin and Carroll 2007. Herpetol. Rev.
38:468; Jones et al. 2011. Herpetol. Rev. 42:440–441; Beaman and
Tucker 2014. Herpetol. Rev. 45:514), Steatoda (Pruett and Jadin
2010. Herpetol. Rev. 41:99), and Theridion (Kaston 1965, op. cit.;
Groves and Groves 1978. Bull. Maryland Herpetol. Soc. 14:44–46)
all occasionally trap and consume snakes, although the frequency
Fig. 2. Bothrops leucurus and stomach content (Thamnodynastes of such events is unknown. The strong webs and potent venom of
nattereri). these spiders allows them to consume relatively large prey (Hódar
and Sánchez-Piñero 2002. J. Zool. Lond. 257:101–109). Most of the
with the juveniles feeding mainly on ectothermic prey, such as snakes consumed by spiders are either juveniles of larger species
lizards and anuran amphibians, and adults preying primarily on or small, fossorial species (McCormick and Polis 1982. Biol. Rev.
small mammals (Lira-da-Silva 2009, op. cit.). Ophiophagy has 57:29–58). Additionally, some authors have suggested that preda-
also been recorded in juvenile B. leucurus, including the predation events may be the result of certain snakes attempting to con-
tion of the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus (Baptista sume either the spider itself or other invertebrates trapped in the
et al. 2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:474–475) and the coral snake Micru- spider’s web (Groves and Groves 1978, op. cit.; Hall and Johnson
rus corallinus (Fagundes et al. 2009. Bol. Mus. Biol. Mello Leitão 2007. Prairie Nat. 39:157–158).
25:67–71). Here we report two predation events by B. leucurus. Coluber constrictor is a widespread, actively foraging, gen-
At 0800 h on 16 August 2016 in Barra do Sahy, in the munici- eralist snake species that is found in a wide range of habitats
pality of Aracruz, in the state of Espírito Santo, southeastern Bra- (Ernst and Ernst 2003. Snakes of the United States and Canada.
zil (19.863770°S, 40.086831°W, WGS 84; 7 m elev.) we captured
an adult female B. leucurus (SVL = 108.0 cm) that regurgitated
PHOTOS BY MARK W. DAHLHOFF

an adult Callithrix geoffroyi (White-faced Marmoset; total body
length = 45 cm; Fig. 1A,B) that had been ingested headfirst. In
general, C. geoffroyi is arboreal, but these primates often move
through the shrub layer or even come to the ground (Rocha and
Passamani 2009. Bol. Mus. Biol. Mello Leitão 26:47–58), which
might account for the predation of this monkey by a predomi-
nantly terrestrial snake. We collected the marmoset as a voucher
specimen and deposited it at the National Atlantic Forest Insti-
tute in Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo (MBML 3630). The second
event occurred at 1100 h on 15 November 2016 at the margin of
the Vale Nature Reserve in the municipality of Linhares, Espírito
Santo, Brazil (19.153023°S, 39.892335°W, WGS 84; 15 m elev.).
In this case, we collected a juvenile B. leucurus (SVL = 44.3 cm)
during an active search. When the specimen was dissected, we
found an adult colubrid snake, Thamnodynastes nattereri (SVL
= 33.0 cm; Fig. 1C), that had been ingested headfirst. Although
ophiophagy has been recorded in B. leucurus (Baptista et al., op.
cit.; Fagundes et al., op. cit.), it is a relatively rare behavior. The B.
leucurus and T. nattereri specimens were collected and deposited
at the National Atlantic Forest Institute in Santa Teresa, Espírito
Santo (number: MBML 3908).
THIAGO MARCIAL CASTRO, Centro Universitário São Camilo, Rua
São Camilo de Lellis, 1, Paraíso, 29304-910, Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, Es-
Fig. 1. Juvenile Coluber constrictor being consumed by Parasteatoda
pírito Santo, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]); JANE C. F.
tepidariorum at Harold Davidson Field, Clay County, South Dakota,
OLIVEIRA, Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biologia Roberto de
USA.
Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rua São Fran-

Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 668 pp.). Known Thamnophis sirtralis parietalis (Red-sided Gartersnake) hiber-
predators of C. constrictor include several species of mammals, naculum in Manitoba that killed an estimated 123 individuals
birds, and snakes (Fitch 1963. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Shine and Mason, op. cit.), as well as the slumping of an earthen
15:351–468; Ernst and Ernst 2003, op. cit.), yet predation by inver- Coluber constrictor flaviventris (Eastern Yellow-bellied Racer)
tebrates, particularly spiders, is not well documented. In captiv- and Crotalus viridis (Prairie Rattlesnake) hibernaculum in Sas-
ity, Aphonopelma hentzi (Theraphosidae) is known to consume katchewan, thought to have decreased the local C. c. constrictor
hatchling C. constrictor (Owens 1949. Herpetologica 5:148), how- population by 50% (Gardner 2011. Blue Jay 69:121–124). Herein
ever, we are unaware of any published reports of C. constrictor we report on the natural destruction of a C. oreganus hibernacu-
predation by spiders in the wild. Here, we describe an additional lum in south-central British Columbia.
predator of C. constrictor, and provide the first report of spider On 10 April 2016 as part of a long-term research project near
predation in the wild, which may suggest bidirectional predator– Osoyoos, British Columbia, Canada (49.0424°N, 119.4343°W;
prey interactions. WGS 84), we attempted to survey a recently discovered hiber-
On 16 June 2008, a juvenile C. constrictor was observed in the naculum that was identified previously in the fall of 2014. The
web of an adult Parasteatoda tepidariorum (Theridiidae) in an hibernaculum was found to have been disturbed by a rockslide,
aircraft hanger at the Harold Davidson Field, outside of Vermil- apparently initiated by a dislodged boulder from the bluffs
lion, Clay County, South Dakota, USA (42.76538°N, 96.92950°W; above. Many rattlesnake hibernacula in this region are within
WGS 84). The C. constrictor was observed to be alive and at- talus slopes at the base of mountain cliffs and bluffs, typically
tempting unsuccessfully to escape the spider web. The tail of the between 550–650 m elev. We found at least ten adult C. oreganus
snake was caught in the spider’s web ca. 10 cm above the ground dead at or near the original den entrance. Most of these snakes
and the body and head of the snake were on the ground, with the were partially or fully buried and crushed by loose, fallen rocks
spider located near the tail. On 18 June, the juvenile C. constrictor and debris. The fan area of debris and slide material was approxi-
was found dead in the spider web, with the head of the snake sus- mately 25 m in length and 15 m wide, and included at least six
pended ca. 12 cm above the ground in the web (Fig. 1) with the additional C. oreganus mortalities, ranging in sizes from juvenile
spider actively feeding on the snake near the neck (Fig. 1, inset). to adult. The depth of the debris was unknown as well as the ex-
Both the head and the posterior end of the body and tail were tent of mortality to other snakes below the surface.
wrapped in silk, and the skin along the posterior end of the body To our knowledge, this is the first report of a rockslide result-
and tail appeared to be collapsed, suggesting the spider had liq- ing in the mortality of snakes at a hibernaculum. Stochastic,
uefied and consumed the tissues in this region in the preceding natural disturbances have the potential to eliminate a large pro-
days. Although we are uncertain of the circumstances leading to portion of the individuals using a given hibernaculum, as well as
the snake’s capture, the individual may have become trapped in indirectly affecting individuals by rendering hibernacula unsuit-
the web during an attempt to prey on the spider. Coluber con- able for future use. Studies in the northern portions of the range
strictor is known to consume spiders, especially as juveniles of other rattlesnakes (e.g., Crotalus horridus) suggest that neigh-
(Ernst and Ernst 2003, op. cit.), and this observation may suggest boring hibernacula have high genetic connectivity (Clark et al.
bidirectional predator-prey interactions between C. constrictor 2008. Mol. Ecol. 17:719–730). Thus, historically, the natural loss
and spiders. of an individual hibernacula likely had insignificant effects on
We thank J. Lapp, C. Scott, and I. Wright for assistance in spi- meta-populations of snakes at the landscape level, but coupled
der identification and C. Siler for helpful comments on this note. with growing ubiquity of intervening anthropogenic barriers
Photos of this event have been deposited at HerpMapper (HM (Andrews and Gibbons 2005. Copeia 4:772–782; Clark et al. 2010.
167425). Conserv. Biol. 24:1059–1069) and potential mortality associated
DREW R. DAVIS (e-mail: [email protected]), JILLIAN K. FARKAS, with these barriers (Hartmann et al. 2011. S. Amer. J. Herpetol
and JACOB L. KERBY, Department of Biology, University of South Dako- 6:35–42), these events may be increasingly significant.
ta, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, USA; MARK W. JARED MAIDA, Environmental Science Program, Thompson Rivers
DAHLHOFF, Auxiliary Services, University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark University, 900 McGill Rd, Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada (e-mail: jar-
Street, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, USA. [email protected]); KARL LARSEN (e-mail: [email protected]) and COLE
HOOPER, Department of Natural Resource Science, Thompson Rivers Uni-
CROTALUS OREGANUS (Western Rattlesnake). MORTALITY. In versity, 900 McGill Rd, Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada; CHRISTINE
British Columbia, Crotalus oreganus occupies the northern limits BISHOP, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 5421 Roberston Rd,
of its distribution (Lomas et al. 2015. Anim. Conserv. 18:584–556). Delta, British Columbia, Canada (e-mail: [email protected]).
To survive winter temperatures, snakes in this region aggregate
at communal hibernacula, spending upwards of 6–7 months in CROTALUS PYRRHUS (Southwestern Speckled Rattlesnake).
these sites (Gienger and Beck 2011. Can. J. Zool. 89:1084–1090; ECTOPARASITISM. Ornithodoros turicata is a nidiculous ixodid
Macartney and Gregory 1988. Copeia 1988:47–57). Strong fidel- tick that infects a diverse array of taxa throughout its distribution
ity of individuals to specific dens and high overwinter survival in arid habitat across the southern United States (Donaldson et
indicates the importance of these structures to species conser- al. 2012. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 10:e0004383). This species is rarely
vation. Although anthropogenic disturbances are often of major found on its vertebrate host as it immediately retreats to burrows,
conservation concern, natural forces acting on denning popula- nests and caves after quickly engorging itself with blood (Francis
tions of snakes may also have direct and indirect impacts on the 1938. Pub. Heal. Rep. 53:2220–2241). Moreover, the ability of
size, structure and stability of local snake populations (Gregory O. turicata to endure at least 5 years between feeds (Francis,
2007. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 2:41–46; Shine and Mason 2004. op. cit.) reduces the encounter rate between host and parasite,
Biol. Conserv. 120:201–210). thus perhaps contributing to the relatively limited historical
Rare, natural disturbance events at communal snake hiber- records of hosts. Reptiles are the second largest group of hosts
nacula previously reported include the autumn flooding of a to be infected by Ornithodoros turicata; with Crotalus spp.

representing the majority of known reptilian hosts (Donaldson contents; Fig. 1) on TX highway 349, 4.5 road miles S TX FM 2400,
et al., op. cit.). We herein report the first record of ectoparasitism Terrell Co., Texas, USA (30.533780°N, 101.89817°W; WGS84). The
by O. turicata on C. pyrrhus in the Tinajas Altas Mountains (TAs), snake was recently hit by a vehicle, exposing a portion of a par-
Yuma County, Arizona, USA. tially digested H. jani (SVL = 10.3 cm; tail length = 2.6 cm; 1.1 g;
On 15 May 2010 at approximately 1816 h, we captured a male Fig. 1). Vouchers of D. punctatus (TNHC 98140) and H. torquata
C. pyrrhus (total length = 84.4 cm) in the southern range of the (TNHC 98141) are deposited in the Division of Herpetology, Bio-
TAs (32.2748°N, 114.060°W; WGS84). The TAs reside within the diversity Collections, Department of Integrative Biology, Univer-
Barry M. Goldwater Range West located in the Lower Colorado sity of Texas at Austin. This is the first documented predation of
River Desertscrub subdivision of the Sonoran Desert. The topog- H. jani by D. punctatus.
raphy is primarily comprised of granite rocks accompanied by a I thank Matt Nordgren for spotting the snake and for initial
diverse array of vegetation. During primary examination of the encouragement to publish the observation, and Andrew Rubio
rattlesnake, we observed two ticks along the dorsal side of the for editing the manuscript.
specimen, which we later identified as O. turicata. CONNOR M. FRENCH, Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois Uni-
Ectoparasitism on C. pyrrhus has previously been documented versity, 1125 Lincoln Drive, Life Science II, Room 256, Carbondale, Illinois
(Schuett et al. 2016. In Schuett et al. [eds.], Rattlesnakes of 62901, USA; e-mail: [email protected].
Arizona: Species Accounts and Natural History, pp. 333–394. ECO
Publishing, Rodeo, New Mexico), although the ticks were not DRYMARCHON MELANURUS EREBENNUS (Texas Indigo
identified to species. However, the closely related C. mitchellii is Snake). DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOR / DEATH-FEIGNING.
a known host species of O. turicata (Gutsche and Mutschmann Thanatosis (death-feigning) is a defensive behavior best known
2011. Herpetol. Rev. 42:287–288). Our documentation of O. in Heterodon (hog-nosed snakes), but is widely reported from
turicata parasitism on C. pyrrhus extends the list of known host many other snake genera. Thanatosis is commonly reported for
species parasitized by O. turicata. Our discovery of O. turicata in Drymarchon couperi (Eastern Indigo Snake) and recent studies
the TAs additionally provides a new endemic location within the have investigated the causes of this behavior (Bauder et al. 2015.
parasite’s range. Crotalus pyrrhus likely encounters O. turicata Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 10:559–571). At 1653 h on 16 November
when it seeks refuge underground. Furthermore, an examination 2016, a D. melanurus erebennus was encountered in Hidalgo
of C. pyrrhus as a viable reservoir host for the relapsing fever County, Texas, USA (26.204583°N, 98.384349°W; WGS84) and
spirochete Borrelia turicatae is warranted as O. turicata is began death-feigning behavior. The event was documented
recognized as a known vector of this zoonotic disease. by video (WEJ and MO), now accessioned into the Amphibian
We thank the Arizona Game and Fish Department and Don- and Reptile Diversity Research Center at the University of Texas
ald Buth for the support of this project. This study was conducted at Arlington (UTA DC8747 and UTA DC8748). The individual
under permit SP551534 granted by Arizona Game and Fish De- initially loosely coiled and became immobile. It was then
partment and approved by UCLA IACUC (ARC #2011-075-02). manipulated by hand and would reposition to remain venter
MARISA TELLEZ, Marine Science Institute, University of California, down, but was otherwise immobile. The snake also distorted
Santa Barbara, California, USA and Crocodile Research Coalition, Maya its jaws to a partially gaped display. Temperatures were not
Beach, Stan Creek, Belize (e-mail: [email protected]); CHIP CO- excessive for the region (28.8°C) nor exceptional for the time
CHRAN, Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda Univer- of year in South Texas. We are unaware of previous reports of
sity, Loma Linda, California, USA (e-mail: [email protected]). this behavior in D. m. erebennus. MRJF has encountered more
than 100 individuals across four decades and has not observed
DIADOPHIS PUNCTATUS REGALIS (Regal Ring-necked Snake). this behavior in this species before. Fieldwork was conducted
DIET. Diadophis punctatus feeds on a variety of prey, including under a Scientific Permit for Research [SPR-0913-130] to Mayra
salamanders, frogs, lizards, earthworms, and snakes (Ernst and Oyervides by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department.
Ernst 2003. Snakes of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian WILLIAM E. JOHNSON, Mission, Texas, USA; MAYRA OYERVIDES
Books, Washington, DC. 680 pp.). However, there is no documen- (e-mail: [email protected]) and MICHAEL R. J. FORSTNER,
tation of the snake Hypsiglena jani texana (Texas Night Snake; Department of Biology, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San
formerly H. torquata; Mulcahy 2008. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. Marcos, Texas 78666, USA.
46:1095–1115) in the diet of D. punctatus (Ernst and Ernst, op.
cit.). On 17 April 2016 at 1025 h, I found a dead-on-road D. punc- ENHYDRIS SUBTAENIATA (Mekong Mud Snake). DIET. En-
tatus (SVL = 34.7 cm; tail length = 8.1 cm; 8.0 g without stomach hydris subtaeniata belongs to the Homalopsidae, rear-fanged,
aquatic snakes that occur widely throughout much of South Asia.
However, E. subtaeniata is restricted to the Korat Basin and sur-
rounding Mekong River drainages (Lukoschek et al. 2011. Ecol.
Evol. 1:330–342). It inhabits muddy freshwater habitats includ-
ing agricultural wetlands and primarily preys upon frogs and fish
(Karns et al. 2005. Trop. Nat. Hist. 5:73–90). However, the species
of prey consumed by E. subtaeniata and its predation behavior
remains scarcely documented. Here we document a predation
attempt made by E. subtaeniatas on a Barbonymus gonionotus
(Silver Barb).
At 0137 h on 26 November 2016 (14.3052°N, 101.5798°E,
Fig. 1. Consumption of a Hypsiglena jani texana by a Diadophis
WGS 84; 266 m elev.), we observed an adult E. subtaeniatas (total
punctatus regalis in west Texas. length = 626 cm; 192.6 g) consuming a juvenile B. gonionotus
(lateral length = 9.6 cm) on the muddy bank of a shallow flowing

stream. The surrounding riparian habitat contained large of our encounter. The snake remained motionless until capture
boulders, bamboo stands, isolated mature evergreen trees, and and subsequently regurgitated its prey. Barbonymus gonionotus
dense herbaceous vegetation. This riparian corridor forms a are commonly stocked in flooded rice paddies, and serve as a
tributary of the Mun Drainage within an agricultural portion of major food source for people in the region. During processing,
the Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve, Thailand. The stream had an we identified three large, mid-body boli, which had likely been
ephemeral flow, regulated for agricultural activities and seasonal consumed just prior to the E. subtaeniatas capture.
retention by a large dam, approximately 2 km upstream. The E. TYLER KNIERIM (e-mail: [email protected]), CURT H.
subtaeniata had partially swallowed the B. gonionotus by the time BARNES, COLIN T. STRINE, and PONGTHEP SUWANWAREE, School of
Biology, Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon
Ratchasima, Thailand; WILLIAM FARREN, Sakaerat Conservation and
Snake Education Team, Sakaerat Environmental Research Station, Nakhon
Ratchasima, Thailand.
EPICRATES CENCHRIA (Salamanta; Rainbow Boa). DIET.

Epicrates cenchria occurs in primary forests and in disturbed
areas of the Amazon Basin (Martins and Oliveira 1999. Herpetol.
Nat. Hist. 6:78−150). It is primarily terrestrial and often uses
burrows, fallen trunks, and leaf litter as refugia. It has been
recorded occasionally in vegetation up to 3 m high and foraging
inside of caves in search of bats (Martins and Oliveira 1999,
op. cit.). Epicrates cenchria is euryphagic, and is known to feed
Fig. 1. Barbonymus gonionotus (Silver Barb) regurgitated by an on frogs, lizards, birds, bird eggs, bats, and rodents (Pizzato et
Enhydris subtaeniata in Thailand. al. 2009. Amphibia-Reptilia 30:533−544; Cassimiro et al. 2010.
Herpetol. Rev. 41:501). Myrmotherula assimilis is a passeriform
bird widely distributed in the Amazon region, (Peru, Bolívia,
and Brazil), being found in the várzea of the Solimões and the
Fig. 2. Enhydris subtaeniata during its processing at our field labora-

tory, Sakaerat Environmental Research Station.
Fig. 1. Myrmotherula asssimilis nest with two newly-hatched chicks.
Fig. 3. Enhydris subtaeniata consuming Barbonymus gonionotus at

the water’s edge before we captured it, Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve,
Thailand. Fig. 2. Epicrates cenchria using the Myrmotherula asssimilis nest.

Amazon River, and along its tributaries east to the Tapajós River HYPSIGLENA JANI (Chihuahuan Nightsnake). DIET and PREY
(Sick 1997. Ornitologia Brasileira. Editora Nova Fronteira, Rio SIZE. Snakes of the genus Hypsiglena are known to primarily
de Janeiro. 912 pp.). It lives in the understory and builds nests prey on lizards, although they also consume squamate eggs,
along the floodplain (Leite et al. 2016. Rev. Bras. Ornit. 25:83−85; snakes, amphibians, and insects (Dundee 1950. Herpetologica
Zimmer and Isler 2016. In del Hoyo et al. [eds.], Handbook of the 6:28–30; Werler and Dixon 2000. Texas Snakes: Identification,
Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Distribution, and Natural History. University of Texas Press, Aus-
On 14 May 2015, a M. asssimilis nest containing two eggs was tin, Texas. 437 pp.; Ernst and Ernst 2003. Snakes of the United
found in floodplain forest on igarapé Marari, along the Juruá States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington
River, municipality of Carauari, Amazonas, Brazil (5.751697°S, D.C. 668 pp.; Setser and Goode 2004. Herpetol. Rev. 35:177;
67.773250°W; WGS 84). The open cup nest was located 72 cm Schulte et al. 2007. Herpetol. Rev. 38:467–468). In an extensive
above water in a fork in Bactris sp. leaves. Between 15 and 18 study of the diet of H. torquata from museum specimens (now
May we recorded two chicks within the nest (Fig. 1). Nestling recognized as six unique species, including H. jani), Rodríguez-
birds of the family Thamnophilidae can remain in the nest 9–18 Robles et al. (1999, Copeia 1999:93–100) reported lizards of the
days after hatching (Sick 1997, op. cit.; Zimmer and Isler 2016, genera Anniella, Elgaria, Cnemidophorus (now Aspidoscelis),
op. cit.). However, on 22 May, the nest was found with adults and Coleonyx, Crotaphytus, Gambelia, Holbrookia, Sceloporus, Uta,
chicks absent, and with an Epicrates cenchria coiled within the and Xantusia. Recent observations of H. jani foraging behaviors
nest (Fig. 2). Snakes are considered the main predators of birds’ have documented predation on introduced Hemidactylus turci-
nests, especially for species in the family Thamnophilidae (Sick cus (Mata-Silva et al. 2014. Herpetol. Rev. 45:338) and attempted
1997, op. cit.; Zimmer and Isler 2016, op. cit.). Thus, although we predation on Phrynosoma cornutum (Myers and Soley-Guardia
did not directly observe predation, it is likely that the E. cenchria 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:274). Additionally, Rodríguez-Robles et
consumed the chicks and then used the nest as a refuge. We al. (1999, op. cit.) noted that lizards of the genera Aspidoscelis,
thank FAPEAM and CAPES for the authors’ scholarships. This Coleonyx, and Xantusia were infrequently consumed when
publication is part of the Projeto Médio Juruá series (www. compared to other lizard genera and despite the greatly overlap-
projetomediojurua.org). ping distributions of these genera with that of Hypsiglena. This
GABRIEL AUGUSTO LEITE, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazô- disparate prey selection was attributed to chemosensory avoid-
nia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética, Conservação e Biologia ance of Hypsiglena by these lizard genera (Rodríguez-Robles et
Evolutiva, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]); al. 1999, op. cit.). To date, only two Aspidoscelis have been re-
TAINÁ FIGUERAS DORADO-RODRIGUES, Programa de Pós-Graduação ported as prey items of Hypsiglena: A. hyperythrus (Rodríguez-
em Ecologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal de Robles et al. 1999, op. cit.) and A. tigris (Diller and Wallace 1986,
Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Mato Grosso, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]). Southwestern Nat. 31:55–64). Additionally, the mean prey/pred-
ator mass ratio observed in this genus by Rodríguez-Robles et
HETERODON KENNERLYI (Mexican Hog-nosed Snake). PRE- al. (1999, op. cit.) was 0.24 (range: 0.03–0.50). Lacey et al. (1996,
DATION. Little information on the natural history of Heter- Can. Field. Nat. 110:620–625) calculated the total weight of a ju-
odon kennerlyi is available since it is found only peripherally in venile Prairie Rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) using the posterior
the U.S., and was until recently considered a subspecies of the end of an individual that was regurgitated by an adult female
widespread and better known H. nasicus (Ernst and Ernst 2003. H. torquata (now H. chlorophaea) and estimated a prey/preda-
Snakes of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institu- tor mass ratio of 0.35–0.54. Here, we report an additional prey
tion Press, Washington, D.C., 668 pp.). Predators of H. nasicus species consumed by H. jani as well as report a new maximum
include Buteo regalis, B. swainsoni, Corvus brachyrhynchos, La- prey/predator mass ratio for this species.
nius ludovicianus, and Canis latrans (Ernst and Ernst, op cit.;
Hill and Fitzgerald, 2008. Herpetol. Rev. 39:354); however, preda-
PHOTO BY TRAVIS J. LADUC

tor records specific to H. kennerlyi are virtually unknown. On
22 November 2015, 11.5 km SE of Valentine, Jeff Davis County,
Texas, USA (30.52166°N, 104.40198°N; WGS 84), we collected an
identifiable H. kennerlyi impaled on barbed wire at a larder of
a Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovicianus). This specimen con-
sisted only of the disarticulated head of the snake, however, the
presence of an enlarged rostral scale with a dorsal keel allowed
identification to species. To our knowledge this is the first doc-
umented instance of this bird feeding upon H. kennerlyi (Clark
2011. Son. Herpetol. 24:20–22). The specimen of H. kenneryli was
collected and preserved as SRSU 6900 (Sul Ross State University
James F. Scudday vertebrate collections). On 12 November 2016,
within the same shrike larder, the body of another H. kennerlyi
was found and preserved as SRSU 6903.
MORGAN SEILER, Sul Ross State University, Alpine, Texas 79830, USA
(e-mail: [email protected]); SEAN P. GRAHAM, Department of
Biology, Geology, and Physical Sciences, Sul Ross State University, Alpine,
Texas 79830, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); CRYSTAL KELE- Fig. 1. Adult female Chihuahuan Nightsnake (Hypsiglena jani; TNHC
HEAR, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 0843-03092, Bal- 66601) collected on 27 May 2005 in Jeff Davis County, Texas, USA.
This individual had recently consumed two Aspidoscelis inornata
boa, Ancon, Panama (e-mail: [email protected]).
(Little Striped Whiptail).

On 27 May 2005, an adult female Hypsiglena jani (TNHC

66601 [TJL 1431]; 292 mm SVL; 55 mm tail length; 13.1 g) was
collected on a gravel road leading to C. E. Miller Ranch, ca. 5.3
km W of Valentine, Jeff Davis County, Texas, USA (30.58028°N,
104.54810°W; WGS 84). This individual was found crossing the
road at 2219 h while it was raining with an ambient air temperature
of 13.9°C. A large food bolus was observed in this individual and
upon preserving this snake, we found two Aspidoscelis inornata
(Little Striped Whiptail) that had been recently consumed, both
head first, with the first food item mostly digested (Fig. 1). The total
weight of the two food items was 7.6 g (larger, intact A. inornata:
5.4 g; smaller, mostly digested A. inornata: 2.2 g) and represents a
prey/predator mass ratio of 0.58, though the ratio was likely much
higher prior to the digestion of the first A. inornata. To the best of
our knowledge, this represents the first published account of H. Fig. 2. The Bipalium sp. after releasing the two Indotyphlops
jani consuming A. inornata and a new maximum prey/predator braminus.
mass ratio for this species, exceeding the previous estimated
maximum of 0.54 (Lacey et al. 1996, op. cit.).
We thank the Miller family for their continued hospitality and turned over a rock beside a paved road and found two I. brami-
support of our herpetological research program and J. Farkas for nus (SVLs = 65.6 mm, 79.1 mm) coiled by a Bipalium sp. (length =
reviewing earlier drafts of this manuscript. This specimen was 97.0 mm). The Bipalium was in contact with one of the I. brami-
collected under a Texas Parks and Wildlife Scientific Collecting nus near the snake’s head, and with the other I. braminus near
Permit (SPR-1097-912) issued to TJL. the snake’s tail tip. The Bipalium was covered with sticky mucous
DREW R. DAVIS, Department of Biology, University of South Dakota, which had caused the adherence of numerous large gravel par-
414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, USA (e-mail: drew. ticles. Both I. braminus were firmly trapped by the Bipalium and
[email protected]); TRAVIS J. LaDUC, Biodiversity Collections, Department could not escape (Fig. 1). The Bipalium released the I. braminus
of Integrative Biology, 10100 Burnet Rd, PRC176-R4000, The University of when we put them into a plastic bag (Fig. 2). The I. braminus were
Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78758-4445, USA (e-mail: travieso@austin. brought to the laboratory and kept in captivity. Both I. braminus
utexas.edu). had marks on their skin (the skin appeared roughened) where
the Bipalium had been in contact with them, which did not dis-
INDOTYPHLOPS BRAMINUS (Brahminy Blindsnake). appear until the following ecdysis.
PREDATION. Blindsnakes (Scolecophidia) are poorly known, Bipalium feed mainly on other soft-bodied invertebrates,
fossorial or semi-fossorial snakes that are preyed upon by including earthworms, slugs, and snails (Ogren 1995.
various vertebrates, including carnivorous mammals (Croft et Hydrobiologia 305:105–111; Ducey et al. 2007. Southeast. Nat.
al. 1978. Aust. Wildl. Res. 5:85–92; Catling 1988. Aust. Wildl.Res. 6:449–460). They prey upon these animals by externally digesting
15:307–317), snakes (Shine 1980. J. Herpetol. 14:71–77; Kusamba them with fluid secreted from the pharynx (Dindal 1970. Am.
et al. 2013. Herpetol. Notes 6:235–237), birds (Jadhav et al. 2003. Midl. Nat. 83:635–637). At least two species of Bipalium contain
Zoos Print J. 18:1163–1165; Pobprasert et al. 2010. Wilson J. tetrodotoxin, which they probably use to subdue large prey items
Ornithol. 122:173–177), and toads (Reed et al. 2007. Pac. Conserv. (Stokes et al. 2014. PLoS ONE 9:e100718). Because the skin of
Biol. 13:219–222; O’Shea et al. 2013. Herpetol. Notes 6:467– the I. braminus was damaged, it is likely that the Bipalium was
470). However, known invertebrate predators of blindsnakes secreting some kind of digestive fluid. Although Bipalium as a
are limited to a few species of arthropods, such as scorpions group feed on various soft-bodied invertebrates, most species
(McCormick et al. 1982. Biol. Rev. 57:29–58) and a spider (Petrov are more specialized in their diets (e.g., feeding mostly on
et al. 2000. Newsletter British Arachnol. Soc. 88:9–10). Here we earthworms, gastropods, etc.) (Ogren et al. 1991. J. Pennsylvania
report an observation of a hammerhead worm (Bipalium sp.) Acad. Sci. 65:3–9; Ducey et al. 2007, op. cit.). Although it is unclear
that attempted to prey upon an Indotyphlops braminus. whether the Bipalium would actually have been able to ingest
The observation was made at 1630 h on 20 October 2015 on the I. braminus, it is possible that the I. braminus would have
Hachijo-jima Island, Japan (33.0634°N, 139.4729°E; WGS84). We died as a result of the predatory attempt by the Bipalium if we
had not disturbed it.
This work was financially supported in part by the Fujiwara
Natural History Public Interest Incorporated Foundation.
TAKAFUMI MIZUNO, Applied Entomology Laboratory, Center for
Bioresources Field Science, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Ukyo, Kyoto
616-8354, Japan (e-mail: [email protected]); YO-
SUKE KOJIMA, Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science,
Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.
Fig. 1. A) Two Indotyphlops braminus and a Bipalium sp. coiled
around them. The sticky mucous on the skin of the Bipalium caused LAMPROPELTIS ELAPSOIDES (Scarlet Kingsnake). ARBORE-
the adherence of many gravel particles. The I. braminus on the right ALITY. Lampropeltis elapsoides is a small colubrid snake found
is whitish in color because of upcoming ecdysis. B) A close-up pic- throughout the southeastern USA (Ruane et al. 2014. Syst. Biol.
ture of the Bipalium and the blindsnakes. White arrow indicates the 63:231–250). Although it is occasionally found foraging under
body of the Bipalium. the bark of dead, standing trees (Mills 1995. Vivarium 7:24–29),

it is most commonly referred to as a fossorial snake (Carr 1940. A On 18 April 2015, at 1200 h, an adult female L. ahaetulla (SVL
Contribution to the Herpetology of Florida. University of Florida, = 653 mm; total length = 1070 mm; 31 g) died trying to swallow a
Gainesville. 118 pp.; Williams 1978. Milwaukee Public Museum young male H. mabouia (House Gecko; SVL = 60 mm) in a back-
Contrib. Biol. Geol. 2:1–158). Anatomically, L. elapsoides has a yard at the border of the Reserva Biológica Guaribas – SEMA III,
distinctive slender head shape that is thought to be an adapta- Rio Tinto, Paraíba, Brazil (6.807333°S, 35.083389°W, WGS 84; 53
tion to its fossorial lifestyle (Ruane 2015. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. Lond. m elev.). The snake caught the lizard on a coconut tree and tried
174:394–413). to swallow it tail first. The snake and lizard fell to the ground
At 1143 h on 21 October 2016, a 7-m Washingtonia robusta and after several minutes of writhing on the ground, the snake
(Mexican Fan Palm) was being cut down on the campus of Flori- died with the lizard stuck in its esophagus (Fig. 1). Both speci-
da Gulf Coast University, Lee County, Florida, USA (26.468786°N, mens were collected and are deposited in the Animal Ecological
81.762797°W; WGS84). Immediately after the palm was down an Laboratory of Universidade Federal da Paraíba, campus IV, Lito-
adult male L. elapsoides was found in the top of the palm. The ral Norte, Paraíba, Brazil (RF-301, RF-300). Other snake deaths
snake appeared in excellent physical condition (SVL = 39 cm, during attempted predation have been reported in the literature,
total length = 45 cm). The only mention of arboreality in the lit- including an Oxyrhopus petolarius that was also attempting to
erature for this snake is an observation of an individual on the consume a H. mabouia (Nogueira et al. 2013. Herpetol. Notes
frame of an old building at approximately 1 m off the ground 6:33–43). Although the exact mechanism for death of the snake in
(Wright et al. 1915. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 2:139–192). Al- this case is unclear, the lizard appeared to be an appropriate size
though L. elapsoides lacks morphological adaptations often for the snake to swallow (Fig. 1). Thus, we believe that complica-
shared by arboreal snakes (e.g., long tail; Pizzatto et al. 2007. tions arising from the direction of ingestion might have been the
Ecology 88:359–366), the use of arboreal microhabitats that do primary cause of death.
not require heightened balance (e.g., under bark, inside negative CARLOS EDUARDO DE SOUSA GERMANO (e-mail: carlose-
spaces within palm fronds) has also been documented for other [email protected]) and F. G. R. FRANÇA, Centro de Ciências Aplicadas
snakes that lack these adaptations and are traditionally consid- e Educação, Departamento de Engenharia e Meio Ambiente, Universidade
ered fossorial (e.g., scolecophidians; Das and Wallach. 1998. Her- Federal da Paraíba, Campus IV – Litoral Norte, Paraíba, Brazil.
petol. Rev. 29:15–16). No detailed formal studies of home range or
habitat use by L. elapsoides have been conducted, and in general MACROPROTODON BREVIS (Iberian False Smooth Snake).
little is known about its life history (Meshaka and Layne 2015. REPRODUCTION and DIET. Information on food habits and
Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 10:1–353), so the use of arboreal habitats reproduction in Macroprotodon brevis is scarce (Salvador 1998.
may be more widespread than previously recognized (Spickler et In Ramos et al. [eds.], Fauna Ibérica vol. 10. Museo Nacional
al. 2006. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 1:16–27). de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain; Malkmus 2004.
JOHN E. HERMAN, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Gulf Amphibians and Reptiles of Portugal, Madeira and the Azores-
Coast University, 10501 FGCU Boulevard South, Fort Myers, Florida 33965, Archipelago. Gantner-Verlag, Ruggell, Switzerland. 448 pp.).
USA; e-mail: [email protected]. Here we report data on prey items and reproduction, obtained
from dissections of 23 road-killed specimens of M. brevis from
LEPTOPHIS AHAETULLA (Parrot Snake). DIET and MORTAL- Portugal (SMF 99014–33, 99036–38). No collecting data are
ITY. Leptophis ahaetulla is a widespread species in Central and available for one male (SMF 99026) and one female (SMF 99029).
South America and is considered to be a semiarboreal, diurnal, The remaining 12 males were collected in the months of January
active forager (Albuquerque 2007. J. Nat. Hist. 41:17–20). Its diet (N = 1), April (N = 4), May (N = 6), and December (N = 1), whereas
is composed mainly of hylid frogs (primarily of genus Scinax), the remaining nine females were collected in the months of
but Bolitoglossa paraensis and occasionally lizards (Polychrus January (N = 1), March (N = 2), April (N = 3), May (N = 2), and
marmoratus, Techadactylus rapicauda, Hemidactylus mabouia, June (N = 1). Snout–vent length (SVL) was 15.6–38.2 cm (mean
Gonatodes humeralis, and Anolis sp.), snakes, small mammals, 29.9 cm; N = 13) in males and 19.3–33.9 cm (mean 29.3 cm; N =
eggs, and young birds are also consumed (Albuquerque et al., op. 10) in females. The ratio tail length / SVL was 0.162–0.202 (mean
cit.; Muniz et al. 2013. Herpetol. Rev. 44:154).
Fig. 1. Leptophis ahaetulla with a lizard, Hemidactylus mabouia,

stuck in its esophagus, adjacent to Reserva Biológica Guaribas, Fig. 1. Macroprotodon cucullatus (SMF 99025) with oviducal eggs.
SEMA III, Rio Tinto, Paraíba. Scale bar = 10 mm.

Table 1. Monthly stages in the testicular cycle of 11 adult Malpolon

insignitus from Israel.
Month N Regressed Recrudescence Spermiogenesis
February 1 0 1 0
April 3 0 2 1
June 5 0 0 5
July 1 1 0 0
September 1 0 1 0
are lined by sperm or clusters of metamorphosing spermatids.

The smallest reproductively active male (spermiogenesis)
measured 579 mm SVL (TAUM 17223) and was collected in June.
This is close to the minimum size for reproductive maturity
Fig. 2. Macroprotodon cucullatus (SMF 99020) with remains of Chal-
cides striatus in its stomach. Scale bar = 10 mm.
reported for the congener M. monspessulanus by Feriche et
al. (op. cit.). One male M. insignitus (TAUM 6480) from April
measured 453 mm SVL, exhibited early testicular recrudescence
0.197) in males and 0.157–0.179 (mean 0.160) in females. One of and was arbitrarily considered to be a subadult.
the females (SMF 99025) collected in June had four oviducal eggs Feriche et al. (op. cit.) reported the congener M. monspessu-
(Fig. 1). The number of vitellogenic follicles varied from two to lanus from the Iberian Peninsular exhibited a vernal testicular
seven per specimen (total number from both sides); vitellogenic cycle (sensu St. Girons 1982. Herpetologica 38:5–16) in which tes-
follicles were only found in specimens collected in the months of tes sizes increased in early spring and decreased during late June
March, April, and May. We identified remains of prey items in the indicating a spring period of spermiogenesis (sperm formation).
digestive tracts of 13 snakes, mostly undigested scales, but also M. insignitus in Israel similarly follows a vernal testicular cycle
partly digested remains of Chalcides striatus in two specimens with spring spermiogenesis, summer regression and autumn–
(Fig. 2). winter recrudescence (Table 1). This contrasts with the timing
GUNTHER KÖHLER (e-mail: [email protected]), ALEXIA of the aestival testicular cycle (sensu St. Girons, op. cit.) in which
WURSTER (e-mail: [email protected]), and RUDOLF MALKMUS, spring mating of snakes utilizes sperm produced in autumn and
Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Senckenberganlage is stored overwinter in the vas deferens.
25, 60325 Frankfurt a.M., Germany (e-mail: [email protected]). We thank Shai Meiri (TAUM) for permission to examine M.
insignitus and the National Collections of Natural History at Tel
MALPOLON INSIGNITUS (Eastern Montpellier Snake). REPRO- Aviv University for providing the M. insignitus to examine.
DUCTION. Malpolon insignitus occurs in eastern North Africa, STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
east to Iran and north to Turkey into the Balkans (Werner 2016. Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); EREZ
Reptile Life in the Land of Israel. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am MAZA, Tel-Aviv University, Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Tel Aviv
Main. 494 pp.). It occurs in northern Israel southwards at least to 6997801, Israel (e-mail: [email protected]).
the Beersheba area (Werner, op. cit.). Feriche et al. (2008. Copeia
2008:279–285) reported on the reproductive ecology of the conge- MICRURUS ALLENI (Allen’s Coral Snake). PREDATION and
ner M. monspessulanus in the Iberian Peninsula. In this note we SCAVENGING. Coral snakes and other elapids use venom pri-
describe events in the testicular cycle of M. insignitus from Israel. marily for prey subjugation, but their venom also functions as
A sample of 11 adult M. insignitus males (mean SVL = 798.6 an anti-predator adaptation. Presumably coral snake predators
mm ± 216.9 SD, range = 522–1160 mm) and one subadult (SVL = must have their own adaptation to consume this dangerous prey.
453 mm) deposited in the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History As such, coral snakes are rarely reported as prey items. We re-
(TAUM) was examined (by region): HaShefala TAUM 8493; trieved four records of coral snake predation events, and all four
Hermon Mts. TAUM 8636, 9500; Northern Negev TAUM 6480; predators possessed adaptations to consume venomous snakes.
Samaria TAUM 15721, 15857, 15958, 17222, 17223; Southern Two events involved arachnids (Theraphosidae, Theriidae –
Coastal Plain; TAUM 7052, 8727; Yehuda Mts. TAUM 12605. Siqueira Nunes et al. 2010. Herpetol. Rev. 41:367–368; Jones et al.
Malpolon insignitus were collected 1966 to 2015. The lower part 2011. Herpetol. Rev. 42:440–441), one involved Drymarchon cou-
of the body cavity was opened and the left testis was removed, peri (Eastern Indigo Snake), a species immune to snake venom
embedded in paraffin, histological sections were cut at 5 µm and and a common ophiophage (Belson 2000. Herpetol. Rev. 31:105),
stained by Harris hematoxylin followed by eosin counterstain. and the final event involved the Cariama cristata (Red-Legged
Histology slides are deposited at TAUM. Seriema; Gruiformes, Cariamidae), which specializes in killing
Three stages were observed in the testicular cycle (Table 1): snakes by swiftly catching them and smashing them against the
1) Regressed; germinal epithelium is reduced to 1–3 layers of ground (Pueta 2002. Herpetol. Rev. 33:21). We report a new re-
spermatogonia and interspersed Sertoli cells; 2) Recrudescence, cord of a probable predator-prey relationship that also marks a
renewal of germinal epithelium for next period of spermiogenesis. new mammalian family documented as a Micrurus predator.
There is a marked increase in cellularity (consisting of primary Pecari tajacu (Collared Peccary; Artiodactyla, Tayassuidae)
and secondary spermatocytes) when compared to regressed is a medium-sized gregarious omnivore that has been docu-
testes. In late recrudescence spermatids, but no sperm are mented to consume various plants and animals, but generally
present; 3) Spermiogenesis, lumina of the seminiferous tubules consumes fewer animals than larger peccaries (e.g., Tayassu

MICHAEL V. COVE, Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina

State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA (e-mail: [email protected]);
PAUL F. FOSTER, Reserva Ecológica Bijagual, Sarapiquí, Costa Rica; and De-
partment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Michigan, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); KELLIE M. KUHN, U.S.
Air Force Academy, USAFA, Colorado, USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
MIMOPHIS MAHFALENSIS (Malagasy Big-eyed Snake). DIET.

Mimophis mahfalensis is a common, terrestrial, primarily diur-
nal species of snake that inhabits diverse habitats ranging from
humid forests to arid savannahs throughout Madagascar (Glaw
and Vences 2007. A Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of
Madagascar. 3rd ed. Frosch Verlag, Cologne, Germany. 496 pp.). It
is the only non-pseudoxyrhophiine lamprophiid found on Mad-
agascar (Nagy et al. 2003. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B Biol. 270:2613–
2621). Anecdotal reports suggest that M. mahfalensis preys upon
frogs of the genus Ptychadena, lizards, and other snakes (Glaw
and Vences 2007, op. cit.). Preston-Mafham (1991. Madagascar:
A Natural History. Oxford: Facts on File, New York. 224 pp.) “re-
ported, without documentation, that Mimophis feeds on other
snakes” (Cadle 2003. In S. Goodman and J. Benstead [eds.],
The Natural History of Madagascar, pp. 997–1004. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois). Domergue (1989. Arch. Inst.
Pasteur Madagascar 56:299–311) lists two lizard genera, Trache-
Fig. 1. Micrurus alleni missing its head (A), the snake body covered loptychus and Chalarodon, as well as “geckos,” but does not dif-
in soil and ants (Solenopsis picea and Paratrechina longicornis the ferentiate which prey items were observed being consumed in
next morning (B), and the group of Pecari tajacu (Collared Peccaries)
presumably responsible for the predation event (C).
pecari – Mayer and Wetzel 1987. Mamm. Spec. 293:1–7). On the

evening of 25 June 2016, at La Selva Biological Station, Sarapiqui,
Costa Rica, we observed an adult Micrurus alleni that was de-
capitated and clearly chewed along the path in the clearing of
the cabins and research center (Fig. 1A). The remaining segment
of the snake was approximately 342 mm. We scanned the trees
above the snake to see if there was a potential avian or arbo-
real predator that had dropped the snake; none were observed.
Upon passing the snake, we noticed a group of collared pecca-
ries in proximity (~25 m) to the dead snake (Fig. 1C). Although
pigs (Suidae) are resistant to elapid venom (Drabeck et al. 2015.
Toxicon 99:68–72), we are unaware of a similar resistance in pec-
caries. We suspect that one of the peccaries killed the snake and Fig. 1. A juvenile Mimophis mahfalensis preying on a sub-adult
abandoned it before consuming the remaining portion probably Trachylepis elegans in the Mahamavo Forest, Mahajanga District,
due to foul taste or consumption of venom in the head region. Boeny, Madagascar.
Ants (Solenopsis picea and Paratrechina longicornis) had already
started to swarm the dead snake. Upon revisiting the snake the
next morning, the ants had completely covered the carcass with
soil, such that it was difficult to relocate (Fig. 1B). Burying food
may provide ants with exclusive use of prey by restricting access
by other arthropods. The snake remained mostly covered and
was fully consumed/decomposed by the morning of 28 June
2016. Since this is the first documentation of a peccary preying
upon a coral snake, they are likely infrequent predators, yet one
survey at La Selva observed more overall snake detections inside
peccary exclosures than in control plots (Reider et al. 2013. Biol.
Conserv. 163:90–98). Furthermore, the observation of ants cov-
ering the snake in soil and debris was interesting because it is
probable that ants play a large role in scavenging herpetofauna.
The concealment of the carcass apparently reduces their visibil-
Fig. 2. An adult Mimophis mahfalensis dragging a lifeless juvenile Zo-
ity, which might cause detection biases in surveys of both road-
nosaurus laticaudatus across the leaf litter in the Mahamavo Forest,
killed and depredated animals, particularly in disturbed areas Mahajanga District, Boeny, Madagascar.
with Solenopsis and Paratrechina.

the wild and which were in captivity. The gecko Lygodactylus tol-
PHOTOS W. WÜSTER
ampyae is reported as prey of M. mahfalensis (Ikeuchi et al. 2012.
Curr. Herpetol. 31:107–116). The only other species confirmed
as prey of M. mahfalensis in the wild are an oplurid, Chalarodon
madagascariensis (Petit 1928. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 53:401–405;
Raselimanana 2009. Malagasy Nature 1:46–75), and two chame-
leons, Furcifer labordi (Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007. Mémoire
DEA. Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar; Jenkins et al. 2009.
Afr. J. Herpetol. 58:131–136), and Furcifer rhinoceratus (Metcalf et
al. 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:447–448). Here I report two additional
lizard prey species from two novel families for M. mahfalensis.
At ca. 1600 h on 9 July 2016, I observed a juvenile M. mah-
falensis capture and kill a sub-adult Trachylepis elegans (Elegant
Mabuya) in the Mahamavo Forest, Mahajanga District, Boeny,
Madagascar, roughly 3 km NE of 15.4929°S, 46.6956°E (WGS 84)
(Fig. 1). The T. elegans was identified based on the distinctive
dorsal pattern and presence of red patches on either side of the
neck, and was first observed near a small patch of grass beside
a trail running through an open palm savannah. After being ob-
served for a few moments, the T. elegans moved toward the grass
at which point it was struck and subsequently constricted by a
previously unobserved M. mahfalensis. The T. elegans ceased to
struggle ca. 1 min after being struck, but I did not witness inges-
tion. The use of constriction in this case is contrary to reports
that M. mahfalensis subdues its prey using only venom (Rosa et
al. 2014. Zoomorphology 133:417–423; Domergue 1989, op. cit.).
At ca. 1100 h on 16 July 2016, I observed an adult M. mahfalen-
sis dragging a lifeless juvenile Zonosaurus laticaudatus (Western
Girdled Lizard) across the leaf litter beside a trail in a closed
canopy dry forest located in the Mahamavo Forest, Mahajanga
District, Boeny, Madagascar, roughly 2.5 km NW of 15.4870°S,
46.6470°E (WGS 84) (Fig. 2). The Z. laticaudatus appeared to be
recently deceased based on the lack of rigor mortis and the non-
viscous quality of its blood. The tail of the Z. laticaudatus was
partially severed, suggesting a possible struggle prior to death. I
did not witness ingestion of the Z. laticaudatus.
These records expand the known diet of M. mahfalensis to
include representatives of all five families of lizards native to
Madagascar.
I thank Operation Wallacea for their facilitation and support
of this research. I also thank Siel Wellins and Marta Cálix for their
help in translating publications, and Matthias De Beenhouwer
for his excellent spotting skills.
JUSTIN K. CLAUSE, 2072 Dewberry Ct., Westlake Village, California
91361, USA; e-mail: [email protected].
NAJA KAOUTHIA (Monocled Cobra). BEHAVIOR / SPITTING.

Venom spitting in snakes is restricted to the elapid genera Naja
and Hemachatus. The underlying morphological adaptations
and their distribution among elapids were identified by Bogert
(1943. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 81:285–360). Wüster and Thorpe
(1992. Herpetologica 48:424–434) re-assessed the distribution of
spitting adaptations and behavior in Asian Naja in the light of
Fig. 1. A) Spitting in Naja kaouthia (Nalikul, Hooghly District, West
systematic revisions. The major remaining unresolved question Bengal, still from slow-motion video). B) Full body photo of snake
among these is whether N. kaouthia is capable of spitting. Old- shown in A. C) Spitting in N. mossambica (Hoedspruit, South Africa).
er anecdotal reports of spitting from parts of the species’ range Note differences in the exit angle of the venom from the fang.
may be due to confusion with sympatric spitting cobra species
unrecognized at the time (Wüster and Thorpe, op. cit.). Naja ka-
outhia is treated as a non-spitting cobra in much of the recent in Thailand, consistent with discussions with snake catchers and
literature from Thailand (Cox 1991. The Snakes of Thailand and herpetologists throughout the country. However, reports of spit-
Their Husbandry. Krieger Publishing, Malabar, Florida. 526 pp.). ting from elsewhere persist (e.g., Whitaker and Captain 2004.
Author WW never noted spitting in over 100 specimens observed Snakes of India. The Field Guide. Draco Books, Chennai. 481 pp.).

One of us (VS) has been carrying out snake removals and adaptation for spitting than those of populations not reported to
public education work in Hooghly District, West Bengal, India, spit (Wüster and Thorpe, op. cit.). This limited adaptation of fang
since 2003. In 2004, while looking into a fowl pen through the structure displayed by N. kaouthia nevertheless allows the use of
ground level entrance, VS was spat in the face by a N. kaouthia spitting as an effective anti-predator defense, albeit much less
from a distance of between 50 and 100 cm. A small amount of proficiently than in more specialized spitting cobras, and may
venom entered the eye and caused immediate excruciating thus provide a selective advantage that could favor the further
pain. The eye was immediately washed out with distilled water evolutionary refinement of this adaptation.
and physiological saline solution, but VS remained unable The reasons for the apparent geographic differences in spitting
to open the affected eye for 11 h, and noted severe discharges behavior within N. kaouthia remain unknown. One possibility is
from the eye the following day. The snake, an adult specimen, that N. kaouthia may encompass multiple cryptic species across
was subsequently teased with an earthenware pot, and venom its range. Additional confirmation of spitting or lack of spitting
spitting was confirmed. by this species across its range, and a phylogeographic study
Since then, VS has witnessed spitting in approximately 120– of the species could provide answers to this question. Persons
130 adult N. kaouthia from Hooghly, Burdwan, and Nadia districts, working at close quarters with this species should be aware of the
the overwhelming majority of specimens examined from those possibility of unexpected spitting.
districts. Thirteen of 17 specimens from Bishnupur and Imphal We thank Anita Malhotra for organizing this project and field
West districts, Manipur State, also spat, as did two specimens from visit. Funded by the BITES project through the European Union
the State of Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (G. Martin and Seventh Framework Programme under the grant agreement
R. Whitaker, pers. comm.; VS and WW, pers. obs.) number PIRSES-GA-2013-612131
VS also collected natural history information from snake VISHAL SANTRA, Simultala Conservationists (Foundation for Wild-
catchers and charmers throughout West Bengal. Many inter- life), Nalikul, Hooghly, West Bengal, India (e-mail: [email protected]);
viewees reported venom squirting by N. kaouthia during de- WOLFGANG WÜSTER, Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Labora-
fanging for snake shows. Their customary defanging procedure tory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW,
involves grabbing the cobra’s head with the thumb on the chin UK (e-mail: [email protected]).
shields and then restraining it on its back; the thumb is used to
slide the lower jaw sideways to expose the fangs, which are then OLIGODON FORMOSANUS (Taiwan Kukri Snake). DIET /
broken off with a blunt knife. While the snake is on its back, the SCAVENGING. The genus Oligodon is most widely known for
fangs are pointing towards the snake charmers’ face, and many preying primarily or exclusively on reptile eggs (Das 2010. Rep-
have reported being spat in the eyes during this procedure. In tiles of South-east Asia. New Holland Publishers, Cape Town,
contrast, all denied ever seeing or hearing of spitting in the sym- South Africa. 376 pp.). The genus is characterized by specialized
patric N. naja. teeth in the rear of the jaw that are used to saw into an egg, creat-
To further document the spitting behavior of West Bengal ing a slit in the eggshell. The snake then sticks its entire head into
N. kaouthia, and to test whether it results from muscular the egg and drinks the contents (Coleman et al. 1993. J. Herpetol.
compression of the venom glands, as in other spitting cobras, 27:320–327).
slow-motion video recording was used. An adult male N. kaouthia On 15 July 2012 at 2119 h, in DaLi village, Hainan Island,
(total length approx. 1.5 m) captured in Nalikul, Hooghly District, China (18.73158°N 109.948183°E, WGS 84; 164 m elev.), I ob-
West Bengal, India, was encouraged to crawl through a clear served an O. formosanus beside the road that appeared to be
plastic tube until the first 10–15 cm emerged from the far end, dragging something through the leaf litter. The specimen was
and then restrained by holding the tail. A round earthenware pot pulling a road-killed Calotes versicolor (Agamidae) through the
was presented to the snake from the front and waved before it at a brush and as best I could tell, was beginning to consume the car-
distance of 10–40 cm. Six spitting acts were recorded at 120 frames rion by one of the pulverized forelimbs. The road-killed Calotes
per second using an Apple iPhone 5S. In all cases, the venom was exceptionally flat, having been run over repeatedly and was
was ejected from the fangs under pressure, demonstrating the likely killed early that morning. To my knowledge this is the first
role of muscular compression of the venom glands. The venom
exited the fangs at a much more acute angle to the tangent of the
curvature of the fang (i.e., downwards rather than forward) than in
African spitting Naja or Hemachatus (Fig. 1). The angle of venom
expulsion corresponds to that predicted in Bogert’s (op. cit.) figure
70 for a “Chinese Naja naja” (now N. atra), which resembles N.
kaouthia in fang structure (Wüster and Thorpe, op. cit.). Spitting
was invariably accompanied by a forward lunge, in keeping with
the stereotypical spitting behavior reported from other Asian
cobras (Rasmussen et al. 1995. J. Zool., Lond. 237:27–35).
An adult male Naja naja from the same locality, filmed in the
same way, displayed some similar aspects of behavior (including
snapping of the mouth and what looked superficially like “mock
spits”), but unlike in N. kaouthia, no venom exited the fangs at
any point.
Our observations demonstrate that many monocled cobras
from eastern India spit in the same manner as other Asian spit- Fig. 1. Oligodon formosanus consuming carrion, a road-killed Calotes
ting cobras, and that the behavior is common in many parts of versicolor lizard in Hainan Island, China.
eastern India. The fangs of these populations show no greater

documentation of this species, and possibly the genus, consum-

ing lizard prey and/or carrion.
KEVIN R. MESSENGER, Alabama A & M University, 4900 Meridian St.
N, Normal, Alabama 35811, USA; e-mail: [email protected].
OXYRHOPUS PETOLARIUS (Forest Flame Snake). PREDATION.

Few reports exist of invertebrate predation on snakes. Here we
report depredation of Oxyrhopus petolarius by a giant fishing
spider (Araneae: Ctenidae: Ancylometes rufus).
At ca. 2230 h on 19 Aug 2016 in tropical forest just north-
east of Tarapoto, San Martin Department, Peru (6.451733°S,
76.346367°W, WGS 84; 463 m elev.), an adult A. rufus was seen
consuming a subadult O. petolarius (Fig. 1). The predation event
took place among boulders at the edge of a small stream. The O.
petolarius was already dead and the spider was masticating the
head of the snake. The initial observation lasted ca. 20 min, and
during this time the spider shifted positions but kept a grip on
the snake with its chelicerae at all times. At 0110 h we returned Fig. 1. Oxyrhopus sp. captured by a Theraphosidae spider in Brazil.
to the site. The A. rufus had departed, leaving the carcass of the
snake behind. We examined the body (total length ca. 54 cm) and
discovered additional minor damage to the body of the snake 20:229–245). Arthropods, and more specifically spiders, may
that appeared consistent with injuries inflicted by the chelicerae prey on reptiles (McCormick and Polis 1982. Biol. Rev. 57:29–58),
of the A. rufus. but reports of snake predation by spiders are scarce and are con-
Although spiders mostly feed on invertebrates, certain spiders centrated on North American species (McCormick and Polis,
may represent important predators on vertebrates. For example, op. cit.). To our knowledge, two cases were published of snake
Ancylometes spp. have frequently been recorded feeding on predation by spiders in the Neotropics, involving a Ninia sebae
various life stages of anurans (Menin et al. 2005. Phyllomedusa (Red-backed Coffee Snake, Colubridae) and a Schizopelma sp.
4:39–47). To our knowledge, this is the first time Ancylometes (Theraphosidae) in Veracruz, Mexico (Aguilar-López et al. 2014.
predation on a snake has been recorded, and the size of the snake Rev. Mex. Biodiv. 85:965–968) and involving Erythrolamprus al-
far exceeds typical prey size for a spider (Rypstra 1990. Acta Zool. madensis (Dipsadidae) and Grammostola quirogai (Araneae:
Fenn. 190:339–343). Intriguingly, Oxyrophus snakes are Batesian Theraphosidae) in the municipality of Rosário do Sul, State of
mimics of coral snakes (Micrurus spp.) throughout their range Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil (Borges et al. 2016. Herpetol.
(Bosque et al. 2016. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 25:218–226.). Batesian Notes 9:321–322).
mimics fool visual predators to avoid attack, so it is curious that On 14 September 2016 (1900 h), during a nocturnal survey
this spider attacked a coral mimic. in a forest area at Senador José Porfírio municipality, Pará state,
Brazil (3.0833°S, 51.7669°W; SAD69), we observed a tarantula
(family Theraphosidae) capturing a young Oxyrhopus sp. (total
length ca. 30 cm) on the forest floor. The spider attacked and
used its chelicerae to hold the anterior portion of the body (Fig.
1). The spider then carried the snake to a hole, thus preventing
us from collecting the specimens. This report contributes to the
knowledge of natural history of Amazonian snakes and reaffirms
the complex predation-prey relationship between vertebrates
and invertebrates. Video of this encounter is available at https://
youtu.be/qHNAntTxw3U.
KARLL CAVALCANTE PINTO (e-mail: [email protected]),
LEANDRO WRONSKI, JAILSON XAVIER, Biota Projetos e Consultoria Am-
biental Ltda, Rua 86-C, n° 64, CEP 74083-360, Setor Sul, Goiânia, Goiás, Bra-
zil; MARCOS PENHACEK, Universidade Federal do Mato Grosso, Instituto
de Biociências, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação da
Biodiversidade, Av. Fernando Corrêa da Costa, s/n, CCBS-II Boa Esperança,
Cuiabá, Mato Grosso, Brazil; RENAN MANOEL OLIVEIRA, Universidade
Fig. 1. Ancylometes rufus preying on Oxyrhopus petolarius in Tarapo- Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Museu Nacional, Departamento de Vertebrados,
to, San Martin, Peru. Setor de Herpetologia, Quinta da Boa Vista, São Cristóvão, CEP 20940-040,
Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected].
ANTON SOROKIN (e-mail: [email protected]) and ADAM br); ELCIOMAR ARAÚJO DE OLIVEIRA, Programa de Pós-Graduação em
STUCKERT, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858, USA Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia da Rede Bionorte, Universidade Federal do
(e-mail: [email protected]). Amazonas, Av. Gen. Rodrigo Octávio Jordão Ramos, Brazil.
OXYRHOPUS SPECIES (False Coralsnake). PREDATION. Rep- PHILODRYAS OLFERSII (Lichtenstein’s Green Racer). DIET.
tiles can plays diverse ecological functions as predators and Philodryas olfersii is a semi-arboreal dipsadine snake found
prey within food webs (Cortés-Gomez et al. 2015. Univ. Sci. throughout South America in forests, forest edges, and open areas

cerberus (Rodríguez-Robles, op. cit.) and C. o. lutosus (Klauber

1972. Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence
on Mankind, Vol II. University of California Press, Berkeley, Cali-
fornia; Rodríguez-Robles, op. cit.). Here we report predation by P.
catenifer sayi on Thamnophis elegans.
The encounter between the two species was observed on 21
September 2016 at 1230 h on a warm, sunny day (29°C air temp)
in a Great Plains grassland area west of Fort Collins, Colorado,
USA (40.60145ºN, 105.167328ºW; WGS 84). When discovered, the
P. c. sayi (total length ca. 36–41 cm) was lying straight and was
consuming a T. elegans (total length ca. 25–30 cm). The head and
a small portion of the body of the gartersnake were already inside
the bullsnake, with ca. 20–23 cm of its body visible and writhing
Fig. 1. Predation of Hypsiboas semilineatus by Philodryas olfersii in about the head of the bullsnake. Based on the very few reports
the Serra do Conduru State Park, Uruçuca, Bahia, Brazil. of ophiophagy for P. catenifer, this may be the first colubrid re-
ported as prey outside of the above-cited report of cannibalism.
NATHAN P. SNOW, KURT C. VERCAUTEREN, MICHAEL J. LAVELLE,
(Wallach et al. 2014. Snakes of the World: A Catalogue of Living and MICHAEL P. GLOW, and RICHARD M. ENGEMAN, National Wildlife Re-
Extinct Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 1227 pp.). It feeds search Center, 4101 LaPorte Ave., Fort Collins, Colorado 80521-2154, USA
on small mammals, birds, lizards, and amphibians (Hartmann and (e-mail: [email protected]).
Marques 2005. Amphibia-Reptilia 26:25–31; Sazima and Marques
2007. Herpetol. Bull. 99:36–38; Aximoff et al. 2016. Herpetol. Rev. PTYAS KORROS (Javan Rat Snake). DIET. Ptyas korros is a large
47:152), and has also been reported to consume other snakes in (total length [TL] to 2680 mm) colubrid occurring from south-
captivity (Assis et al. 2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:411–412). We report ern China and Taiwan, southward to Indochina, Malaysia, and
predation on a treefrog, Hypsiboas semilineatus, by P. olfersii. parts of Indonesia, and west to India (Assam) and Bangladesh
The event was recorded at 1100 h on 6 June 2016 by an ar- (Das 2010. A Field Guide to the Reptiles of Thailand and South-
tificial pond located in Serra do Conduru State Park, Uruçuca east Asia. Asia Books Co., Ltd., Bangkok. 376 pp.). Despite being
municipality, Bahia, Brazil (14.48999°S, 39.13560°W, SAD 69; 192 common in many habitats, including agricultural lands (Cox et
m elev.). The P. olfersii was perched on shrubs at the pond edge, al. 2010. A Photographic Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of
swallowing the H. semilineatus headfirst (Fig. 1). When observed, Thailand and South-east Asia. Asia Book Co., Ltd., Bangkok. 144
the H. semilineatus was dead, probably due to either constric- pp.), the ecology of P. korros remains poorly known (Lin et al.
tion (Sazima and Haddad 1992. In L. P. C. Morellato [ed.], História 2012. Curr. Zool. 58:820–827), and in particular there appears to
Natural da Serra do Japi: Ecologia e Preservação de uma Área be a notable paucity of information concerning diet. Although
Florestal no Sudeste do Brasil, pp. 212–236. UNICAMP/FAPESP, general accounts suggest P. korros is a dietary generalist that
Campinas) or venom (Rocha and Furtado 2007. Rev. Bras. Zool. consumes a wide variety of small vertebrate prey such as frogs,
24:410–418). We took photographs as the P. olfersii swallowed lizards, birds, and mammals (Cox 1991. The Snakes of Thailand
the H. semilineatus, which took ca. 30 min. This is the first docu- and Their Husbandry. Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, Florida.
mented record of predation on H. semilineatus. 526 pp.; Das, op. cit.; Chan-ard et al. 2015. A Field Guide to the
We are grateful to Postgraduate Program in Ecology and Bio- Reptiles of Thailand. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 314 pp.),
diversity Conservation (State University of Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, empirical reports based on the analysis of stomach contents or
Bahia) and Postgraduate Program in Ecology and Biomonitoring feces appear lacking in the scientific literature.
(Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia) for support and or- On 4 June 2016 (1420 h), we found the fresh carcass of a male
ganization of the field course, and to Mirco Solé for confirming P. korros (TL = 1280 mm; SVL = 830 mm) on a gravel road running
the identity of the species.
RENAN N. COSTA (e-mail: [email protected]), ARTHUR
G. BAUER, Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade,
Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade,
Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, CEP 45662-900, Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil; IGOR E.
L. MACEDO, ABÍLIO B. F. ANDRÉ, and VINÍCIUS J. SANTOS, Pós-Grad-
uação em Ecologia e Biomonitoramento, Universidade Federal da Bahia,
Campus de Ondina, Rua Barão de Geremoabo, CEP 40170-290, Salvador,
Bahia, Brazil.
PITUOPHIS CATENIFER SAYI (Bullsnake) and THAMNOPHIS

ELEGANS (Western Terrestrial Gartersnake). DIET and PRE-
DATION. Although a variety of items have been reported in the
diet of Pituophis catenifer across its wide range in North America
(e.g., Rodríguez-Robles 2002. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 77:165–183), it ap-
parently seldom consumes other snakes. Reports of ophiophagy
Fig. 1. The body and detached tail of a freshly ingested Mabuya mul-
by P. catenifer have included a report of cannibalism on another
tifasciata recovered from the stomach of a road-killed Ptyas korros in
P. catenifer (Klauber 1947. Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego 22:1–81; Yunnan Province, China.
Rodríguez-Robles, op. cit.), and predation on Crotalus oreganus

alongside the southern shoreline of Madushan Reservoir, an im- (mean ± SD) measurements: snout–vent length 15–16 cm (15.5 ±
pounded section of the Red River in Yuanyang County, Yunnan 0.46); tail length 3.1–3.6 cm (3.3 ± 0.18); mass 3.4–3.6 g (3.7 ± 0.2).
Province, China. The terrain adjacent to the reservoir consists of In addition, it laid four yolked ova. Total mass of offspring was
steep hills supporting shrubs, second-growth scrub forest, and 26.0 g, and yolked ova was 5.0 g. This note provides the first data
agricultural fields. The snake was found where a small creek de- on offspring size and weight for T. peruviana in Bolivia.
bouches from the hills and flows into the reservoir (23.10050°N; We thank Jiří Moravec for his contribution to the manuscript.
103.12500°E, WGS84; 230 m elev.). Ptyas korros appear common BRUNO MIRANDA (e-mail: [email protected]), MARITA
in this area and living individuals were encountered on multiple PAREDES (e-mail: [email protected]), ROBERTO OSINA, DAN-
occasions during our fieldwork at the reservoir (8 May to 10 June IEL GÓMEZ, DALINE RÍOS, Colección Boliviana de Fauna, Área de Her-
2016) petología, Casilla 8706, Correo Central, La Paz, Bolivia; JAMES APARICIO,
Noticing a prominent bulge in the mid-section of the snake, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, c/26 Cota Cota, La Paz, Bolivia.
we opened the carcass and found the body and detached tail
of an adult Mabuya multifasciata (SVL = 85 mm) in the snake’s THAMNODYNASTES CHAQUENSIS. DIET. Thamnodynastes
stomach (Fig. 1). The presence of the detached tail in the chaquensis is a nocturnal, semi-arboreal snake that occurs in
stomach suggested the snake may have swallowed the body and Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil (Wallach et
tail separately. According to Cox (1991, op. cit.), Ptyas are not al. 2014. Snakes of the World: A Catalogue of Living and Extinct
constrictors; prey are instead seized, pinned down, and then Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 1141 pp.). As in other
swallowed alive (Cox 1991, op. cit.). The skink was deposited in Thamnodynastes, this species has a dietary preference for an-
the Vertebrate Collection of the Kunming Institute of Zoology urans (Strüssmann and Sazima 1993. Stud. Neotrop. Fauna E.
(KIZ 058710). To our knowledge, this is the first empirically 28:157–168), especially those of the genus Rhinella and the lep-
derived report of prey consumption by P. korros. todactylids Leptodactylus chaquensis and L. latrans (Bellini et
We are grateful for support provided by Lu Shunqing, Aili al. 2014. Herpetol. J. 24:87–96). On 21 May 2012 (between 1800–
Kang, Aimin Wang, and Colin Poole. We also thank Robin Liu and 2200 h), we collected a male T. chaquensis (SVL = 208 mm; tail
Zhang Dongru for field assistance, Deb Levinson for providing length = 58 mm; mass without prey = 7.8 g) at Reserva Particular
several key literature references, and Lewis Medlock for review- do Patrimônio Natural Engenheiro Eliezer Batista (RPPN EEB;
ing an early draft of this note. 18.0526°S, 57.2829°W; WGS 84), Corumbá, State of Mato Grosso
STEVEN G. PLATT, Wildlife Conservation Society/Turtle Survival do Sul, Central Brazil. It had a female Leptodactylus podicipinus
Alliance - Myanmar Program, Office Block C-1, Aye Yeik Mon 1st Street, in its stomach. The snake had swallowed the frog headfirst as evi-
Hlaing Township, Yangon, Myanmar; RAO DINGQI, Kunming Institute of denced by near-complete digestion of the head.
Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 32 Jiachengdonglu, Kunming, This is the first record of T. chaquensis consuming L.
Yunnan, China 650223 (e-mail: [email protected]); FENGLIAN LI, podicipinus, a terrestrial, nocturnal frog with a body length of
Wildlife Conservation Society – China Program, Room 3-301, Tower 3, 3.5–3.9 cm (Uetanabaro et al. 2008. Guia de Campo dos Anuros do
Guanjuncheng No. 66 Nanshatan, Beijing 100101, China; XIAOHUI Pantanal e Planaltos de Entorno. Campo Grande: UFMS, Cuiabá:
MA, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. UFMT. 196 pp.). This frog is commonly found at RPPN EEB
32 Jiachengdonglu, Kunming, Yunnan, China 650223; THOMAS R. and reproduces throughout the year (Alves and Albuquerque,
RAINWATER, Tom Yawkey Wildlife Center & Belle W. Baruch Institute pers. obs.); it was probably taken during its active period. Both
of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science, P.O. Box 596, Clemson University, specimens are deposited in the Coleção Zoológica de Referência
Georgetown, South Carolina 29440, USA (e-mail: [email protected]). da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande,
Brazil as ZUFMS-REP 2445.
TACHYMENIS PERUVIANA. REPRODUCTION. Tachymenis pe- LEDILENE SAUCEDO ALVES (e-mail: [email protected]) and
ruviana (Colubridae, Dipsadinae) is a viviparous snake distrib- NELSON RUFINO DE ALBUQUERQUE, Universidade Federal de Mato
uted in mountainous areas of Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile, and Grosso do Sul/Campus do Pantanal, Av. Rio Branco 1270, 79304-902, Co-
northern Argentina (Donoso-Barros 1966. Reptiles de Chile. Edi- rumbá, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.
ciones de la Universidad de Chile, Santiago de Chile, Chile, 458
pp.; Cei 1993. Reptiles del Noroeste, Nordeste y Este de la Argen- THAMNOPHIS MARCIANUS (Checkered Gartersnake).
tina. Herpetofauna de las Selvas Subtropicales, Puna y Pampas. PREDATION. On 12 November 2016, 11.5 km SE of Valentine,
Mus. Reg. Sci. Nat., Torino, Italia, 949 pp.; Valenzuela-Dellarossa Jeff Davis County, Texas, USA (30.52166°N, 104.40198°N; WGS
et al. 2010. Check List 6:5–6). Female T. peruviana are known to 84), the head of Thamnophis marcianus was found impaled on a
give birth to 3–14 live young (Walker 1945. Publ. Mus. Comp. barbed wire at a known Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovicianus)
Zool. Harvard College 55:1–55), between October and Janu- larder. To our knowledge, this is the first record of predation by
ary (Donoso-Barros, op. cit.; C. de Morales [ed.] 1994. Huaraco, L. ludovicianus upon T. marcianus (Ernst and Ernst 2003. Snakes
Comunidad de la Puna. Instituto de Ecología. 261 pp.). In Chile, of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press,
hatchling size has been reported to be up to 14 cm and 15 cm for Washington D.C. 668 pp.; Clark 2011. Son. Herpetol. 24:20–22).
T. chilensis and T. peruviana, respectively (Donoso-Barros and The specimen of T. marcianus was preserved in the Sul Ross State
Rubio 1962. Noticiario Mensual del Museo Nacional de Historia University James F. Scudday vertebrate collections as SRSU 6902.
Natural 75:3–6; Donoso-Barros, op. cit.). MORGAN SEILER, Sul Ross University, Alpine, Texas 79830, USA (e-
On 12 November 2015, a gravid female of T. peruviana (SVL = mail: [email protected]); SEAN P. GRAHAM, Department of Biol-
54.1 cm, tail length = 6.5 cm, 115 g) was captured in Campus Uni- ogy, Geology, and Physical Sciences, Sul Ross State University, Alpine, Texas
versitario de Cota Cota, La Paz - Bolivia (16.54°S, 68.06°W, WGS 79830, USA (e-mail: [email protected]); CRYSTAL KELEHEAR,
84; 3440 m elev.). It was held in the Colección Boliviana de Fauna Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 0843-03092, Balboa, An-
laboratory and on 11 December it gave birth to seven offspring con, Panama (e-mail: [email protected]).
(4 females, 2 males, 1 unknown sex) having the following range

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NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 407

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

PHOTO BY ANTON SOROKIN

AMEEREGA TRIVITTATA (Three-striped Poison Frog). ECTO-

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Fig. 1. Predation on Engystomops pustulosus by a ctenid spider in the

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Fig. 1. An endemic freshwater crab Isolapotamon sinuatifrons prey-

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Deer Mice), and Z. hudsonicus. To date, all these taxa except Z.

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

ODORRANA AMAMIENSIS (Amami Tip-nosed Frog). PREDA-

PHOTO BY ELVIS DELGADO

cial natural history museum; on the second day, it escaped from

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

PHRYNOBATRACHUS KREFFTII (Krefft’s Puddle Frog). ANU-

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

DAVID CAMILO MARTÍNEZ DUEÑAS, Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas,

RHACOPHORUS PARDALIS (Gliding Tree Frog).

According to the parental care classification of Wells (1981.

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

RHEOHYLA MIOTYMPANUM (Small-eared Treefrog). PREDA-

PHOTO BY CRYSTAL KELEHEAR

16 g [weighed post-laying]) was reddish in coloration and was

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

APALONE FEROX (Florida Softshell Turtle). KYPHOSIS. Kypho-

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Naturgesch. 10:135–146), and Trionyx triunguis (Mertens 1940.

APALONE SPINIFERA EMORYI (Texas Spiny Softshell). DIET.

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Sandbank Granule VC C M F VF Silt/clay

Limpha 0.34 19.87 0.65 45.89 25.70 5.94 1.61

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

and Margaret A. Cargill Foundation. The field assistance of Tun

PHOTO BY ANTÔNIO CASTRO

Fig. 1. Chelonoidis carbonaria (Red-footed Tortoise) scavenging on

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

EMYDOIDEA BLANDINGII (Blanding’s Turtle). COLD

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Northwest Missouri State University. This work was approved by

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

One T. taxus was documented predating turtle nests with a

GOPHERUS POLYPHEMUS (Gopher Tortoise). BEHAVIOR. Go-

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

research was approved by the landowner, New Mexico Depart-

PSEUDEMYS NELSONI (Florida Red-Bellied Cooter) and

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Fig. 1. Juvenile Pseudemys nelsoni feeding on filamentous algae (Ba-

sexual characteristics such as short tail length and lack of ex-

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

ANDREW J. HEATON, Department of Biology, University of South Ala-

ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS (American Alligator).

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

Herpetological Review 48(2), 2017

TL TIL TCP PL SVL (mm) PH (cm) PD (cm)