Ship Construction BY STOKOE PDF
Ship Construction BY STOKOE PDF
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
FOR
MARINE STUDENTS
By
E. A. STOKOE
C.Eng.. F.R.I.NA. F.I.Mar.E.•M.N.E.C.lnst.
PrincipalLecturer in NavalArchitecture at
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter 1-Shiptypesandterms
Passenger ships, cargo liners, cargo
tramps, oil tankers, bulk carriers, colliers,
container ships, liquefied gas carriers,
REED'S MARINE ENGINEERING SERIES terms in general use. 1-14
The series covers the full range of subjects for all grades
Chapter 2 Stresses in ship structures
of the Department of Trade Certificates of Competency
Longitudinal bending in still water and
in Marine Engineering. The books will be extremely useful waves. transverse bending, stresses
to marine engineer cadets and other engir:teering students when docking, pounding, panting. 15-24
studying on Technician Education Council (and SCOTEC)
Courses. Material is presented from first principles with
Chapter 3 - Sections used: Welding and materials
many diagrammatic sketches and worked solutions to Types of rolled steel sections used in ship
examples. building. Metallic arc welding, argon arc
welding, types of joints and edge
preparation, advantages and disadvan
Vol. 1. MATHEMATICS tages. testing of welds, faults in welded
joints, design of welded structure.
Vol. 2. APPLIED MECHANICS Materials, mild steel, higher tensile
Vol. 3. HEAT & HEAT ENGINES steels, Arctic D steel, aluminium alloys.
Brittle fracture. 25-43
Vol. 4. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Vol. 5. SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Chapter 4 Bottom and side framing
Vol. 6. BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY Double bottom, internal structure, duct
Vol. 7. ADVANCED ELECTROTECHNOLOGY keel, double bottom in machinery space.
Side framing, tank side brackets, beam
Vol. 8. GENERAL ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE knees, web frames. 44-53
Vol. 9. STEAM ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE
Vol. 10. INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL SYSTEMS Chapter 5 Shell and decks
Shell plating, bulwarks. Deck plating,
Vol. 11. ENGINEERING DRAWING beams, deck girders and pillars, discon
Vol. 12. MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE tinuities. hatches, steel hatch covers,
watertight hatches. 54-65
These books are obtainable from all Nautical Opticians.
Chapter 9 - Oil tankers, bulk carriers, liquefied gas Merchant ships vary considerably in size, type, layout and
carriers and container ships function. They include passenger ships, cargo ships and
Oil tankers, longitudinal framing, com
oined framing, cargo pumping and piping specialised types suitable for particular classes of work. This
arrangements, bulk carriers, ore carriers. book deals with the construction of normal types of
Liquefied gas carriers, fully pressurised, passenger ships and cargo ships. The cargo ships may be
semi-pressurised/partly ref rigerated,
semi-pressurised/fully refrigerated, fully subdivided into those designed to carry various cargoes and
refrigerated, safety and environmental those intended to carry specific cargoes, such as oil tankers,
control, boil off, operating procedures. bulk carriers and colliers.
Container ships. 105-128
PASSENGER SHIPS
Chapter 10- Freeboard, tonnage, life saving
appliances and classification
Freeboard definitions, basis of calcula A passenger ship may be defined as one which may
tion, markings. Tonnage definitions, accommodate more than twelve passengers. They range
underdeck, net and gross tonnage, pro
pelling power allowance, modified from small river ferries to large ocean-going vessels which
tonnage, alternative tonnage. Life saving are in the form of floating hotels. The larger ships are
appliances, lifeboats, davits. Classifica designed for maximum comfort to large numbers of
tion of ships, assignment of class,
surveys, discontinuities. 129-141 passengers, and include in their services large dining rooms,
lounges suitable for dances, cinemas, swimming pools,
Chapter 11- Miscellaneous
gymnasia, open deck spaces and shops. They usually cater for
Insulation of ships. Fire protection of two or three classes of passenger, from tourist class to the
passenger ships. Corrosion, prevention, more luxurious first class. Where only a small number of
surface preparation, painting, cathodic
protection, impressed current system,
passengers is carried in comparison with the size of the ship,
design and maintenance. Fouling. the amenities are reduced.
Examination in dry dock. Rolling and Any ships travelling between definite ports and having
stabilisation, reduction of roll, bilge keels, particular departure and arrival dates are termed liners. Thus
active fin stabiliser, tank stabilisers.
Vibration. Enginecasing. Funnel. 142-169 a passenger liner is one which travels between particular
ports. Because of their rigid timetable such ships are often
Selection of Examination Questions- used for carrying mail and perishable goods in their greatly
Class 2 170-173 restricted cargo space, their high speeds ensuring minimum
time on passage.
Selection of Examination Questions- The regulations enforced for the construction and
Class 1 174-179 maintenance of passenger ships are much more stringent
than those for cargo ships in an attempt to provide safe sea
Index 180-184 passage. Many of the regulations are the result of losses of
II it" ":'~L,.j'.,Ii.~ __..."..........._~.l·I.i"-""'",_,_.~ ,, •·· t..•.,.ii; .. ;';I.,Uitlah... ,. ,',!-t,. . • ,1:.. : ,I.. C.,.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••I11III1
...
CARGO LINERS
~I
0::::
~f.:: -c ~
end is a tank known as the after peak enclosing the stern tube UJ M
o
~
a:: z
Z
--J z 0
~,
"o '"
z
in a watertight compartment. Between the peak bulkheads is I ...
z >
-c
~ I
a continuous tank top forming a double bottom space which is 0
cc
~w
0 " Z'"
zu
subdivided into tanks suitable for carrying oil fuel, fresh water ~
0::::
~
0::::
SJ o ...
Z >-
-J
and water ballast. The machinery space is shown aft of -c -c 0
midships presenting an uneven distribution of cargo space.
u u :tl"'~ o ...
Z >
This is a modern arrangement and slightly unusual. but has
0'""
Z
the effect of reducing the maximum bending moment. A more o ...
z>
usual design in existing ships has the machinery space near 0'"
- Z
midships, with three holds forward and two aft, similar to the o ...
Z>
arrangement shown in Fig. 2. The oil fuel bunkers and settling
tanks are arranged adjacent to, or at the side of, the
machinery space. From the after engine room bulkhead to the
after peak bulkhead is a watertight shaft tunnel enclosing the
shaft and allowing access to the shaft and bearings directly
from the engine room. An exit in the form of a vertical trunk is
arranged at the after end of the tunnel in case of emergency.
In a twin screw ship it is necessary to construct two such
tunnels, although they may be joined together at the fore and
after ends.
The cargo space is divided into lower holds and compart Fig.1 Fig.2 Fig.3
ments between the decks, or 'tween decks. Many ships have
three decks, thus forming upper and lower 'tween decks. This
system allows different cargoes to be carried in different
4 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SHIP TYPES AND TERMS 5
compartments and reduces the possibility of crushing the A double bottom is required only in way of the machinery
cargo. Access to the cargo compartments is provided by space and may be used for oil fuel and fresh water. A
means of large hatchways which may be closed either by forecastle may be fitted forward, a bridge amidships and a
wood boards or by steel covers, the latter being most popular poop aft. These three erections are connected by means of a
in modern ships. Suitable cargo handling equipment is longitudinal gangway allowing passage from one to the other
provided in the form of either derricks or cranes. Heavy lift without setting foot on the upper deck. This is necessary since
equipment is usually fitted inway of one hatch. A forecastle is in bad weather the upper deck may be awash. In modern
fitted to reduce the amount of water shipped forward and to vessels all the accommodation and navigation spaces are
provide adequate working space for handling ropes and arranged at the after end, leaving clear, unbroken deck space
cables. and concentrating all the services and catering equipment in
one position.
CARGO TRAMPS
restrict the cargo space (Fig. 5). This system raises the centre bauxite would be carried in the long holds, whilst a light cargo
of gravity of the ore, resulting in a more comfortable ship. The such as grain or timber would occupy the whole hold space.
double bottom and the wing compartments may be used as
ballast tanks for the return voyage. Some vessels, however,
are designed to carry an alternative cargo of oil in these tanks.
With lighter cargoes such as grain, the restriction of the cargo
spaces is not necessary although deep hopper sides are fitted
1~~'
"'"'''''
u..J
«
a;
2~
n
-'
0
:r
The spaces at the sides of the hatches are plated in as shown -0
in Fig. 6 to give selftrimming properties. In many bulk carriers z
a tunnel is fitted below the deck from the midship I ~, NO
L : z~
-'
~I
carried, it is loaded into the short holds. A cargo such as
'"
U 0
-'
0
:r
z
,'!:
ui
c,
v ~
0 n,
z 0
I ~::! ~J
0
I
V'l
I I
lr
~!
TANK TANK e:::::.
-c :,:t:O' :::;
....J '"0
LU
U z Z
: ~ 0
:.I: ' z i U
ui
0
..
'"
z o<l::
.....
I L ....
-.J -'
0 Z
U~!:lsll~ o
:r
,
.11 l DOUllLE
I BOTTOM
) I ~!
-o
z
0
~
~
0
u
ORE CARRIER 1 >
a:
,
Fig.5 ~ ~
I I
UPPER
HOPPER
( u~
«
:I:
~ ~'
I 0
-' '"
z
I 0
:r ....«
::;
CARGO i HOLD
r-
z
0
0
[ 0
-'
0
:r
'"
a:«
~~
.... <>.
CIl
z
0
<r
F
BULK CARRIER
Fig.6 Fig.7 Fig.a Fig.9
,t.. ,
8 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SHIP TYPES AND TERMS 9
REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SHIP TYPES AND TERMS 11
10
~~I- -IT
I" I
I
o
~~
a:~
I~
I~
I
1.1
§I
t~' LIQUEFIED GAS CARRIER
~I
:>~
a::: J
Fig.13
~a:>~ I ::::C::II UJ
Q.
a::: ;1'o
a::: ~ '"el' TUMBLE
HOME
« o-c :>'
u
~t1=
N
0 ~
"z-c U
...J
.3 ._----.
....
N <n
N
e
;1 ~
Q. a:
1--'[1'
--pBER' 400mm
FREEBOARD
Z
o
« :I:
....
~
I w : L
~I :1
~
o
I~
o I I
'y
DE P TH
UJ
u..
:;:;1
CD ~
~ I DR;U;HT
UJ
I" ::::>
I
:I:
FLA~'
I~ o
~I
I I
~~I_._. F.
OTT
OF
~U_S .t-. l
BILGE
I.
I~
...J
.
:I:
>' /Z I
i-
I
RISE .Ql/T
FLOOR
BRE,..D~.8~. _ _ .___j
...
U
X
I
Fig. 14
"
12 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SHIP TYPES AND TERMS 13,
Deadweight
The mass of cargo. fuel. water, stores, etc .• a ship carries.
The deadweight is the difference between the displacement CHAPTER 2
and the lightweight
Le.•displacement = lightweight+ deadweight STRESSES IN SHIP STRUCTURES
It is usual to discuss the size of a cargo ship in relation to its
deadweight. Thus a 10000 tonne ship is one which is Numerous forces act on a ship's structure. some of a static
capable of carrying a deadweight of 10000 tonne. nature and some dynamic. The static forces are due to the
The dimensions given in Figs. 12 and 14 are typical for a differences in weight and support which occur throughout the
ship of about 10000 tonne deadweight ship, while the dynamic forces are created by the hammering
Liquefied gas carriers are compared in terms of the of the water on the ship, the passage of waves along the ship
capacity of the cargo tanks. e.g.• 10000 m3 • and by the moving machinery parts. The greatest stresses set
up in the ship as a whole are due to the distribution of loads
along the ship. causing longitudinal bending.
Since the total weight must be equal to the total buoyancy, the
area of the load diagram above the base line must be equal to
the area below the base line. Because of this unequal loading,
however, shearing forces and bending moments are set up in
c:.-~~-------
0:'--
\
----:
__
~~~~~~
.~----.~
f~--·-~~----~
BEAM
---.......... .,
--.-J
w\: -__
the ship. The maximum bending moment occurs about
midships.
_ 7 l
Fig.16
r"-- I .'' \
i--- ---: :-.._- ---..:
---. t ...--~~~---------------:~~---- f--.--'
:)
~------- .-
wc:--
BEAM
-~L
----------
SAGGING
Fig.17
an excess of buoyancy in way of the deep tank. Unfortunately moment. The greatest differences occur when a ship passes
there is also an excess of buoyancy in way of the engine room, through waves whose lengths from crest to crest are equal to
since the machinery is light when compared with the volume the length of the ship.
it occupies. A ship in such a loaded condition would therefore
hog, creating very high stresses in the deck and bottom shell.
This may be so dangerous that if owners intend the ships to
be loaded in this manner, additional deck material must be ~----~ HOGGING
Z
provided.
The structure resisting longitudinal bending consists of all
continuous longitudinal material, the portions farthest from Fig.19
the axis of bending (the neutral axis) being the most Important
(Fig. 18), e.g. keel, bottom shell, centre girder, side girders, When the wave crest is amidships (Fig. 19), the buoyancy
tank top, tank margin, side shellrsheerstrake, stringer plate, amidships is increased while at the ends it is reduced. This
deck plating alongside hatches, and in the case of oil tankers, tends to cause the ship to hog.
longitudinal bulkheads. Danger may occur where a point in
the structure is the greatest distance from the neutral axis,
such as the top of a sheerstrake, where a high stress point
occurs. Such points are to be avoided as far as possible, since
E---
~t
---
a crack in the plate may result. In many oil tankers the
structure is improved by joining the sheerstrake and stringer
plate to form a rounded gunwale. Fig.20
may have to withstand a tremendous weight of water shipped the bottom shell exceeds that on the side shell. It follows.
in heavy weather. The deck plating is connected to beams therefore. that the bottom shell must be thicker than the side
which transmit the loads to longitudinal girders and to the shell. When the ship passes through waves. these forces are
side frames. In way of heavy local loads such as winches, of a pulsating nature and may vary considerably in high
additional stiffening is arranged. The shell plating and frames waves, while in bad weather conditions the shell plating
form pillars which support the weights from the decks. The above the waterl ine will receive severe ha mmeri ng.
tank top is required to carry the weight of the hold cargo or the When a ship rolls there is a tendency for the ship to distort
upthrust exerted by the liquid in the tanks, the latter usually transversely in a similar way to that in which a picture frame
proving to be the most severe load. may collapse. This is known as racking and is reduced or
In the machinery space other factors must be taken into prevented by the beam knee and tank side bracket
account. Forces of pulsating nature are transmitted through connections. together with the transverse bulkheads. the
the structure due to the general out of balance forces of the latter having the greatest effect.
machinery parts. The machinery seats must be extremely
well supported to prevent any movement of the machinery.
Additional girders are fitted in the double bottom and the ., ,. -- -- ---- , '" r t IT r::': BE;Ml---::
thickness of the tank top increased under the engine in an ,, I : r " I
KNEE i
attempt to reduce the possibility of movement which could
I
1 I
I
I ------------ ---8eA~ --j
cause severe vibration in the ship. For similar reasons the I
,
I
1
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
KNEE .I
I , I
shaft and propeller must be well supported. :
I I
I
I
,
,! ,I If
~
TANK 5:DE
,, BRAC~ET~ ,
t
.; :.
BEAM BEAM PICTU RE fRAME SHIP
rr
I
KMf RACKING
BEA:-1
BEAM
KNEf
, Fig. 22
FRAME
Docking
Fig.21 A ship usually enters dry dock with a slight trim aft. Thus as
the water is pumped out, the after end touches the blocks. As
A considerable force is exerted on the bottom and side shell more water is pumped out an upthrust is exerted by the blocks
by the water surrounding the ship. The double bottom floors on the after end. causing the ship to change trim until the
and side frames are designed to withstand these forces, whole keel from forward to aft rests on the centre blocks. At
while the shell plating must be thick enough to prevent the instant before this occurs the upthrust aft is a maximum. If
buckling between the floors. and frames. Since water this thrust is excessive it may be necessary to strengthen the
pressure increases with the depth of immersion, the load on after blocks and the after end of the ship. Such a problem
dll'i'.i.ntfiI
arises if it is necessary to dock a ship when fully loaded or As soon as the after end touches the blocks, shores are
when trimming severely by the stern. As the pumping inserted between the stern and the dock side, to centralise
continues the load on the keel blocks is increased until the the ship in the dock and to prevent the ship slipping off the
whole weight of the ship is taken by them. The ship structure blocks. When the ship grounds along its whole length
in way of the keel must be strong enough to withstand this additional shores are fitted on both sides, holding the ship in
load. In most ships the normal arrangement of keel and position and preventing tipping. These shores are known as
centre girder, together with the transverse floors, is quite breast shores and have some slight effect in preventing the
sufficient for the purpose. If a duct keel is fitted, however, care side shell bulging. They should preferably be placed in way of
must be taken to ensure that the width of the duct does not transverse bulkheads or side frames.
exceed the width of the keel blocks. The keel structure of an
oil tanker is strengthened by fitting docking brackets, tying
the centre girder to the adjacent longitudinal frames at
intervals of about 1.5 m.
TANK TOP ~
SUPPORT IN DOCK
o
KEEL Fig.24
BLOCK
,
NORMAL KEEL DUCT KEEL TANKER KEEL
Pounding
When a ship meets heavy weather and commences
heaving and pitching, the rise of the fore end of the ship
Fig.23
occasionally synchronises with the trough of a wave. The fore
end then emerges from the water and re-enters with a
Bilge blocks or shores are fitted to support the sides of the tremendous slamming effect, known as pounding. While this
ship. The arrangements of the bilge blocks vary from dock to ,does not occur with great reqularitv, it may nevertheless
dock. In some cases they are fitted after the water is out of the cause damage to the bottom of the ship forward. The shell
dock, while some docks have blocks which may be slid into plating must be stiffened to prevent buckling. Pounding also
place while the water is still in the dock. The latter occurs aft in way of the cruiser stern but the efects are not
arrangement is preferable since the sides are completely nearly as great.
supported. At the ends of the ship, the curvature of the shell
does not permit blocks to be fitted and so bilge shores are Panting
used. The structure at the bilge must prevent these shores As the waves pass along the ship they cause fluctuations in
and blocks buckling the sh~11. water pressure which tend to create an in-and-out movement
24 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS
Ordinary angles
These sections may be used to join together two plates
meeting at right angles or to form light stiffeners in riveted
ships. Two types are employed, those having equal flanges
(Fig. 25), varying in size between 75 mm and 175 mrn, and
those having unequal flanges (Fig. 26), which may be
obtained in a number of sizes up to 250 mm by 100 mm, the
latter type being used primarily as stiffeners.
_ _ L__ _L _
EOUAL ANGLE UNEOUAL ANGLE
Fig.25 Fig.26
them to the plates, forming much more efficient stiffeners attaching brackets to the web in way of the bulb. The modern
(Fig. 27). section resolves this problem since the brackets may be
either overlapped or butt welded to the flat portion of the bulb.
Such sections are available in depths varying between 80
-_LL ------
TOE WELDED ANGLE
mm and 430 rnrn, being lighter than the bulb angles for equal
strength. They are used for general stiffening purposes in the
same way as bulb angles.
Channels
Channel bars (Fig. 30) are available in depths varying
Fig.27 between 160 mm and 400 mm. Channels are used for
panting beams, struts, pillars and girders and heavy frames.
In insulated ships it is necessary to provide the required
Bulbangles
strength of bulkheads, decks and shell with a minimum depth
The bulb at the toe of the web increases the strength of the
of stiffener and at the same time provide a flat inner surface
bar considerably, thus forming a very economical stiffening
for connecting the facing material in order to reduce the
member in riveted ships (Fig. 28). Bulb angles vary in depth
depth of insulation required and to provide maximum cargo
between 115 mm and 380 mm and are used throughout the
space. In many cases, therefore, channel bars with reverse
ship for frames, beams, bulkhead stiffeners and hatch
bars are used for such stiffening (Fig. 31 ), reducing the depth
stiffeners.
of the members by 50 mm or 75 mm. Both the weight and the
cost of th is method of construction are high.
_ _ [L__
BULB ANGLE
_ _I,,~
BULB PLATE
__ C___ _I.
Fig.30 Fig.31
Bulb plates
In welded construction the flange of the bulb angles is
superfluous, increasing the weight of the structure without JoistsorH-bars
any appreciable increase in strength, since it is not required These sections have been used for many years for such
for connection purposes. A bulb plate (Fig. 29) has therefore items as crane rails but have relatively small flanges. The
been especially developed for welded construction, having a manufacturers have now produced such sections with wide
bulb slightly heavier than the equivalent bulb angle. A plate flanges (Fig. 32), which prove much more useful in ship
having a bulb on both sides has been available for many years construction. They are used for crane rails, struts and pillars,
but its use has been severely limited due to the difficulty of being relatively strong in all directions. In deep tanks and
28 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SECTIONS USED: WELDING AND MATERIALS 29
I o r>.
I
BROAD FLANGED
--~-- ==~-~-:~~
TEE
II
BAR
TEE BAR
TOE WELDED
SOLID ROUND
Fig.35
HALF ROUND
Fig.36
BEAM
Aluminium sections
Fig.32 Fig.33 Fig. 34 Aluminium alloys used in ship construction are found to be
too soft to roll successfully in section form, and are therefore
produced by extrusion, i.e, forcing the metal through a
suitably shaped die. This becomes an advantage since the
Tee bars dies are relatively cheap to produce, allowing numerous
The use of the T-bar (Fig. 33) is limited in modern ships. shapes of section to be made. Thus there are few standard
Occasionally they are toe-welded to bulkheads (Fig. 34) to sections but the aluminium companies are prepared to
form heavy stiffening of small depth. Many ships have bilge extrude any feasible forms of section which the shipbuilders
keels incorporati ng T-bars in the con nection to the shell. require in reasonable quantities. Fig 37 shows some such
sections which have been produced for use on ships built in
this country.
Flat bars or slabs
Flat bars are often used in ships of welded construction,
particularly for light stiffening, waterways, and save-ails
which prevent the spread of oil. Large flat bars are used in oil
tankers and bulk carriers for longitudinal stiffening where the
_I~~
material tends to be in tension or compression rather than
subject to high bending moments. This allows for greater
continuity in the vicinity of watertight or oiltight bulkheads.
Several other sections are used in ships for various
reasons. Solid round bars (Fig. 35) are used for light pillars,
___f_aY_
particularly in accommodation spaces, for welded stems and TEE BAR BULB PLATE
for fabricated rudders and stern frames. Half-round bars (Fig.
36) are used for stiffening in accommodation where ALUMINIUM SECTIONS
projections may prove dangerous (e.g. in toilets and wash
places), and for protection of ropes from chafing. Fig.37
30 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS SECTIONS USED: WELDING AND MATERIALS 31
+
WELD ARC
Fig.39
WORKPIECE
Argon arc welding
It is found that with some metals, such as aluminium,
WELDING CIRCUIT
coated electrodes may not be used. The coatings cause the
aluminium to corrode and, being heavier than the aluminium,
remain trapped in the weld. It is nevertheless necessary to
Fig.38
protectthe arc and an inert gas such as argon may be used for
this purpose. In argon arc welding, argon is passed through a
tube, down the centre of which is a tungsten electrode. An arc
A metal electrode, of the same material as the workpiece, is is formed between the workpiece and the electrode while the
clamped into a holder which is connected to one terminal of a argon forms a shield around the arc. A separate filler wire of
welding unit, the opposing terminal being connected to the SUitable material is used to form the joint. The tungsten
workpiece. An arc is formed between the electrode and the electrode must be water cooled. This system of welding may
32 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SECTIONS USED: WELDING AND MATERIALS 33
be used for most metals and alloys. although care must be Overlap joints (Fig. 44) may be used in place of butt welds.
taken when welding aluminium to use a.c, supply. but are not as efficient since they do not allow complete
penetration of the material and transmit a bending moment
Types of joint and edge preparation to the weld metal. Such joints are used in practice.
The most efficient method of joining two plates wh ich lie in particularly when connecting brackets to adjacent members.
the same plane is by means of a butt weld. since the two Fillet welds (Fig. 45) are used when two members meet at
plates then become one continuous member. A square-edge right angles. The strength of these welds depends upon the
butt (Fig. 40) may be used for plates up to about 10 mm thick. leg length and the throat thickness. the latter being at least
Above this thickness. however. it is difficult to obtain 70% of the leg length. The welds may be continuous on one or
sufficient penetration and it becomes necessary to use single both sides of the member or may be intermittent. Continuous
vee (Fig. 41) or double vee butts (Fig. 42). The latter are more welds are used when the joint must be watertight and for
economical as far as the volume of weld metal is concerned. other strength members.
but may require more overhead welding and are therefore Stiffeners. frames and beams may be connected to the
used only for large thicknesses of plating. The edge plating by intermittent welding (Fig. 46). In tanks. however.
preparations for all these joints may be obtained by means of where the rate of corrosion is high. such joints may not be
profile burners having three burning heads which may be used and it is then necessary to employ continuous welding or
adjusted to suit the required angle of the joint (Fig. 43). to scallop the section (Fig. 47). The latter method has the
advantage of reducing the weight of the structure and
improving the drainage. although a combination of corrosion
DO
\ 60° / and erosion may reduce the section between the scallops.
.r--I
THROAT
THICKNESS
Advantages and disadvantages
The amount of welding employed in shipbuilding since the
J
end of World War II has increased tremendously. so that now
;tJ
reduction in overlaps, the structure of the ship is much maximum strength. The tests are those which are used for
smoother. This leads to reduction in hull resistance and any metals:
hence the fuel consumption, particularly in the first few years (i) a tensile test in which the mean tensile strength
of the ship's life. The smoother surface is easier to clean and must be at least 400 M N/ m 2 •
less susceptible to corrosion. This is of primary importance in (ii) a bend test in which the specimen must be bent
the case of oil tankers where the change from riveting to through an angle of 90° with an internal radius
welding was very rapid. A welded joint is stronger than the of 4 times the thickness of the specimen,
equivalent riveted joint, leading to a stronger ship. without cracking at the edges.
Unfortunately a faulty weld may prove much more (iii) an impact test in which the specimen must
dangerous than poor riveting, and at the same time is more absorb at least47 J at about 20°C.
difficult to detect. The methods of testing welded joints given (iv) any deep penetration electrodes must show the
below, are, while quite successful, nevertheless expensive. If extent of penetration by cutting through a
a crack starts in a plate it will, under stress, pass through the welded section and etching the outline of
plate until it reaches the edge. In riveted construction the the weld by means of dilute hydrochloric acid.
edges are common and hence the crack does not have serious This test may be carried out on any form of welded
results. In welded construction, however, the plates are joint.
continuous and hence such a crack may prove very Types of electrodes, plates and joints may be tested at
dangerous. It is therefore necessary in welded ships to regular intervals to ensure that they are maintained at the
provide a number of longitudinal crack arrestors in the main required standard, while new materials may be checked
hull structure to reduce the effects of transverse cracks. before being issued for general use. The destructive testing of
These crack arrestors may be in the form of riveted seams or production work is very limited since it simply determines the
strakes of extra notch tough steel through which a crack will strength of the joint before it was destroyed by the removal of
not pass. At the same time, great care must be taken in the the test piece.
design ofthe structu re to reduce the possibility of such cracks,
by rounding the corners of openings in the structure and by Non-destructive tests
avoiding concentrations of weld metal. It must be clearly Visual inspection of welded joints is most important in order
understood, however, that if the cracks appear due to to ensure that there are no obvious surface faults such as
inherent weakness of the ship, i.e., jf the bending moment cracks and undercut, and to check the leg length and throat
creates unduly high stresses, the crack will pass through the th ickness of fillet welds.
plates whether the sh ip is riveted, welded or a combination of For internal inspection of shipyard welds, radiography is
each. used in the form of X-rays or gamma rays, the former being
the most common. Radiographs are taken of important butt
welds by passing the rays through the plate onto a
photographic plate. Anydifferences in the density of the plate
Testing of welds allow greater exposure of the plate and may be readily seen
There are two basic types of test carried out on welded when developed. Such differences are caused by faults which
joints (a) destructive tests and (b) non-destructive tests. have the effect of reducing the thickness of the plate. In way
of such faults it is necessary to take X-rays at two angles. The
(a) Destructive tests resultant films are inserted in a stereoscope which gives the
As the heading implies, specimens of the weld material or illusion of the third dimension. It is not possible to test fillet
welded joint are tested until failure occurs, to determine their welds by means of radiography. It is usual to take 400 to 500
36 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SECTIONS USED: WELDING AND MATERIALS 37
X-rays of welded joints, checking highly stressed members, reducing the effective thickness of the weld. The type of rod
joints in which cracks are common, and work carried out by and the edge preparation must be suitable to ensure complete
different welders on the ship. penetration of the joint. In many cases a good surface appear
Other non-destructive tests are available but are not ance hides the lack of fusion beneath, and, since this fault
common in shipbuilding. Surface cracks which are too fine to may be continuous in the weld, could prove very dangerous.
see even with the aid of a magnifying glass, may be outlined Incorrect welding technique sometime causes bubbles of air
with the aid of a fluorescent penetrant which enters the crack to be trapped in the weld. These bubbles tend to force their
and may be readily seen with the aid of ultra-violet light. way to the surface leaving pipes in the weld. Smaller bubbles
Faults at or near the surface of a weld may be revealed by in greater quantities are known as porosity. Cracks on or
means of magnetic crack detection. An oil containing below the surface may occur due to unequal cooling rates or
particles of iron is poured over the weld. A light electric an accumulation of weld metal. The rate of cooling is also the
current is passed through the weld. In way of any surface cause of distortion in the plates, much of which may be
faults a magnetic field will be set up which will create an reduced by correct weld ing procedu reo
accumulation ofthe iron particles. Since the remainder of the Another fault which is attributed to welding but which may
iron remains in the oil which runs off, it is easy to see where occur in any thick plate, especially at extremely low
such faults occur. temperatures, is brittle fracture. Several serious failures
A more modern system which is being steadily established occurred during and just after World War II, when large
is the use of ultrasonics. A high frequency electric current quantities of welded work were produced. Cracks may start at
causes a quartz crystal to vibrate at a high pitch. The relatively small faults and suddenly pass through the plating
vibrations are transmitted directly through the material being at comparatively small stresses. It is important to ensure
tested. If the material is homogeneous, the vibration is that no faults or discontinuities occur, particularly in way of
reflected from the opposite surface, converted to an electrical important structural members. The grade of steel used must
impulse and indicated on an oscilloscope. Any fault in the be suitable for welding, with careful control of the mangan
material, no matter how small, will cause an intermediate ese/carbon content in the greater thicknesses to ensure
reflection which may be noted on the screen. This method is notch-tough qualities.
useful in that it will indicate a lamination in a plate which will
not be shown on an X-ray plate. Ultrasonics are now being
used to determine the thickness of plating in repair work and
avoiding the necessity of drilling through the plate.
Design of welded structure
It is essential to realise that welding is different from
riveting not only as a process, but as a method of attachment.
Faults in welded joints It is not sufficient to amend a riveted structure by welding, the
Electric welding, using correct technique, suitable structure, and indeed the whole shipyard, must be designed
materials and conditions, should produce faultless welds. for welding. Greater continuity of material may be obtained
Should these requirements not be met. however, faults win than with riveting, resulting in more efficient designs. Many
occur in the joint. If the current is too high the edge of the of the faults which occurred in welded ships were due to the
plate may be burned away. This is known as undercut and has large number of members which were welded together with
the effect of reducing the thickness of the plate at that point. It resulting high stress points. Consider the structure of an oil
is important to chip off all of the slag, particularly in multi-run tanker. Fig. 48 shows part of a typical riveted centre girder,
welds, otherwise slag inclusions occur in the joint, again connected to a vertical bulkhead web.
38 REED'SSHIPCONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SECTIONS USED: WELDING AND MATERIALS 39
appeared showing that the curvature was too small. The radii
gl ., WEB
were increased until eventually the whole bracket was
formed by a large radius joining the bottom girder to the
vertical web (Fig. 50). This type of structure is now regarded
~"~
as commonplace in oil tanker design.
VERTICAL WEB
CENTRE I GIRDER
FLA'f
Fig.48
t
I
When such ships were built of welded construction, the I CENTRE I GIRDER
same type of design was used, the riveting being replaced by o o 01010
welding, resulting in the type of structure shown in Fig. 49. FLAT
Fig. 50
o VERTICAL WE B
~ Great care must be taken to ensure that structural mem
o bers on opposite sides of bulkheads are perfectly in line,
otherwise cracks may occur in the plating due to shearing.
In the succeeding chapters dealing with ship construction,
welded structure is shown where it is most prevalent.
~--~---' MATERIALS
Mild steel
Mild steel or low carbon steel in several grades has been
used as a ship structural material for over a century. It has the
advantage of having a relatively good strength-weight ratio,
Fig.49 whilstthe cost is not excessive.
There are four grades of steel in common use. specified by
It was found with such designs that cracks occurred at the the Classification Societies as Grades A, B. 0 and E
toes of the brackets and at the ends of the flats. The brackets depending largely upon their degree of notch toughness.
were then built in to the webs using continuous face flats Grade A has the least resistance to brittle fracture whilst
having small radii at the toes of the brackets. Cracks again Grade E is termed 'extra notch tough'. Grade 0 has sufficient
40 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS SECTIONS USED: WELDING AND MATERIALS 41
resistance to cracks for it to be used extensively for main The tensile strength is increased to between 490 MN/m 2
structural material. and 620 MN/m2 , having the same percentage elongation as
The disposition of the grades in any ship depends upon the the low carbon steel. Thus it is possible to form a structure
thickness of the material. the part of the ship under combining low carbon steel with the more expensive, but
consideration and the stress to which it may be subject. For thinner higher tensile steel. The latter is used where it is most
instance. the bottom shell plating of a ship within the midship effective. i.e. for upper deck plating and longitudinals. and
portion of the ship will have the following grade bottom shell plating and longitudinals.
requirements. Care must be taken in the design to ensure that the hull has
an acceptable standard of stiffness. otherwise the deflection
of the ship may become excessive. Welding must be carried
Plate thickness Grade of steel
A
out using low hydrogen electrodes. together with a degree of
Upto 20.5 mm
20.5 to 25.5 mm B preheating. Subsequent repairs must be carried out using the
25.5 mm to 40 mm D same type of steel and electrodes. It is a considerable
Above40mm E
advantage if the ship carries spare electrodes, whilst a plan of
the ship should be available showing the extent of the
material together with its specification.
The tensile strength of the different grades remains
constant at between 400 MN/m 2 and 490 MN/m 2 • The
difference lies in the chemical composition which improves
the impact strength of D and E steels. Impact resistance is
measured by means of a Charpy test in which specimens may
be tested at a variety of temperatures. The following table Arctic 0 steel
shows the mimi mum values required by L1oyds' Register. If part of the structure of a ship is liable to be subject to
particularly low temperatures, then the normal grades of
steel are not suitable. A special type of steel, known as Arctic
D. has been developed for this purpose. It has a higher tensile
Type of steel Temperature Impact resistance
OOC strength than normal mild steel, but its most important
B 27 joules
D O°C quality is its abilityto absorb a minimum of 40J at -55°C in a
47 joules
E -40°C Charpy impact test using a standard specimen.
27 joules
II
42 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SECTIONS USED: WELDING AND MATERIALS 43
There are two major types of alloy used in shipbuilding, material. Further study indicated that similar types of fault
heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. The former is heat had occurred in riveted ships although their consequences
treated during manufacture and, if it is subsequently heat were not nearly as serious as with welded vessels.
treated, tends to lose its strength. Non-heat-treatable alloys Series of tests indicated that the failures were caused by
may be readily welded and subject to controlled heat brittle fracture of the material. In some cases it was apparent
treatment whilst being worked. . k~j. ntti..·.t.•
that the..G{f!CJ . . ·no~.ch}n,~tl~·p1at~f"""Fe
The advantages of aluminium alloy in ship construction lie ~ner;'~""v~,Nng Ol
. ; " , , 1 0 the wef!ling. (In 1888
in the reduction in weight of the material and its non lloyd's Register pointed out the dangers of square corners on
magnetic properties. The former is only important, however, openings.) At other times cracks appeared suddenly at.tow
if sufficient material is used to significantly reduce the light ~ratur.,.:.whilst the stresses were particularly low and
displacement of the ship and hence increase the available no structural notches appeared in the area. Some cracks
deadweight or reduce the power required for any given dead occurred in the vicinity of a weld and were attributed to the
weight and speed. Unfortunately, the melting point of the than" ~.tM-COl,\nPOSitton.ettt.ff'~"'::9Ue.;:,"ing.
alloy (about 600°C) lies well below the requirements of a Excessive impact loading also created cracks with a
standard fire test maximum temperature (927°C). Thus if it is crystalline appearance. Explosions near the material caused
to be used for fire subdivisions it must be suitably insulated. dishing of thin plate but cracking of thick plate.
The major application of aluminium alloys as a shipbuilding The consequences of brittle fracture may be reduced by
material is in the construction of passenger ships, where the fitting crack arrestors to the ship where high stresses are
superstructure may be built wholly of the alloy. The saving in likely to occur. Riveted seams or strakes of extra notch tough
weight at the top of the ship reduces the necessity to carry steel are fitted in the decks and shell of large tankers and bulk
permanent ballast to maintain adequate stability. The double carriers.
saving results in an economical justification for the use of the Brittle fracture may be reduced or avoided by designing the
material. Great care must be taken when attaching the structure so that notches in plating do not occur, and by using
aluminium superstructure to the steel deck of the main hull steel which has a reasonable degree of notch-toughness.
structure (see Chap. 11 ). Grades D and E steel lie in this cate..gory and have proved very
Other applications in passenger ships have been for cabin successful in service for the main structure of ships where the
furniture, lifeboats and funnels. plates are more than about 12 mm thick.
One tremendous advantage of aluminium alloy is its ability
to accept impact loads at extremely low temperatures. Thus it
is an eminently suitable material for main tank structure in
low-temperature gas carriers.
Brittle fracture
When welding was first introduced into shipbuilding on an
extensive scale, several structural failures occurred. Cracks
were found in ships which were not highly stressed, indeed in
some cases the estimated stress was particularly low. On
investigation it was found that the cracks were of a brittle
nature, indicated by the crystalline appearance of the failed
BOTTOM AND SIDE FRAMING 45
Internal structure
A continuous centre girder is fitted in all ships, extending
WELDED STUD
from the fore peak to after peak bulkhead. This girder is
usually watertight except at the extreme fore and after ends
where the ship is narrow, although there are some designs of
WELL TYPE MANHOLE ship where the centre girder does not form a tank boundary
and is therefore not watertight. Additional longitudinal side
girders are fitted depending upon the breadth of the ship but
these are neither continuous nor watertight, having large
Fig.51 manholes or lightening holes in them.
46 REED'SSHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS BOTTOM AND SIDE FRAMING 47
The tanks are divided transversely by watertight floors The solid floor is usually fitted as a continuous plate
which in most ocean-going ships, are required to be stiffened extending from the centre girder to the margin plate. The side
vertically to withstand the liquid pressure. Fig. 52 shows a girder is therefore broken on each side of the floor plate and is
typical. welded watertight floor. said to be intercostal.
Solid floors are required at every frame space in the
et machinery room, in the forward quarter length and
I elsewhere where heavy loads are experienced, such as under
i TANK TOP
bulkheads and boiler bearings.
CENTRE GIRDER' The remaining bottom support may be of two forms:
(a) transverse framing.
(b) longitudinal framing.
WATERTIGHT FLOOR Transverse framing has been used for the majority of
riveted ships and for many welded ships. The shell and tank
top between the widely-spaced solid floors are stiffened by
bulb angles or similar sections running across the ship and
attached at the centreline and the margin to large flanged
brackets. Additional support is given to these stiffeners by the
SHEll side girder and by intermediate struts which are fitted to
END CONNECTIONS reduce the span. Such a structure is known as a bracket floor
OF LONGITUDINALS (Fig. 54).
Fig. 52
AIR SLOTS B.A, REVER
In ships less than 120 m in length the bottom shell and tank ~t~
SIDE
..•
top are supported at intervals of not more than 3 m by STRUT GIRDER gRUT
BKT.
transverse plates known as solid floors (Fig. 53). The name
slightly belies the structure since large lightening holes are B.A. BOTTOM fRAME
cut in them. In addition, small air release and drain holes are
BRACKET flOOR
cut at the top and bottom respectively. These holes are most
important since it is essential to have adequate access and Fig. 54
ventilation to all parts of the double bottom. There have been
many cases of personnel entering tanks which have been It was found that the distortion due to the welding of the
inadequately ventilated, with resultant gassing or suffocation. floors and frames, together with the bending of the ship,
AIR SLOTS AIR HOLES
caused the corrugation of the bottom shell, which, in many
welded ships, assumed dangerous proportions. While there
are no records of ship losses due to this fault. many ships
were required to fit short longitudinal stiffeners. Such
deflections were reduced in riveted ships by the additional
stiffening afforded by the flanges of the angles and by the
SOLID flOOR - RIVETED longitudinal riveted seams. This problem was overcome by
using longitudinal stiffening in the double bottom of welded
Fig.53 ships, a system recommended for all ships over 120 m long.
48 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINESTUDENTS BOTTOM AND SIDE FRAMING 49
Longitudinal frames are fitted to the bottom shell and under preventing contamination which could occur if the pipes
the tank top, at intervals of about 760 mm. They are supported passed through tanks. Duct keels are particularly important in
by the solid floors mentioned earlier, although the spacing of insulated ships, allowing access to the pipes without
these floors may be increased to 3.7 rn. Intermediate struts disturbing the insulation. Ducts are not required aft since the
are fitted so that the unsupported span of the longitudinals pipes may be carried through the shaft tunnel.
does not exceed 2.5 m. Brackets are again required at the The duct keel is formed by two longitudinal girders up to
margin plate and centre girder, the latter being necessary 1.83 m apart. This distance must not be exceeded as the
when docking. Fig. 55 shows an arrangement of double girders must be supported by the keel blocks when docking.
bottom in a welded ship. The structure on each side of the girders is the normal double
bottom arrangement. The keel and the tank top centre strake
must be strengthened either by supporting members in the
duct or by increasing the thickness of the plates considerably.
TANK TOP
DUCT KEEL
LONGITUDINAL FRAMING
Fig. 56
Fig.55
The longitudinals are arranged to line up with any Double bottom in the machinery space
additional longitudinal girders which are required for Great care must be taken in the machinery space to ensure
machinery support in the engine room. that the main and auxiliary machinery are efficiently
supported. Weak supports may cause damage to the
Duct keel machinery, while large unsupported panels of plating may
Some ships are fitted with a duct keel which extends from lead to vibration of the structure. The main engine bedplate is
within the engine room length to the forward hold. This bolted through a tank top plate which is about 40 mm thick
arrangement allows pipes to be carried beneath the hold and is continuous to the thrust block seating. A girder is fitted
spaces and are thus protected against cargo damage. Access on each side of the bedplate in such a way that the holding
into the duct is arranged from the engine room, allowing the down bolts pass through the top angle of the girder. In welded
pipes to be inspected and repaired at any time. At the same ships a horizontal flat is sometimes fitted to the top of the
time it is possible to carry oil and water pipes in the duet, girder inwayof the holding-down bolts. (Fig. 57.)
Jj,
50 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS BonOM AND SIDE FRAMING 51
HOLD
FRAME
WELDED RIVETED
i'
52 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS BonOM AND SIDE FRAMING 53
o
I FLAT
I
I
BEAM
~, ~l ~ ~
BEAM/
KNEE
FLANGE
HOLD
~~
,
,
"~
I
I
I
J
KNEE
TWEEN
DECK
FRAME
H
SECTION
FRAME RIVETED
SHELL
:'~a
I ,
: ~ WATERTIGHT
I :
:
COLLAR
I ' WEB FRAME
I
Ij
,
LOWER DECK
PLATING
u( Fig.63
WELDED PLATE
COLLARS
Fig.62
ij'
j
SHELL AND DECKS 55
the plate is fitted inside the flange. This covers the free edge having wide hatches, the thickness of plating is increased. At
of the plate and results in a neater arrangement. Substantial the ends of the ship, where the bending moments are
stays must be fitted from the bulwark to the deck at intervals reduced, the thickness of plating may be gradually reduced in
of 1.83 m or less. The lower edge of the bulwark in riveted the same way as the shell plating. A minimum cross sectional
ships is riveted to the top edge of the sheerstrake. In welded area of material alongside hatches must be maintained. Thus
ships, however, there must be no direct connection between if part of the deck is cut away for a stairway or similar opening,
the bulwark and the sheerstrake, especially amidships, since compensation must be made in the form of either doubling
the high stresses would then be transmitted to the bulwark plates or increased local plate thickness.
causing cracks to appear. These cracks could then pass The deck forms a cover over the cargo, accommodation and
through the sheerstrake. Large openings, known as freeing machinery space and must therefore be watertight. The
ports, must be cut in the bottom of the bulwark to allow the weather deck, and usually the second deck, are cambered to
water to flow off the deck when a heavy sea is shipped. enable water to run down to the sides of the ship and hence
Failure to clear the water could cause the ship to capsize.. overboard through the scuppers. The outboard deck strake is
Rails or grids are fitted to restrict the opening to 230 mm in known as the stringer plate and at the weather deck is usually
depth, while many ships are fitted with hinged doors on the thicker than the remaining deck plating. It may be connected
outboard side of the freeing port, acting as rather inefficient tothe sheerstrake by means of a continuous stringer angle or
non-return valves. It is essential that there should be no gunwha Ie bar.
means of bolting the door in the closed position. Exposed steel decks above accommodation must be
sheathed with wood which acts as heat and sound insulation.
As an alternative the deck may be covered with a suitable
composition. The deck must be adequately protected against
corrosion between the steel and the wood or composition.
':' FReeiNG
The deck covering is stopped short of the sides of the deck to
f"
form a waterway to aid dra inage.
~
58 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS SHELL AND DECKS 59
There are several forms of girder in use. some of which are is required in way of winches. windlasses and capstan The
shown in Fig. 65. deck machinery is bolted to seatings which may e riveted or
welded to the deck. The seatings are extended to distribute
the load. In way of the seatings, the beams are increased in
DECK
strength by fitting reverse bars which extend to the adjacent
girders. Solid pillars are fitted under the seatings to reduce
vibration.
Fig.65
REVER Sf BAR
If the girder is required to form part of the hatch coaming, WINCH SEATING
the flanged girder Fig. 65 (I) is most useful since it is easy to
produce and does not require the addition of a moulding to
,prevent chafing of rope§. Symmetrical girders such as Fig. 65 Fig. 66
(iii) are more efficient but cannot form part of a hatch side
coaming. Such girders must be fitted outboard of the hatch
sides. The girders are bracketed to the transverse bulkheads HATCHES
and are supported at the hatch corners either by pillars or by
hatch end girders extending right across the ship. Tubular Large hatches must be fitted in the decks of dry cargo ships
pillars are most often used in cargo spaces since they give to facilitate loading and discharging of cargo. It is usual to
utmost economy of material and. at the same time, reduce provide one hatch per hold or 'tween deck. although in ships
;
cargo damage. In deep tanks. where hollow pillars should not having large holds two hatches are sometimes arranged. The
be used, and in machinery spaces. either built pillars or broad length and width of hatch depend largely upon the size of the
flanged beams prove popular. ship and the type of cargo likely to be carried. General cargo
Most modern ships are fitted with longitudinal beams ships have hatches which will allow cargoes such as timber,
which extend, as far as practicable. along the whole length of cars. locomotives and crates of machinery to be loaded. A
the ship outside the line of the hatches. They are bracketed to carqo trarnp of about 10000 tonne deadweight may have five
the transverse bulkheads and are supported by transverse hatches, each 10m long and 7 m wide. although one hatch.
girders which are carried right across the ship. or, in way of usually to No. 2 hold. is often increased in length. Large
the hatches and machinery casings, from the side of the ship hatches also allow easy handling of cargoes. Bulk carriers
to the hatch or casing. The increase in continuous have long, wide hatches to allow the cargo to fill the
longitudinal material leads to a reduction in deck thickness. extremities of the compartment without requiring trimming
The portion of deck between the hatches may be supported manually.
either by longitudinal or transverse beams, neither having The hatches are framed by means of hatch coamings which
any effect on the longitudinal strength of the ship. are vertical webs forming deep stiffeners. The heights of the
At points where concentrated loads are anticipated it is coamings are governed by the Load Line Rules. On weather
necessary to fit additional deck stiffening. Additional support decks they must be at least 600 mm in height at the fore end
•
and either 450 mm or 600 mm aft depending upon the TARPAULI N >TEEL FLAT BAR
draught of the ship. Inside superstructures and on lower
decks no particular height of coaming is specified. It is
~~I WOOD WEDGE
_~C~LEATS
necessary, however, for safety considerations, to fit some 600mm APART
form of rail around any deck opening to a height of 800 mm. It
is usual, therefore, at the weather deck. to extend the
I" coamingtoa heightof 800 mm.ln the superstructures and on
. lower decks portable.$tanchW~ are provided, the rail being
in the form of a wire rope. These rails are only erected when
the hatch isopened. HATCH CLOSING ARRANGEMENT
The weather deck hatch coamings must be 11 mm thick Fig.69
and must be stiffened by a moulding at the top edge. Where
the height of the coaming is 600 mm or more. a horizontal The hatch coamings inside the superstructures are formed
bulb angle or bulb plate is fitted to stiffen the coaming which by 230 mm bulb angles or bulb plates at the sides and ends.
has additional support in the form of stays fitted at intervals of The side coamings are usually set back from the opening to
3 m. Fig. 67 gives a typical section through the side coaming form a beam rest, while an angle is fitted at the ends to form a
of a weather deck hatch. The edge stiffening is in the form of a rest bar for the ends of the wood covers.
bulb angle set back from the line of the coaming. This forms a The hatches may be closed by wood boards which are
rest to support the portable beams. The edge stiffening on the supported by the portable hatch beams. The beams may be
hatch end coaming (Fig. 68) is a Tyzack moulding which is fitted in guides attached to the coamings and lifted out to clear
designed to carry the ends of the wood boards. the hatch, or fitted with rollers allowing them to be pushed to
the hatch ends. The.covers are made weathertight by means
of tarpau Iins wh i~h~r;~ecig'~d-tightai-thesiaes-an<fenas
WOOD COVERS
~~"l/////X~,c:::::..w(,- --
HATCH
means of wire rope, allowing opening or closing to be a
continuous action, a winch being used for the purpose.
Many other systems are available. some with electric or
HATCH hydraulic motors driving sprocket wheels, some in which the
END
BEAM IL...-J whole cover wraps round a powered drum, whilst others have
LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH HATCH hydraulic cylinders built into the covers. In the latter arrange
ment pairs of covers are hinged together. the pairs being
Fig.68 linked to provide continuity. Each pair of covers has one or
62 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS SHELL AND DECKS 63
two hydraulic rams which turn the hinge through 180°. The
\ hydraulically operated.
_ _~::-::-:-- ..
_ TO OPEN
~::;:.;:~;:
~>.:.
TO CLOSE
7J :~::~ I-,
6~~{i~r?'
.~ -, :h :t·,;! :
:\: t',;[~j.J.-;,
I r5{~l~,~j{---' FALLING
SECURING CLEATS
~OWED
TRACK
POSITION
'·~:r'-.··1
l .__,.. ..L - I
F' 72
' """ -> ,g.
Fig. 70
I.S ~Jf
lV\ SADD LE
SPRING CLIP
,m." Deep tank hatches have two functions to fulfil. They must
be watertight or oiltight and thus capable of withstanding a
WE B head of liquid, and they must be large enough to allow normal
cargoes to be loaded and discharged if the deep tank is
required to act as a dry cargo hold. Such hatches may be 3 m
or 4 m square. Because of the possible liquid pressure, the
HAT CH WEDGES covers must be stiffened, while some suitable packing must
be fitted in the coamings to ensure watertightness, together
with some means of securing the cover. The covers may be
Fig.71 hinged or may be arranged to slide.
64 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS SHELL AND DECKS 65
DECK PLATING 18
--~- __YJ'J'XB__PJ-<;-L------k=
DECK LONGITUDINALS
ISO O.A. TOE WELDED BULWARK 1
...J
I GIRDER._ !" lJ U II II
~
,
"r"'" -----.""'-: : :.-.---.""."" -=...._-- ,,".--"'- ""-="-----=-"':' ~ =.--""- =.---.-- -
HINGE
~=~"'IE I'"
I "'*
,I I:
.: STEEL
__
COVER
. S.. ...
'I
~:
"
. .__.,. . ~
:".-- _~ ~ ~ ~ ~- ~~~~.~ _~~~I_~~~-_~._-_ ~ I,
"
"
1/1
"
'I
"
"
I,
"
HINGE
SIDE SHELL
;,
"
TUBULAR PLATING 16
"" AT HATCH lit
j, COAM I NG :'
'.I.-.-.r::-.:-" =: ... = = = =-=" ..:__-=~ '" =-= = "-=-....----=- =-coe"",~",,--_-_,,---~~-= -~-_I
MA IN FRAMES
300 BULB PLATE
.j
I
i
STEEL COVER DIMENSIONS IN mm
i
l!UENER
i 11It
CLIP
':
I
I
I
I
I
I
DEEP TANK HATCH I
I
Fig.73 o
-- ~
BOTTOM BOTTOM $ LONGITUDINALS
PLATING 230 BULB PLAT E
bulkhead is less liable to leak under load, or alternatively it The bulkheads are tested for watertightness by hosing
may deflect further without leakage. the strength of the them using a pressure of 200 kN/m 2 • The test is carried out
stiffeners may be reduced by 15%. It may be necessary to from the side on which the stiffeners are attached. It is
increase the strength of a stiffener which is attached to a essential that the structure should be maintained in a
longitudinal deck girder in order to carry the pillar load. watertight condition. If it is found necessary to penetrate the
bulkhead, precautions must be taken to ensure that the
bulkhead remains watertight. The after engine room
UPPE'R DECK
bulkhead is penetrated by the main shaft. which passes
!j ~: ~l ~! ~: 7
\ \
!mm:
I
!
\ l
! :
I
I
~ through a watertight gland. and by an opening leading to the
shafttunnel. This opening must be fitted with a sliding water
I I 1 : : If''': I I : : tight door. When pipes or electric cables pass through a
-i.-~~O.A.; STIFfENER(S TQE WElDED: r • bulkhead. the integrity of the bulkhead must be maintained.
: : : : : 7 1m m : --:-.+----t-- ---t
I I~ ! I :: I ~: Fig. 76 shows a bulkhead fitting in the form of a watertight
{«W:: :: I
~ ,.
II ~
."
l: ~ f,
II I!~ "
~ t
gland for an electric cable.
: : : I I 'I ~ P
: : : : i I : l
: : : Bjmm [!
I
!:
: I .,,
~1
I , I : , .. t
: : I i ; I I I I
: I r : : : : : I :
lI 1
,
:
I
!I
:
I
f
I
:
I
:
I
!
I
iI BRASS GLAND _ I" II I BRASS
KNURLED NUT
+-. :
I
,
I
tmm
300
- - : - I
: : l 8jmm:
:BULS: PLAW5T~_--l..-..-l-_
: SPAdED7Sbmm \,\PARli :
:
,-----;
l : J : CAULH:I TEST
i ,
,
'
:, : ~! CABLE
~,
~
I
,
I I
I I I
.,
I I I I
, :
i , ,
I
,,
,
I
, BRASS FERRULE
,
I
: I
I
I I
9 :mm
: I
I
:
I
, ,
,
, ; , , ,,I
Ii , ,
I
, I
,I ,
." :
I
,,
,,
,j
I
I
I
I
II: mm
,
:
.[
I
:
··•
I
,
I
.
I
I 13 !BRACKET WATERTIGHT CABLE GLAND
~
I
l
• ;
•
i l I i
I
i
• mm
I
" I
TOP
Fig.76
i
WATERTIGHT
OR SOLI D
FLOOR
FLOOR
)'T"~
~
-+
In many insulated ships. ducts are fitted to provide efficient
circulation of cooled air to the cargo spaces. The majority of
I such ships are designed so that the ducts from the hold
tI ( [ [
I
[ [
PLAN V I EW
(
[[ (r I
SHELL
spaces pass vertically through the deck into a fan room,
separate rooms being constructed for each hold. In these
ships it is not necessary to penetrate any transverse bulkhead
WELDED WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD with a duct. In some cases, however. it is necessary to
penetrate the bulkhead in which case a sliding watertight
Fig. 75 shutter must be fitted.
,
l
70 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS BULKHEADS AND DEEP TANKS 71
WATERTIGHT DOORS
door nut E moves along the screw shaft within the nut box F WATERTIGHT DOOR
~==~:;"""'"
K
limitswitches
L
de-wedging lever (g
M
de-wedging block
p
N
striker CLIP t. HINGE
P
switch bar
WATERTIGHT DOOR
Fig. 80
DEEP TANKS
F
~~
74 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS BULKHEADS AND DEEP TANKS 75
:
It
"(\
Ii
: ~
II
:~MANHOLES r,
I: II
II
O II 1
1
0 1: 0 T--v:1
1
1 11
J:II
II
POll~l
Ir
II II
It
:
0 :] ,I
II
:
0 :! :1
II I,
,1
Deep tanks for water ballast or dry cargo only 'I
.:1
II 't Ii
BULB PLATE STIFFE.!IlERS
II
':. II
A water ballast tank should be either completely full or
I
: IiHORI:z6NTAL GIRDER :: i:
:~-----""lr- ---- --: ------:i-----t------;r-
empty while at sea and therefore there should be no
movement of water. The side frames are increased in
II
II
::
0 I:
:1
::
0 II
I:
::
II
II
r:
II
::
::
0 ':II
are substantial, with stiffened edges. The deck forming the II II !: TANK =TOP:! :1
pressure. The beams and deck girders in way of a deep tank PERFORATED CENTRELINE BULKHEAD
76 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS BULKHEADS AND DEEP TANKS 77
the same time the momentum of the liquid moving across the
tank may cause damage to the structure. To reduce this TWEEN DECK BULKHEAD ~WEDGED
Iff
.- i
considerably reduced. The perforations must be between 5% ~ r---' l- t-. r-- r-'-
and 10% of the area of the bulkhead. Any smaller area would
allow a build-up of pressure on one side. for which the J
! I I !1 i
bulkhead is not designed. while a greater area would not
reduce surging to any marked extent. Sparring must be fitted ,II ..
I I II ! .
I'
!
. II I
I
II. II
!
I, !I
'I
I
I
I I
II' Ii II I
! i ii' I I ' I
r
to the cargo side of a bulkhead which is a partition between a
.. I I
bunker and a hold. If a settling tank is heated and is adjacent ,I i iI • Ii I II ' ,
to a compartment which may carry coal or cargo. the
structure outside the tank must be insulated. Fig. 81 shows ~.
. I II IT, i " ~i-tt
I 13oolmm'T o~ ,I I
t-t+ - IFFENED
AT PLATE
the structural arrangement of a deep tank which may be used il I i ~i I . I
D!iA~H ~G~--'l J
for oil or dry cargo. i' I! iii! i
If dry cargo is to be carried in a deep tank. one or two large I' i.
' I ,I I!I i
watertight hatches are required in the deck as described in I. I'
I ' II I' 'I i
Chapter 5.
'i ! I I II i
I,
i I ' i II j
I
ii I, iI i .
!i i I .I I
NON-WATERTIGHT BULKHEADS I i : ! I i I. I i
'\
CORRUGATED BULKHEADS
.....
WINDLASS CABLE
CA~ STOPPER
LIFTER \~::.."'-f--~_ 'FOt"LE
p P P iii I " II t t t t ." '( t t t II DECK
230mm BULB
F F f J f fir t r I 'd
II Fir j r t t r r
rt UPPER
riD ECK
PLATE FRAMES
BREA~ T
HOOK
~ECOND
• F F PI F f f r r r r ~ rJ r r [
~r r f ~ 1/ DECK
IsT EM
IBAR
I
!
~L~MINIMUM I
__ ._ _67Smm. FRAME...l!'ACING~Omm FPAME. SPACING_ _ -:!
_ ~O~~HANN~RAME~-+30mmBULB. A NGL.L...£..RAME~_ PANTING STRINGER
Fig.84
IOmm PLATE
INTERCOSTAL
FACE BAR
200mm CHANNEL
intervals of 2 m below the lowest deck (Fig. 84). No edge
BEAM stiffening is required as long as the stringer is connected to
the shell, a welded connection being used in modern ships.
The side stringers meet at the fore end, while in many ships a
HOLD s TRINGER PEAK ~TRINGER
horizontal stringer is fitted to the collision bulkhead in line
with each shell stringer. This forms a ring round the tank and
supports the bulkhead stiffeners. Channel beams are fitted at
ISOmm
.1
those in the double bottom space and are flanged on their free
edge. Thesideframesare spaced 61 0 mm apart and, being so
well supported, are much smaller than the normal hold
UPPER DECK
frames. The deck beams are supported by vertical angle
ll~ U:,:;: ~ II.
I I I I I I I ~ • pillars on alternate frames, which are connected to the
_'-----------'---r--':
: 180 mm I BULB PLATE STIFFENERS
panting beams and lapped onto the solid floors. A partial
I : SP~CED, 600 r;nm ~PAR~ : :
wash-plate is usually fitted to reduce the movement of the
: : l : :, ,: I I
,, water in the tank. Intercostal plates are fitted for two or three
,, frame spaces in line with the centre girder. The lower part of
8: ,
'lim',
I
the peak is usually filled with cement to ensure efficient
I
drainage of the space.
II '1 II II
II
I
It
I
I.
I
II
I
Between the collision bulkhead and 15% length from
:
I
:
I
'8:
Imrn:
I I I
the margin, are increased in strength by 20%. In addition, the
--1r--I-- ....,1__ ..,'-_...,:--+--:- spacing of the frames from the collision bulkhead to 20% of
n
I
I: I
II
I:
I
I:
,
t
i
'I the length from forward must be 700 mm. Light side stringers
l§dmm BULB 'PLATE STiFFENEfS are fitted in the panting area in line with those in the peak.
: SPACED 600 mm APART:
I I : 8·5 I : I These stringers consist of intercostal plates connected to the
--~-~~-~~~~-~--~
,I 'I II II 'I I
length from forward. The flat bottom shell plating adjacent to the wetted surface area of the ship is increased, causing a
the keel on each side of the ship is increased in thickness by slight increase in the frictional resistance. In slow ships the
between 15% and 30% depending upon the length of the effect of a bulbous bow could be an increase in the total
ship,larger ships having smaller increases. resistance, but in fast ships, where the wave makin.,Q
In addition to increasing the plating, the unsupported .f:El§..imn.~e form~_'!J~~E2e~~~~!l of .!.~_~!~~mtstdllce;"fhe
panels of plating are reduced in size. In transversely framed latter is reduced by fitting a bulbous bow. A bul6Ou5DOW also
ships the frame spacing in this region is 700 mm compared increases the buoyancy forward and hence reduces the
with 750 mm to 900 mm amidships. Longitudinal girders are -p'~!~~ir1g~ of.!-~e s!lJ.1? to s?m~~_'!.'_~!!_~~_g~~_~. ---
fitted 2.2 m apart, extending vertically from the shell to the
tank top, while intermediate half-height girders are fitted to F O'C'LE DECK
If a sphere is immersed just below the surface, and pulled The construction of the bulbous bow is shown in Fig. 87.
through the water, awave is created just behind the sphere. If The stem plating is formed by steel plates supported by a
such a sphere is superimposed on the stem of a ship, the centreline web and horizontal diaphragm plates 1 m apart.
wave from the sphere interferes with the normal bow wave The outer bulb plating is thicker than the normal shell plating,
and results in a smaller bow wave. Thus the force required to partly because of high water pressures and partly due to the
produce the bow wave is reduced. At the same time, however, possible damage by anchors and cables.
It is often found that due to the reduced width at the must be of sufficient volume to allow adequate headroom
waterline caused by the bulb, horizontal stringers in the fore when the anchors are in the stowed position. The locker is
peak prove uneconomical and complete perforated flats are usually situated forward of the collision bulkhead, using this
fitted. bulkhead as the after locker bulkhead. The locker is not
normally carried out to the ship side. The stiffeners are
ANCHOR AND CABLE ARRANGEMENTS preferably fitted outside the locker to prevent damage from
the chains. If the locker is fitted in the forecastle, the
A typical arrangement for raising, lowering and stowing bulkheads may be used to support the windlass. A centreline
the anchors of a ship is shown in Fig. 83. The anchor is division is fitted to separate the two chains and is carried
attached to a heavy chain cable which is led through the above the stowed level of the chain but is not taken up to the
hawse pipe over the windlass and down through a chain pipe deck. It is stiffened by means of solid half round bars while the
or spurling pipe into the chain locker. top edge is protected by a split pipe. Foot holds are cut in to
The hawse pipes may be constructed of mild steel tubes allow access from one side tothe other. A hinged door is fitted
with castings at the deck and shell, or cast in one complete in the forward bulkhead, giVing access to the locker from the
unit for each side of the ship. There must be ample clearance store space. Many lockers are fitted with false floors to allow
for the anchor stock to prevent jamming and they must be drainage of water and mud, which is cleared by a drain plug in
strong enough to withstand the hammering which they the forward bulkhead, leading into a drain hat from where it is
receive from the cable and the anchor. The shell plating is discharged by means of a hand pump. The end of the cable
increased in thickness in way of each hawse pipe and must be connected tothedeckor bulkhead in the chain locker.
adjacent plate edges are fitted with mouldings to prevent A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 88.
damage. A chafing piece is fitted to the top of each hawse rr- .....
L
I
pipe, while a sliding cover is arranged to guard the opening. i' ~OLLISION
HORIZONTAL
The cable stopper is a casting with a hinged lever, which j BULKHEAD
ST IFFENER S
BACK TO B~
may be used to lock the cable in any desired position and thus
relieve the load from the windlass either when the anchor is
J BOLT
CXJD
p\
Fig. 90.
CHAPTER 8
Rules require that the framing should be similar to that in the i-.~':""'''''''--'''_
--------~--~__:. __• II
after peak with web frames fitted where necessary, while I
I
solid floors must befitted, together with a centreline girder. In ... ~'
~
90 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS AFTER END ARRANGEMENTS 91
The web plate is continued inside the ship at the top of the
rudder post and attached to a thick transom floor which is
watertight.
The rudder is formed by two plates about 10 mm to 20 mm
thick. connected at the top and bottom to forgings which are
extended to form the upper and lower gudgeons. The upper
forging is opened into a palm. forming part of the horizontal
coupling. This palm is stepped to provide a shoulder which
-------"'\
reduces the possibility of shearing the bolts. The side plates
ALTERNATIVE
COUPUNG are stiffened by means of vertical and horizontal webs. If the
structure is riveted. tap rivets must be used on one side since
the points of normal rivets would be inaccessible. The
structure is difficult to weld for the same reason. An efficient
~-
attachment may be made by fitting a flat bar to the edge of the
horizontal webs and slot welding. One disadvantage of
double plate rudders is the possibility of internal corrosion.
The inner surfaces must be adequately protected by some
form of coating. while a drain plug must be fitted to avoid
accumulations of water.
The rudder is supported b~ which fit into the
,gudgeQIis.Fig. 93. The upperpar~ pintle is tapered and
fits into a similar taper in the rudder gudgeons. The pintle is
P\,l~,:J ...e.~Jed hard against the taper by means of a large nut with
some suitable locking device. such as a lock nut or split pin. A
brass liner is fitted round the lower part of the pintle. Lignum
UNBALANCED RUDDER' FABRICATED STERNFRAME vitae or laminated plastic is dovetailed into the sternframe
gudgeon to provide a bearing surface for the pintle. allowing
'CA\ ' EDO' P§ fCA' the pintle to turn but preventing any side movement. A head is
~~EW~~ fitted to the upper pintle to prevent undue vertical movement
of the rudder. This is known as a locking pintle. The bottom
X SLOT WELD
SECTION A-A pintle is known as a beerinq pintle since it rests on a
-,..:'1.-- -, hardened steel pad shaped to suit the bottom of the pintle. A
X ~ ) hole is drilled in the gudgeon. with a smaller hole in the
!
SLOT FITTED BOLTS
SIDE WELD ~ (, )( bearing pad. to allow for the free circulation of water which
CLEARANCE ~3{
~LITPIN stock. As the bearing surfaces of the lower pintle wear, the
weight of the rudder will be taken by the carrier. and therefore
the vertical wear down should be very small Indeed, it is
found in practice that any appreciable wear down is the result
~TAINING RETAINING of a fault in the bearing surfaces. usually due to the mis
RING RING alignment of the stock. This causes uneven wasting of the
surface and necessitates refacing the bearing surfaces and
BRASS re-aligning the stock. In most cases, however, the cast iron
LINER
work hardens and forms a very efficient bearing surface.
LIGN~I
VITAE To remove the rudder it is first necessary to remove the
lY-RD STEEL locking pintle. The bearing pintle may not be removed at this
DISC stage. The rudder is turned by means of the stock to its
maximum angle of, say, 35° on one side. The bolts in the
LOCKING PINtlE BEARING PINTLE coupling are removed and the stock raised sufficient to clear
the shoulder on the palm, The stock is turned to the maximum
Fig.93 angle on the opposite side, when the two parts of the coupling
must be clear. The rudder may then be removed or the stock
rudder will not turn. A watertight gland must be fitted round drawn from the ship.
the stock where it penetrates the deck. Many ships, however,
are fitted with rudder carriers (Fig. 94), which themselves Cast steel sternframe with balanced rudder
form watertight glands. The bearing surfaces are formed by A cast steel sternframe is shown in Fig. 95. The casting
cast iron cones, the upper cone being fitted to ----,_._.---_._--
the rudder may be in one or two pieces, the latter reducing the cost of
repair in the event of damage. The sole piece. is carried
forward and scarphed to the aftermostke"elplate, while the
after end forms the lower gudgeon. The sternpost is carried
up inside the ship and opened to form a palm which is
connected to a floor plate. This is known as a vibration post.
. The casting is continued aft at the top of the propeller
aperture to form the arch and the upper rudder support. At the
.extreme after end the casting is carried inside the ship and
PACKING
I! 11\ II! ~.---'GLAND 'opened into a palm which is connected to a watertight
transom floor. The two parts of the casting are joined together
by a combination of riveting and welding. The two webs
BASE forming the ends of the separate parts are riveted together,
CONE
while the joint on the outside of the casting is welded.
The rudder is constructed of double plates, with a large tube
down the centre. The rudder post is formed by a detachable
forged steel mainpiece which is carried through the tube,
bolted to a palm on the sternframe at the top and pulled
RUDDER CARRIER against a taper in the lower gudgeon. The mainpiece is
Fig.94 increased in diameter at the top and bottom where lignum
96 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS AFTER END ARRANGEMENTS 97
vitae bearing strips are fitted. Castings are fitted at the top .9!JdgjOn to take the weight of the rudder. A horizontal
and bottom of the tube to carry the bearing strips. Hard steel coup tng is shownlri"The dl'agl'am, -i:j'ttachinQ1he stock to the
.~ -----_.
bearing rings are fitted between the rudder and..,-. th'"e
... -
bottom "-~ .,._---- rudder with the aid of fitted bolts. There mu• • '~t
~_~_clear~nc~~een th~ stock a~~ the."'UJinp~_Jo
JU~PING
'IRANSOM
FLOOR '-'----_Il-.I..l..~~I mamplece' to be raised sufficiently to clear the
BAR
dgaon when removing the rudder. The upper stock
VIBRATION
POST
..
Fi--:;_!lII~=:;;:;==------,
is usually supported by a rudder carrier... By balancing a rudder
in a particular ship, the diameter of the stock was reduced
I from 460 mm to 320 mm. This allows reduction in the
!~LOORS
I I thickness of the side plates and the size of the steering gear.
, ~---i[1]CJCJIf' I ? r A flat bar is welded to the bottom of the hom to restrict the
: r-----; r. I ~I<I~ ~I
I ~,
L
:LIFTING
.1
i ~11,f---
.
i I lift of the rudder. The clearance between the rudder and the
flat should be less than the cross-head clearance. Any
I:TUBE~
I
~-----I
r
--i:l:
I I
I,: :
:
:----
I I
i i ence be transmitted to the
L L .,~ .. 1.( .
i
I
~
1TUBE
I
-: ~I
~
i:I :L I
I BOSS
stefnfraJii!'>.' ear.
: : :::
WEBS:
I
:
I
~+-
I
J:: : :L
I I I --
I I I' I
I
,
I
•
I
•
I:
I
I
I
I
I
i"L..uOCK
;-DR"AiN--: -----it~ l!t----~OWER
l1L
c;l"}t Ii :
,
,PLUG7:
I
:~
I
~I
.'.
BEARING
::1· j: :
"': j: \
:, 1' ,I I
I
~ ~RON Z E CAGE
mtrtm
.J!.~~G RING
~Cf(NUT
UPPER BEARING Fig. 113 LOWER BEARING SPADE RUDDER c. OPEN WATER STERN
Fig.95 Fig.96
Open water stern with spade rudder improve the efficiency of the rudder and in practice
Many modern large ships are fitted with spade-type considerable reductions have been made, both in the
rudders (Fig. 96). The rudder is supported by means of a diameter of the turning circle and in the vibration when
gudgeon on a large rudder horn and by the lower end of the turning.
stock, the latter being carried straight into the rudder and The rudder horn and the sternframe may be cast or
keyed. fabricated.
The lower part of the ship at the after end is known as.,the
Rudder and sternframe for twin screw ship
. q. i!C)f/WQ()qs,~nc~ i.t,l?e,r",~~.~o~sefulpurpQ~~. The spade rudder
is unsupported at the bottom and hence an open aperture is In a twin screw ship the propellers are fitted off the centre
possible. This allows the deadwood to be cut away, resulting line of the ship and therefore no aeerture js required in the
in a better flow of water to the propeller. In addition, the sternframe which may then be designed only to support the
distance of the rudder from the propeller may be adjusted to rudder. In a single screw ship the deadwood is used to assist
in the support of the sole piece but this is not necessary in
twin screw vessels. Many designers make use of this space
by carrying the lower part of the rudder forward of the
centreline of stock. Fig. 97 shows a typical arrangement.
The sternframe is of cast steel, constructed to cut out the
deadwood, and notched or rebated to suit the shell plating.
The top of the casting is connected by means of a palm to the
transom flQar.
in
The rudder shown the diagram has a frame of cast steel,
i'-------------- -----
"
I
~OCKING
,
------
PINTLE
I
of the rudder to allow the rudder to be lifted clear of the
I ~ST STE EL
IL.. .JI
prevent undue deflection of the lower, unsupported portion.
:-- .... _--------- ---------.
I
I
II
I I
Bossings and spectacle frame for twin screw ship
: CAST STEEL :
: RU DOER FP.AME :
The shafts of a twin screw ship are set at a small angle to the
I
I
I
I
I
centreline. As the width of the ship reduces towards the after
L. )I
end, the shaft projects through the normal line of the shell.
,,r-------------------'.I . r--------------.. , The shell widens out round the shaft to form the bossings
I I , \
I
,
,
I
,
which allow access to the shaft from inside the ship and
, I
I
I
I
I
I
:
allows bearings to be fitted where required. The after end of
!
\
DRAIN PLUG
---:J.
:
I
1
,
I
the bossing terminates in a casting which carries the boss
' ...... 1--------.' ., J"
and supports the after end ofthe stern tube. This casting must
be strongly constructed and efficiently attached to the main
SEMI- BALANCED RUDDER - TWIN SCREW SHIP hull structure to reduce vibration. It is usual to carry the
casting in one piece across the ship, thus forming the
Fig. 97
100 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS
AFTER END ARRANGEMENTS 101
\ ~~. to<, .
4:
SPECTACLE
Fig.98
FRAME
-.d"'-
TUNNEL
I
II.
O·5m .
SHAFT
12m
II I ..p..
27m
RINGS
•
~
~
I
SHAFT TUNNEL sI
•
~ ~ PLATFORM
When the machinery space is divided from the after peak by ,
~
I
PIPES
\
one or more cargo holds, the main shafting must be carried 000 II I
• TANK TOP
through the holds. A tunnel is then built round the shaft to
prevent contact with the cargo and to give access to the shaft
at all times for maintenance, inspection and repair. The
SHAFT TUNNEL
tunnel is watertight and extends from the after machinery
space bulkhead to the after peak bulkhead. It is not necessary
Fig.99
REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS AFTER END ARRANGEMENTS 103
102
j..
-----------, I
y
OIL TANKERS
~ I
'\ I
~\ I
" I There has been a tremendous growth in the size of tankers
" I
\\ I \
JI
since the end of World War II. The deadweight of these
• .1_'-_-1..
I " : I
vessels has increased from about 13 000 tonne in 1946 to the
I_·J--·~~
I
:
'...
....rT..J~-
I I present V .L.C.C.s (very large crude carriers) of 150000 tonne
FIN
:
r
I
u
II
II
II
I
to 250 000 tonne and the U.L.C.C.s(ultra large crude carriers)
of over 300 000 tonne.
I
I
,'1
II I
I II I The design of the structure has progressed in much the
...",
I u "
--------- .
It
same way. Many tankers built in 1946 were of riveted
construction, while the construction of the welded ships left
PLAN
much to be desired. The majority of the faults in these tankers
have been overcome in modern vessels by using continuous,
KORT NOZZLE RUDDER
welded structure with well-rounded corners. At the same
Fig. 101 time improved quality steel has been introduced which is less
Nozzle rudder susceptible to the formation of cracks and some, known as
One of the disadvantages of the fixed nozzle was the extra-notch tough steel, which will prevent the spread of
difficulty of moving astern, the after end tending to drift. This cracks.
is overcome by fitting a centreline fin plate to the after end of The structural arrangements and details vary considerably
a nozzle which turns about a vertical stock and thus dispenses from shipyard to shipyard, but there are two basic methods of
with the normal form of rudder (Fig. 101). The water is then framing in use:
projected at an angle to the centreline, causing the ship to (i) longitudinal framing in which the deck, bottom
turn. The centreline of the stock must be in line with the shell, side shell and longitudinal bulkheads are
propeller in order to allow the nozzle to turn and yet maintain stiffened 10ngitudinally(Fig. 102).
small tip clearance. (ii) combined framing in which the deck and bottom
The support of the shaft at the extreme after end may prove shell are framed longitudinally, with transverse
rather difficult with this form of construction. The bossing side frames and vertical stiffeners on the
may be increased and extended, or the boss may be supported longitudinal bulkheads(Fig. 103).
by brackets fitted to the stern.
Both types of nozzle may be fitted to existing ships, Longitudinal framing
although the rudder type requires greater alteration to the The longitudinal framing system provides ample
structure. longitudinal strength, but the horizontal side frames and
t-.
106 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS
OIL TANKERS AND BULK CARRIERS 107
longitudinal bulkhead stiffeners are likely to retain liquid and
hence increase the corrosion. The longitudinals are
supported by deep transverse webs which form rings round o
the ship at intervals of 3 m to 6 m and to which they are
attached by flat bars or brackets. At the transverse bulkheads,
DECK TRANSVERSES
the structure must be carefully designed to give maximum 3mAPART
300mmBULB PLATES
LONG'TUDINAL
BULKHEAD
~
STRUT
DECK TRANSVERSES
STRUT
GIRDER
LONG I T UDINA L
STIffENERS
CENTRE TANK WING TANK
"
OR ---.-',
BRACKET B
\
::
II
STiffENER ~
o
::
STR\,IL _
STRUT LONGITUDI~L NOTCH
~
BOTTOM CENTRE
--GIRDER
OIL TANKER COMBINED FRAMING
BOTTOM TRANSVERSES
3 m APART
Fig. 103
-----.
reduce their span. Large face flats are fitted to their free
supported by two or three horizontal struts arranged in such a
edges and continued round the bulkhead web to form almost
way that the unsupported span of transverse at the top is
a complete vertical ring (Fig. 105). The bottom centre girder is
greater than that at the bottom, the latter being subject to a
required to support the ship while in dock and it is found
greater head of liquid. It is intended by this form of design,
necessary for this reason to reduce the unsupported panels of
that the bending moments on the separate spans should be
keel plate by fitting docking brackets between the
equal. It is essential that the face flat on the web is carried
transverses, extending from the centre girder to the adjacent
round the strut to form a continuous ring of material.
longitudinal (see Chapter 2). In many of the larger ships the
centre girders have been replaced by a full-height perforated
bulkhead.
GUSSET BULKHEAD
;;....1' , 1,.1
so
1 ~
S 01 0
-ttlO'~O sY S s Is
t- - ,....--j'::~ -- ui
BOTTOM
LONGITUDINAL S
-!
:UI1~M~'~ ~:ROUGH
o
~ 9..~ STRINGER
{ D
TRINGE,
.~ 0$
f.
1 -~ Os
L I _ 1 BULKHEAD
-'--...,.)'----~- ~ LONGITUDINAL iO S
--I ~,
Combined framing
Fig. 104 "'''~Ftf''
'0 I 0
:?fj.
dJ~ do Jalot .l I~J
~
0 '00
D8 ~HD DB TRANS DB TRANS DB BHD DB
This system has proved successful in many ships, having
CENTRELINE WEB
the advantage of providing sufficient longitudinal strength
with good tank drainage due to the vertical side frames and
stiffeners. The latter are supported by horizontal stringers Fig.105
which are continuous between the transverse bulkheads and
tied at intervals by struts. The lower stringers are heavier The transverse bulkheads are usually stiffened vertically,
than the upper stringers. Where the length of the tanker the stiffeners being bracketed at their ends and supported by
horizontal stringers (Fig. 106). Corrugated bulkheads are
exceeds 200 m Lloyd's require longitudinal framing to be
often fitted, the corrugations being vertical, and have the
used.
advantages of improving drainage, allowing easy cleaning
and reducing weight. The longitudinal bulkheads may also be
General
corrugated but in this case the corrugations must be
A deep centreline girder must be fitted at the keel and deck,
horizontal, otherwise the longitudinal strength would be
connected to a vertical web on the transverse bulkhead. This
impaired as the bulkhead would tend to fold like a concertina
web is only required on one side of the bulkhead. The top and
as the ship hogs and sags.
bottom girders act as supports for the transverses and hence
............
110 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS OIL TANKERS AND BULK CARRIERS 111
The thickness of the deck plating depends on the maximum longitudinal bulkheads are continued in the form of brackets,
bending moment to which the ship is liable to be subject, and while in some designs the bulkheads are carried through the
is given in the form of a cross-sectional area of material in whole length of the machinery space, forming tanks, stores
way of openings. These openings consist of oiltight hatches and workshop spaces at the sides.
and tank cleaning holes. When a bridge is fitted amidships it
is often necessary to fit the hatches to all three tanks in the
same transverse line. This results in extremely thick deck
plating forward and aft of the bridge and is one of the many
reasons for the transfer of the accommodation to the after
end in some modern vessels. Fig. 107 shows a typical oiltight
hatch which is fitted to many tankers. It is simple to open and
close, with no danger of jammed fingers and may be handled
byone man. These hatches may be opened while at sea when COAMING
the tanks are empty, in order to gas free the space. Wind sails
or extractor fans are fitted to aid ventilation.
PLAN VIEW ELEVATION
..
-'
-'
f',.)
.;>nCLL
co 'FERD~ OFFERD~
WING TANKS ::u
m
(9
pu~~
ROOM
CARG LINE
uj
lC NGIT ur N l BUL KH AD CII
:I:
B' ~
n
o
."
cO'
DB
LIE]
~
I';:
-
f-H
1- le- i- I..... I-
C NTRE T NKS
I...... I.... le- I&- ~
z
~
::u
c
Q
<5
o z
00
Ef' - ~ rS-R.~ VRS .._
IlCf;GIT U( IN l
r-
BUl KH AD
on
o
::u
3:
»
~
CARGC LINE z
m
011
•
WING TANKS ~
o
m
z
- - -l
SHELL CII
M.C? MAIN CARGO PUMP
S.P. STRIPPING PUMP
e-- SUCTION STRUM DIAGRAMMATIC PIPING ARRANGEMENT
CRUDE 01 L TANKER
~;'
SHELL
COFFERDAM I:oFFERD~
WING ITANKS ,
CARGoll~NE
PUMP'
ROOMj
lONGlTudlNh BULK~E~D
(lARGO I l~NE
o
r=
qp ~
i \.! z
i i! 1 I.... I....
,0:
m
. ..QE(K..!J. .!.5_. . . ! i 10- Ie- Ie- Ie- ::u
."
cO'
:-==:.. : :=:_. :.i=Hi ~R~<?m5-1-
CII
»z
!1 i lICENTREIT,,-NKS o
oCD
E
!
hu
iii
.
C
lJl
,0:
LdNG I T UclIN~L BULKt-;Ho
~
::u
::u
CARGO! UINE iii
::u
CII
WING ITANKS
SHELL
·M.C.~ MAIN CARGO PUMP e---SUCtION STRUM
S.P. STRIPPING PU~IP H---DISCHARGE
DIAGRAMMATIC PIPING ARRANGEMENT
GENERAL PURPOSE TANKER -'
-'
W
'11!'!1"17
, -';~fJ
114 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS OIL TANKERS AND BULK CARRIERS 115
same time. Valves with extended spindles up to the deck are designed specifically for such cargoes. The rate of loading in
fitted in each tank, allowing the tank to be discharged or by bulk at some terminals is tremendous, 4000 to 5000
passed as required. The oil is discharged through pipes fitted tonne/hour being regarded as normal. When carrying a
on the upper deck amidships and led aft along the deck to the heavy cargo such as iron ore in a cargo tramp, it is advisable to
pump room, while a single stern discharge is usually load a proportion of the cargo in the 'tween decks, otherwise
arranged.
the vessel becomes too stable and hence not only uncom
A more complicated piping arrangement is required when fortable but dangerous. This means that the rate of loading is
several grades of cargo are carried and one such arrange considerably reduced. For this reason many cargo tramp
ment is shown in Fig. 109. In this case four main cargo pumps owners have branched out into the specialised bulk carrier
may be used to discharge the separate cargoes which are trade.
drawn from the tanks through individual lines. Two smaller The design of a bulk carrier depends largely on whether it is
capacity stripping pumps are fitted with connections to the intended to carry a particular cargo or whether any type of
main cargo tank lines.
bulk cargo is to be catered for. A vessel required to carry iron
A modern arrangement has been developed in which the ore has a small hold capacity since the ore is heavy. A deep
oil is allowed to flow through hydraulically-operated sluice double bottom is fitted, together with longitudinal bulkheads
valves into a common suction strum from where it is which restrict the ore and maintain a high centre of gravity
discharged by the main cargo pumps. This system may be consistent with comfortable rolling. A ship designed to carry
used for single grade cargo and is intended to dispense with bauxite, however, requires twice the volume of space for
the cargo pipelines in the tanks. In case of failure of the cargo and will therefore have a normal height of double
valves, however, a heavy duty stripping pump and line is bottom although longitudinal bulkheads may be used to
fitted.
restrict the ore space.
Manyoils must be heated before discharging and therefore A bulk 'tramp' if one can coin a term, i.e. one which may be
heating coils are fitted to all tanks. The coils are of cast iron required to carry any type of bulk cargo, must have restricted
with large heating surfaces which are heated by means of volume for an iron ore cargo while at the same time must
steam. It is essential that these coils should be close to the have sufficient cargo capacity to carry its full deadweight of
bottom of the tank and it is therefore necessary to cut holes in light grain which requires three times the volume of the ore.
the bottom transverses to allow the coils to be fitted. One method of overcoming this difficulty is to design the ship
While many different types of pump are available, several to load ore in alternate holds.
ships make use of vertical drive pumps in which the driving It may readily be seen, therefore, that the design of bulk
spindles extend through an oiltight flat into the machinery carriers will vary considerably. Fig. 110 shows a cross
space, the motors being fitted on the flat. This ensures regular section of a bulk ore carrier (OBO) which may carry an
maintenance by the engine room staff without entering the alternative cargo of oil in the wings and double bottom.
pump room.
The structure is similar to that required for oil tankers,
having longitudinal framing at the deck, bottom and side
BULK CARRIERS shell, longitudinal bulkhead and tank top. These longitudinals
are supported by transverse webs 2.5 m apart. The supporting
During the past few years a large proportion of bulk carriers members are, as far as possible, fitted in the tanks rather than
have been built. While their increase in size has not been of the ore space, to facilitate discharge of cargo using grabs. For
the same order as oil tankers, the average deadweight of the same reason it is common practice to increase the
--these ships is still high. The majority of bulk cargoes were, thickness of the tank top beyond that required by the
until recently, carried by cargo tramps which were not Classification Societies.
116 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS OIL TANKERS AND BULK CARRIERS 117
Fig.110
Fig. 111
to-SOC. Fig.112
120 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS OIL TANKERS AND BULK CARRIERS 121
CENTRELINE
BULKHEAD WEB
j I" I BULKHEAD--
TANK SUPPORT
Prismatic tanks are self-supporting, being tied to the main
hull structure by a system of chocks and keys (Fig. 115). They
make excellent use of the available space.
SPHERICAL TANK SYSTEM
Fig.113 ROLLERS
L1~ BRACKET
TIMBER
.~.t.
122 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS OIL TANKERS AND BULK CARRIERS 123
TANK INSULATION
PRIMARY
Vll\\I~EEL BULKHEAD
BARRIER
Fig.117
FOAM WEDGE
Care must be taken throughout the design to prevent the
low-temperature liquid or vapour coming into contact with
1 steel structure which may become brittle and hence fracture.
124 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTIONFOR MARINE STUDENTS OIL TANKERS AND BULK CARRIERS 125
designed. Temperature readings are recorded at regular purged with inert gas or steam before and after use. As with
intervals, whilst an alarm will be given if the minimum motor ships oil fuel is used when starting or manoeuvring.
temperature is approached. The excess gas in LPG ships is either vented to the
Gas detection equipment is fitted in inter-barrier spaces, atmosphere or reliquefied by passing it through a cooling
void spaces, cargo pump rooms and control rooms. The type system and returning it to the tanks in liquid form.
of equipment depends upon the type of cargo and the space in
question. Measurements of flammable vapour, toxic vapour,
vapour and oxygen content are taken, audible and visible Operating procedures
alarms being actuated if dangerous levels are recorded.
Measurements for toxic gas are recorded every four hours Drying
except when personnel are in the compartment, when 30 Water in any part of the cargo handling system will impair
min samples are taken and analysed. its operation, by freezing, reducing the purity of the cargo or in
In the event of a fire, it is essential that the fire pumps are some cases changing its nature. The system must be cleared
capable of supplying two jets or sprays which can reach all of water or water vapour by purging with a dry gas or by the
parts ofthe deck over the cargo tanks. The main fire pumps or use of a drying agent.
a special spray pump may be used for protecting the cargo
area. The sprays may also be used to reduce the deck Inerting
temperature during the voyage and hence reduce the heat If the oxygen content in a tank is too high a flammable
gain by the cargo. mixture may be produced or the oxygen may be absorbed by
If the cargo is flammable, then a fixed dry chemical fire the cargo producing a chemical change. It is essential,
extinguishing system is fitted. therefore, to reduce the oxygen content by the introduction of
inert gas to a maximum content of 6% for hydrocarbons, 12%
for ammonia and 0.5% for ethylene. The most suitable inert
Boil off gas is nitrogen but this is expensive. Inert gas generated by
In the early stage of LNG design, excess methane gas was ship-board plant usually consists of about 84% nitrogen and
vented astern of the ship and burned. Reliquefaction is not 12% to 15% carbon dioxide with an oxygen content of about
economical, but the ,:xha!ist ga,g may be used as fuel for the 0.2%.
main engine. In motor vessels normal injection equipment is The inert gas, in turn, must be purged from the system by
used, together with a hydraulically-operated gas injection the cargo gas vapour. An inert gas barrier must also be used
valve in the cylinder head, blowing combustion gas at about 3 when discharging cargo and allowing air into the tanks.
bar against the incoming scavenge air. The gas line from the
tanks is fitted with a relief valve. Under normal running Pre-cooling
conditions the gas is used as the fuel. Should the gas pressure Classification Societies require that the maximum
fall, however, liquid fuel is injected, a 10% drop in pressure temperature difference between the cargo and the tank
resulting in automatic oil supply, whilst if the gas pressure should not exceed 28°C. Before loading, the tank may be at
falls by 15% the gas flow is stopped. Oil fuel must be used ambient temperature. It is then cooled by spraying liquefied
when starting or manoeuvring. gas into the tank. The gas then vapourises and cools down the
In steam ships the firing equipment is capable of burning oil tank. The vapour produced in this way is either vented or
fuel and methane gas simultaneously. The oil flame must be reliquefied. The cooling rate must be controlled to prevent
present at all times and an alarm system is fitted to give undue thermal stresses and excess vapour and a rate of
warning of pump failure causing loss of oil. The nozzles are between 3°C and 6°C per hour isusual.
Loading and discharging used for access and water ballast. The hatch coamings and
The cargo pipeline must first be cooled before loading covers are designed to carry tiers of containers as deck cargo.
commences. The rate of loading depends largely on the rate Since the vessels usually work between well-equipped ports,
atwhich the cargo vapour can be vented or reliquefied. Thus a theydo not usually carry their own cargo handling equipment.
ship designed for a particular run should have a rei iquefaction Because of the wide hatches the deck plating must be thick,
plant compatible with the loading facilities. and higher tensile steel is often used. The deck, side shell and
When the cargo is discharged it must be in a condition longitudinal bulkheads are longitudinally framed in addition
suitable for the shore-based tanks. Thus, if the shore tanks to the double bottom. The hatch coamings may be continuous
are at atmospheric pressure, the cargo in the ship's tanks and therefore improve the longitudinal strength. Problems
should be brought to about the same pressure before may arise in these vessels due to the lack of torsional strength
discharging commences. caused by the large hatches. This problem is overcome to
Sufficient nett positive suction head must be provided for some extent by fitting torsion boxes on each side of the ship.
the pumps to work the cargo without cavitation. In pressure These boxes are formed by the upper deck, top part of the
vessels the ship's compressor may pressurise the vapour longitudinal bulkhead, sheerstrake and upper platform, all of
from an adjoining tank to maintain a positive thrust at the which are of thick material. The boxes are supported inside by
• impeller. In refrigerated ships the impeller is fitted at the transverses and --waah----_
~~-----
bulkheads
..
-._----~--
in addition to the
bottom of the tank, the liquid head producing the pressure longitudinal framing. These boxes are only effective if they
required. In the event of pump failure, the cargo may be are efficiently tied at their ends. At the after end they extend
removed by the injection of inert gas. Booster pumps are into the engine room and are tied to deep transverse webs.
usually fitted to overcome any individual pump problem and Similarly atthe fore end, they are carried as far forward as the
ensure a continuous rate of discharge. form oftheshipwill allow and are welded to transverse webs.
COVER
CONTAINER SHIPS
DECK
Container ships are designed to carry large numbers of
standard containers at high speeds between particular
terminal ports and require a fastturn round atthose ports.
The containers are of international standard, 20 ft, 30 ft or
40 ft in length, 8 ft wide and 8 ft high, the 20 ft and 40 ft DEEP WEBS AT
lengths being most popular. They are strong enough to be HATCH ENDS
increase the transverse and torsional strength of the ship. APPLIANCES AND CLASSIFICATION
These webs are fitted at tank top and deck levels. Care is
taken in the structural design at the hatch corners to avoid Freeboard and tonnage are closely related to each other,
excessive stresses. particularly in dry cargo ships where it is usually found that a
The double bottom structure beneath the cell guides is ship with small freeboard has relatively large tonnage. Both
subject to impact loading as the containers are put on board. freeboard and tonnage are the responsibility of the Board of
Side girders are usually fitted under the container seats with Trade although Lloyd's Register, Bureau Veritas and the
additional transverse local stiffening to distribute the load. American Bureau of Shipping act as assigning authorities for
Unlike normal cargo ships in which the cargo is distributed freeboard. The freeboard regulations are given in the Load
over the tank top, the inner bottom of a container ship is Line Rules of 1932 which were formed at an International
subject to point loading. The double bottom must be deep Convention and are thus agreed upon by most of the maritime
enough to support the upthrust from the water when the ship countries of the world. These rules were completely revised
is deeply loaded, without distortion between the container in 1968. The tonnage rules are British regulations although
corners. other authorities such as Suez and Panama Canal
establishments have similar rules with amendments.
FREEBOARD
130 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS FREEBOARD, TONNAGE AND LIFESAVING APPLIANCES 131
Thus if the weather deck is also the freeboard deck, all All LINES 25 .... THICK
~
increased freeboard. Similarly hold and 'tween deck
ventilator coamings must be strong and, when not in use, iF!
1 . T
I-! '~r~"
' '-I .~
must be efficiently plugged and covered. Ships built to the . . I
TONNAGE
Fresh Water Allowance =~mm
In 1967 the Tonnage Rules were completely revised in an
attempt to improve the safety of dry cargo ships.
where t:::. is the displacement and T the tonne per cm A register ton represents 100 cubic feet of volume*. The
immersion. Amendments are made to the freeboard for tonnage deck is the second deck except in single deck ships.
anticipated conditions at sea. If the vessel sails in a tropical The tonnage length is measured at the level of the tonnage
zone, severe weather is not usual and therefore a reduction in deck where an imaginary line is drawn inside the hold frames
freeboard is allowed (T andTF). In a winter zone the freeboard or sparring, the tonnage length being measured on the
is increased (W) while in ships 100 m or less in length a centreline of the ship to this line. Tonnage depths are
Winter North Atlantic line (WNA) is required. The letters LR measured from the top of the tank top or ceiling to the
signify that Lloyd's Register of Shipping has assigned the underside of the tonnage deck at the centreline, less one third
freeboard. ofthecamber. There is, however, a limitation on the height of
"This has not changed with the introduction of SI units
132 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS FREEBOARD. TONNAGE AND LIFESAVING APPLIANCES 133
the double bottom considered. Tonnage breadths are If the Machinery Space Tonnage is between 13% and 20%
measured tothe inside of the hold frames or sparring. of the Gross Tonnage, the Propelling Power Allowance is
The tonnage length is divided into a number of parts. At 32% of the Gross Tonnage.
each cross-section the tonnage depth is similarly divided and If the Machinery Space Tonnage is less than 13% of the
tonnage breadths measured. The breadths are put through Gross Tonnage, the Propelling Power Allowance is a
Simpson's Rule to give cross-sectional areas. The cross proportion of 32% of the Gross Tonnage. Thus an actual
sectional areas are, in turn, put through Simpson's Rule to tonnage of 12% would give a Propelling Power Allowance of
give a volume. This volume, divided by 1DO, is the Underdeck ~~ x 32% of the Gross Tonnage.
Tonnage. If the Machinery Space Tonnage is more than 20% of the
The Gross Tonnage is found by adding to the Underdeck Gross Tonnage, the Propelling Power Allowance is 1% times
Tonnage, the tonnage of all enclosed spaces between the the Machinery Space Tonnage. with an upper limit of 55%
upper deck and the second deck, the tonnage of all enclosed except for tugs.
spaces above the upper deck together with any portion of
hatchways exceeding 112% of the gross tonnage. Modified tonnage
Many ships are designed to run in service at a load draught
The Net Tonnage or Register Tonnage is obtained by
which is much less than that allowed by the Load Line Rules.
deducting from the Gross Tonnage, the tonnage of spaces
If the freeboard of a vessel is greater than that which would
which are required forthe safe working ofthe ship:
be assigned taking the second deck as the freeboard deck
then reduced Gross and NetTonnages may be allowed. In this
(a) master's accommodation case the tonnage of the space between the upper deck and
(b) crew accommodation and an allowance for provi
the second deck is not added to the Underdeck Tonnage and is
sion stores
therefore not included in the Gross Tonnage or Net Tonnage.
(c) wheelhouse. chartroom, radio room and navigation
both of which are consequently considerably reduced. As an
aids room
indication that this modified tonnage has been allocated to
(d) chain locker, steering gear space, anchor gear the ship. a tonnage mark must be cut in each side of the ship
and capstan space 'I
in line with the deepest loadline and 540 mm aft of the centre
(e) space for safety equ ipment and batteries ofthedisc.
(f) workshops and storerooms for pumpmen, electri
If any cargo is carried in the 'tween decks it is classed as
cians, carpenter, boatswains and the lamp room
deck cargo and added to the tonnage.
(g) donkey engine and donkey boiler space if outside
134 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS FREEBOARD, TONNAGE AND LIFESAVING APPLIANCES 135
The principle behind the modified and alternative tonnages EYEPLATE FOR
LIFELINE SPAN
is that reduced tonnages were previously assigned if a
tonnage hatch were fitted. This hatch seriously impaired the
safety ofthe ship. Thus by omitting the hatch the ship is more
seaworthy and no tonnage penalty is incurred. The tonnage
mark suitable for alternative tonnage is shown in Fig. 119.
The distance W is ~8 x the moulded draught to the tonnage
mark.
OF CRADLE . \
\.
considerably more equipment than a coastal cargo vessel. \j '- \~. INCLINED 3c:J DECKHOUSE
The following notes are based on the requirements for a deep I .\-. ..J.j.-::=-: 0. SIDE
sea cargo ship. I . .. l( ~RTlCAL WINCH
There must be sufficient lifeboat accommodation on each =-f {~>~·1· REELING GEAR
side of the ship for the whole of the ship's complement. The - ..--0--......... --i'd) !
<,
lifeboats must be at least 7.3 m long and may be constructed ........
1 80AT DECK
of wood, steel, aluminium or fibreglass. They carry rations for i
~---)
several days, together with survival and signalling equipment
such as fishing lines, first-aid equipment, compass, lights,
distress rockets and smoke flares. One lifeboat on each side G RAV ITY DAVIT
must be motor-driven.
Fig. 120
The lifeboats are suspended from davits which allow the
boats to be lowered to the water when the ship is heeled to 15
degrees. Most modern ships are fitted with gravity davits,
which, when released, allow the cradle carrying the boat to
run outboard until the boat is hanging clear of the ship's side
(Fig. 120).
The boat is raised and lowered by means of an electrically
driven winch. Thewinch is manually controlled by a weighted
lever (Fig. 121), known as a dead man's handle which
releases the main brake. Should the operator lose control of
the brake the lever causes the winch to stop. The speed of
descent is also controlled by a centrifugal brake which limits MAIN BRAKE
the speed to a maximum of 36 m/min. Both the centrifugal Fig.121
brake and the main brake drum remain stationary during the
hoisting operation. If the power fails while raising the boat, The majority of ships carry Iiferafts having sufficient
the main brake will hold the boat. capacity for half of the ship's crew. The liferafts are inflatable
i
L
136 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS FREEBOARD, TONNAGE AND LIFESAVING APPLIANCES 137
and carry survival equipment similar to the lifeboats. They Each of these societies has its own rules which may be
have been found extremely efficient in practice, giving used to determine the scantlings of the structural members.
adequate protection from exposure. The followinq notes are based on Lloyd's Rules.
Each member of the crew is supplied with a lifejacket Steel ships which are built in accordance with the Society's
which is capable of supporting an unconscious person safely. Rules, or are regarded by l.lovds as equivalent in strength, are
Lifebuoys are provided in case a man falls overboard. Some assigned a class in the Register Book. This class applies as
are fitted with self-igniting lights for use at night and others long as the ships are found under survey to be in a fit and
fitted with smoke signals for pin-pointing the position during efficient condition.
the day. Class 100 A is assigned to ships which are built in
All ships carry line-throwing apparatus which consists of a accordance with the rules or are of equivalent strength.
light line towhich a rocket is attached. The rocket is fired from The figure 1 is added (i.e. 100 A 1) when the equipment,
a pistol and must be capable of carrying 230 m. This enables consisting of anchors, cables, mooring ropes and towropes, is
contactto be made between the ship and the shore or another in good and efficient condition.
ship. A hawser or whip is attached to the end of the line and The distinguished mark + is given when a ship is fully built
pulled back onto the ship either directly or through a block, under Special Survey, i.e. when a surveyor is in attendance
allowing persons to be transferred or vessels towed. and examines the ship during all stages of construction. Thus
a ship classed as + 100 A 1 is built to the highest standard
assigned by L1oyds.
CLASSIFICATION OF SHIPS
Additional notations are added to suit particular types of
ship such as 1OOA 1 oil tanker or 1OOA lore carrier.
A classification society is an organisation whose function
When the machinery is constructed and installed in
is to ensure that a ship is soundly constructed and that the
accordance with Lloyd's Rules a notation LMC is assigned,
standard of construction is maintained. The ship is classified
indicating that the ship has Lloyd's Machinery Certificate.
accordi ng to the sta ndard of construction and equ ipment. The
In orderto claim the 1OOA 1 class, the materials used in the
cost of insurance of both ship and cargo depends to a great
construction of the ship must be of good quality and free from
extent' upon this classification and it is therefore to the
defects. To ensure that this quality is obtained, samples of
advantage of the shipowner to have a high class ship. It
material are tested at regular intervals by Lloyd's Surveyors.
should be noted, however, thatthe classification societies are
To ensure that the ship remains worthy of its classification,
independent ofthe insurance cornpa nies.
annual and special surveys are carried out by the surveyors.
There are a number of large societies, each being
The special surveys are carried out at intervals of 4 to 5 years.
responsible for the classification of the majority of ships built
In an annual survey the ship is examined externally and, if
in at least one country, although in most cases it is left to the
considered necessary, internally. All parts liable to corrosion
shipowner to choose the society. Some of the major organisa
and chafing are examined, together with the hatchways,
tions are as follows:
closing devices and ventilators to ensure that the standards
Lloyd's Register of Shipping United Kingdom required for the Load Line Regulations are maintained. The
American Bureau of Shipping U.S.A. steeri ng gear, wi ndlass, anchors and cables are inspected.
Bureau Veritas France A more thorough examination is required at the special
Det Norske Veritas Norway surveys. The shell plating, sternframe and rudder are
Registro Italiano Italy . inspected, the rudder being lifted if considered necessary.
Teikoku Kaiji Kyokai. Japan The holds, peaks, deep tanks and double bottom tanks are
Germanischer t.lovds Germany cleared, examined and the tanks tested. The bilges, ,;zlimbers --
",
~,
138 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS FREEBOARD, TONNAGE AND LIFESAVING APPLIANCES 139
and tank top are inspected, part of the tank top ceiling being One major problem which has arisen is the increase in the
removed to examine the plating. In way of any corroded parts, size of oil tankers and bulk carriers with the consequent small
the thickness of the plating must be determined either by number of docks capable of handling them. This has led to the
drilling or by ultrasonic testing. introduction of a system of hull survey while the vessel is
afloat. The in-water survey (IWS) is used to check those parts
of a ship which are usually surveyed in dry dock. It includes
The scantlings of the structure are based on theory, but
visual examination of the hull, rudder, propeller, sea inlets,
because a ship is a very complex structure, a 'factor of
etc, and the measurement of wear down of rudder bearings
experience' is introduced. l.lovds receive reports of all faults
and stern bush.
and failures in ships which carry their class, and on the basis
'-,_re severaLr~rementsto be met beforefWS is
of these reports, consistent faults in any particular type of
allcM'ed. Colour photographs are taken of all parts which are
ship may be studied in detail and amendments made to the
likely to be inspected, before the ship is launched. The rudder
rules. Structural damage in some welded ships has led to the
and sternframe are designed for easy access to bearings. The
introduction of longitudinal framing in the double bottom.
ship must be less than 10 years old, have a high resistance
Reports of brittle fracture have resulted in crack arrestors
paint on the underwater hull and be fitted with an impressed
being fitted in the shell and deck of welded ships. It is
current cathodic protection system.
important to note that l.lovds have the power to require
At the time of the inspection the hull is cleaned by one of
owners to alter the structure of an existing ship if they
the many brush systems available. The water must be clear
consider that the structure is weak. An example of this was
and the draught less than 10m. The inspection may be made
the fitting of butt straps to some welded tankers to act as
by an underwater closed-circuit television camera. The
crack arrestors, the shell plating being cut to create a
camera may be hand-held by a diver or carried by a
discontinuity in the material. and the separate plates joined
hydraulically-propelled camera vehicle, remotely controlled
together by means of the butt strap.
from a surface monitoring station.
tt:.
.Joi<
140 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS FREEBOARD, TONNAGE AND LIFESAVING APPLIANCES 141
Difficulties occur at hatch corners. .~'. cerners JTlI;t$t~". level and in the fore peakup to the upper deck. Similarly at the
ne~14
a=.e. . . . . .
r .' . btil;,. .,J.,ellipti~,.
,, Mtll·'· . 11
"'t;i!i thicker
after end the side and deck longitudinals are carried aft as far
as theywill conveniently go. A particular difficulty arises with
. . . ~ . . •;.P,.I.~ting.~~L~;~r.~~r~~ the longitudinal bulkheads which must be tapered off into the
.~; ~r,... ;8IlIIIt~e9SEl In forward deep tank and engine room. In the larger vessels it is
~. often possible to carry the bulkheads through the engine
room, the space at the sides being used for auxiliary spaces,
stores and workshops.
DECK PLATING
DECK _I
~ 1
if:L'-IP-S-E----L
LINE OF LONGITUDINAL
~I- -BOTTOM
----.
BULKHEAD AT SHELL
HATCH CORNERS
EXTENT OF LONGITUDINAL FRAMING
i .
~"
MISCELLANEOUS 143
Slab cork 150 mm to 200 mm thick is laid on hot bitumen. removing the cargo the traps must be re-filled with saturated
The material is protected on its upper surface by a layer of brine, thus forming an air seal which will not freeze. Fig. 128
asphalt 50 mm thick which is reinforced by steel mesh. Elm shows a typical brine trap fitted in the 'tween decks.
ceiling is fitted under the hatchways where damage is most
likely to occur. WOOD COVERS
Fig.127
WCXlO DECK
BEAM
GLASS FIBRE INSULATION OF TANK TOP
Fig.126
not more than 40 m in length, by A class bulkheads. An A operates when the temperature rises to between 68°C and
class bulkhead must be built of steel or other suitable 93°C. This system is fitted in all accommodation and store
material, insulated in such a way that it will withstand a spaces in the ship, and is associated with a fire alarm and
standard fire test of 927°C maximum for a period of one hour, detection system.
without increasing the temperature on the unexposed face by
more than 139°C. AB class bulkhead must withstand 30 min Method III
of the test but need not be constructed of steel. All stairway The accommodation spaces are further subdivided by B
openings must be surrounded by A class bulkheads and, class bulkheads into sections having floor area of 130 m 2 to
unless lift trunks are fitted in the stairway openings, they too 160 m 2 . The public rooms such as dining saloons, lounges
must be protected by A class divisions. and theatres must be surrounded by B class division. All
The principles involved in this subdivision are very simple. linings, grounds and furnishings must be of non-combustible
If a fire breaks out in anyone zone, it will be restricted to this material as far as practical, while the coatings on the surfaces
zone and will not. therefore, spread through the ship. In must have low flame spread. A fire alarm and detection
accommodation spaces it is inconvenient to have continuous system must be fitted.
divisions. Passageways through the divisions may be allowed The steel or aluminium bulkheads forming the A class
as long as efficient fireoroof doors are fitted. Vertical trunks divisions may be insulated by fire resistant board which may
such as stairways and lifts form chimneys which encourage be painted or veneered and thus forms a decorative panel.
the spread of fire. This possibility is reduced by the A class This proves useful also for the B class bulkheads in which the
bulkheads. board of suitable thickness may be used as a free-standing
The insulation of A class divisions depends upon whether division. Marinite is one form of board which has been used
the bulkhead is of steel or of aluminium, and the likelihood of on many ships, both passenger and carJio. B class bulkheads
fire spread in the adjacent compartments. This is known as may be formed by:M~.ii!L2.2.:~steel bulkhead
the fire potential. If the fire potential is high, then the may be insulated b~5 mm Marinite on one side (Fig. 129) or
bulkheads may be required to be insulated on both sides, 12 mm Marinite on both sides (Fig. 130). An aluminium
while with low fire potential it may not be necessary to bulkhead which is required to support a load must be
insulate a steel bulkhead. Aluminium bulkheads usually insulated using 20mm Marinite on each side, while if no load
require insulation on both sides because of their relatively is carried this thickness may be reduced to 12 mm per side,
low melti ng poi nt. the construction being similar to that for the steel bulkhead.
The additional protection required is as follows:
STEEL BULKHEAD
20 mm OR 12 mm MARINITE current will flow through the electrolyte from the iron to the
MARINITE GROUND copper and back through to copper to the iron (Fig. 131).
BULKHEAD
STIFFENER
INSULATION OF STEEL
OR ALUMINIUM BULKHEAD
Fig.130
CORROSION
CORROSION CELL
i
Corrosion is the wasting away of a material due to its
tendency to return to its natural state, which, in the case of a Fig.131
1\
150 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS MISCELLANEOUS 151
would reduce corrosion. It is, however, very brittle and does Painting
not expand either mechanically or thermally at the same rate Work done in efficient surface preparation is wasted unless
as the steel plate. Unless this mill scale is removed before backed up by suitable paint correctly applied. The priming
painting, the painted scale will drop off in service, leaving coat is perhaps the most important. This coat must adhere to
bare steel plate which will corrode rapidly. Unfortunately mill the plate and, if applied before construction, must be capable
scale is difficult to remove completely, of withstanding the wear and tear of everyday working. The
If the plate is left exposed to the atmosphere, rust will form subsequent coats must form a hard wearing, watertight
behind the mill scale. On wire brushing, the majority of the cover. The coats of paint must be applied on clean, dry
scale will be removed. This is known as weathering, In surfaces to be completely effective.
modern times a good flow of material through the shipyard is
essential and therefore the time allowed for weathering must Cathodic protection
be severely limited. In addition, it is found in practice that If three dissimilar metals are immersed in an electrolyte,
much of the mill scale is not removed by this process. the metal lowest on the electro chemical scale becomes the
If the plates are immersed in a weak solution of sulphuric anode, the remaining two being cathodes. Thus if copper and
acid or hydrochloric acid for a few hours, the majority of the iron are immersed in sea water, they may be protected by a
mill scale is removed. This system, known as pickliQJ;L has block of zinc wh ich is then known as a sacrificial anode, si nce
been used by the Admiralty and several privateowners for I
!
it is allowed to corrode in preference to the copper and iron.
many years. The pickled plate must be hosed down with fresh Thus zinc or magnesium anodes may be used to protect the
i water on removal from the tank, to remove all traces of the propeller and stern frame assembly of a ship, and will, at the
acid. It is then allowed to dry before painting. One dis same time, reduce corrosion of the hull due to differences in
Ie advantage with this method is that during the drying period a the steel.
~."
If<:, light coating of rust is formed on the plate and must be Deep water ballast tanks may be protected by sacrificial
~t:~ removed before painting. anodes. It is first essential to remove any rust or scale from
~i)
Flame cleaning of ship structure came into use some time the surface and to form a film on the plates which prevents
ago. An oxy-acetylene torch, having several jets, is used to any further corrosion. Both of these functions are performed
brush the surface. It burns any dirt and grease, loosens the by booster anodes which have large surface area compared
surface rust and, due to the differential expansion between with their volume (e.g. flat discs). These anodes allow swift
the steel and the mill scale, loosens the latter. The surface is movement of material to the cathode, thus forming the film.
immediately wire brushed and the priming coat applied while Unfortunately this film is easily removed in service and
the plate is still warm. Opinions vary as to the efficiency of therefore main anodes are fitted, having large volume com
flame cleaning, some shipowners having had excellent pared with surface area (e.g. hemispherical), which are de
results, but it has lost favour in the lastfewyears. . signed to last about three years. Protection is only afforded to
The most effective method of removing the mill scale which the whole tank if the electrolyte is in contact with the whole
has been found to date, is the use of war bLasting. The steel tank. Thus it is necessary when carrying water ballast to
plates are passed through a machine in which steel shot is press the tank up.
projected at the plate, removing the mill scale together with Electrolytic action may occur when two dissimilar metals
any surface rust dirt and grease. This system removes 95% to are in contact above the waterline. Great care must be taken,
100% of the mill scale and results in a slightly rough surface for instance, when joining an aluminium alloy deckhouse to a
which allows adequate adhesion of the paint. In modern steel deck. Several methods have been tried with varying
installations, the plate is spray painted on emerging from the degrees of success. The steel bar forming the attachment
shot blast machine. maybegalvanised, steel or iron rivets being used through the
152 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS MISCELLANEOUS 153
steel deck, with aluminium rivets to the deckhouse. A coating positive than with sacrificial anodes and it is found that the
of barium chromate between the surfaces forms a measure of lead-silver anodes do not erode. A current of 7 to 350 mA/m2
protection. is required depending upon the surface protection and the
The method used on M.S. 'Bergensfjord' was most degree to which the protection has broken down.
effective, although perhaps costly. Contact between the two
materials was prevented by fitting 'Neoprene' tape in the joint Design and maintenance
(Fig. 132). Galvanised steel bolts were used, but 'Neoprene' Corrosion of ships may be considerably reduced if careful
ferrules were fitted in the bolt holes, opening out to form a attention is paid to the design of the structure, Smooth, clean
washer at the bolt head. The nut was fitted in the inside of the surfaces are easy to maintain and therefore welded ships are
house, and tack welded to the boundary angle to allow the preferable from this point of view. Riveted seams and
joint to be tightened without removal of the internal lining. stiffeners tend to harbour moisture and thus encourage
The top and bottom of the joints were then filled with a corrosion. If parts of the structure are difficult to inspect, then
compound known as 'Aranbee' to form a watertight seal. it is unlikely that these parts will be properly maintained.
Efficient drainage of all compartments should be ensured.
ALUMINIUM Those parts of the structure which are most liable to
DECKHOUSE SIDE corrosion should be heavily coated with some suitable com
OUTSIDE OF HOUSE pound if inspection is difficult. Steel plating under wood decks
or deck composition is particularly susceptible in this respect.
Pools of water lying in plate edges on the deck tend to
promote corrosion. If such pools may not be avoided then the
TACK Wt!,.O
plate edges must be regularly painted. Such difficulties arise
NEOPRENE TAPE
with joggled deck plating.
STEEL ANGLE
A warm, damp atmosphere encourages corrosion. Care
must be taken, therefore, to regularly maintain the structure
STEEL DECK
in way of deck steam pipes and galley funnels.
Reductions in thickness of material of between 5% and
CONNECTION OF ALUMINIUM
It is essential to reduce fouling. since the increase in The shell plating should be hosed with fresh water and
resistance in severe cases may be in the order of 30% to 40%. brushed down immediately to remove the salt before the sea
This is reflected in an increase in fuel consumption to main water dries. The plating must be carefullv checked for
tain the same speed. or a reduction in speed for the same distortion. buckling. roughness. corrosion and slack rivets. In
power. the case of welded ships the butts and seams should be
The main anti-fouling system is the use of toxic coatings: inspected for cracks. The side shell may be slightly damaged
usually mercury based. The coating exudes a poison which due to rubbing against quays. After inspection and repair the
inhibits the marine growth. Unfortunately the poison works plating should be wire brushed and painted. Any sacrificial
at all times. Thus when the ship speed exceeds 4 knots. anodes must be checked and replaced if necessary. taking
poison is being wasted, After a period the outer layer of the care not to paint over the surface. The ship side valves and
coating is devoid of mercury and the remainder is unable to cocks are examined. glands repacked and greased. All
work itswaytothewater.lfthe shell is scrubbed at this stage. external grids are examined for corrosion and freed from any
the outer dead layer is removed and the coating once again blockage. If severe wastage has occurred the grid may be built
becomes active. The scrubbing may be carried out using nylon up with welding. The shell boxes are wire brushed and
brushes. either in dock or while afloat. painted with an anti-fouling composition.
Fouling of the sea inlets may cause problems in engine If the double bottom tanks are to be cleaned, the tanks are
cooling. whilst explosions have been caused by such growths drained by unscrewing the plugs fitted at the after end of the
in air pipes. . tank. This allows complete drainage since the ship lies at a
When a ship is in graving dock. hull fouling must be slight trim by the stern. It is essential that these plugs should
removed by scrapers or high pressure water jets. These water
jets. with the addition of abrasives such as grit. prove very
effective in removing marine growth and may be used whilst.
._
be replaced before undocking. new grummets always being
fitted........,
-..- - . - - -
The after end must be examined with particular care. If at
the vessel is afloat. any time the ship has grounded. the sternframe may be
One method of removing growth is by means of explosive: damaged. It should be carefully inspected for cracks. paying
cord. The cord is formed into a diamond-shaped mesh which particular attention to the sol~.gL~f~. In twin screw ships the
is hung down from the ship side. attached to a floating line. speetacJeframe must be thoroughly examined. The drain plug
The cord is energised by means of a controlled electro in the bottom of the rudder is removed to determine whether
chemical impulse. The resultant explosion produces pressure any water has entered the rudder. Corrosion on the external
waves which pass along the hull. sweeping it clear of marine surface may be the result of complete wastage of the plate
growth and loose paint. By energising the net in sequential from the inside. Thtt ~ardown of the rudder is measured
layers. the hull is cleaned quickly but without the excessive either at the tiller or at the upper gudgeof\. Little or no
energy which would result from a single charge. weardown should be sElen if the rudder is supported by a
carrier. but if there are "measurable differences the bearing
EXAMINATION IN DRY DOCK surfaces of the carrier should be examined. If no carrier is
fitted. appreciable weardown may necessitate replacing the
In many companies it is the responsibility of the marine hard steel bearing pad in the lower gudgeon. The bearing
engineers to inspect the hull of the ship on entering graving material in the gudgeons must be examined to see that the
dock, while in other companies it is the responsibilitv of the pintles are not too slack; aclearance of 5 mm being regarded
deck officers. It is essential on such occasions to make a as a maximum. The pini~:nuts. together with any form of
thorough examination to ensure that all necessary work is locking device. must be checked to ensure that they are tight.
carried out. Careful examination of the propeller is essential. Pitting
may occur near the tips on the driving face and on the whole
T MISCEUANEaus 157
L'
Tank stabilisers
There are three basic systems of roll-damping using free
surface tanks:
(a) Passive Tanks
(b) Controlled Passive Tanks
(c) ActiveControlledTanks
These systems do not depend upon the forward movement
of the ship and are therefore suitable for vessels such as drill
ships. In introducing a free surface to the ship, however, there
is a reduction in stability which must be considered when
STABILISER FIN
loading the ship.
(a) PassiveTanks
Fig.136
I~~! !~~I
SHIP SIDE
FORWARD
vdj"''' I
I
TAIL FIN
PASSIVE TANK SYSTEM
Fig.138
HINGED FIN
Fig.137
The depth of water in the tanks is critical and, for any given
ship, depends upon the metacentric height. The tank must be \;l.,....RUV""'n....,
tuned for any loaded condition by adjusting the level, -===-=-::: p:'"----=
otherwise the movement of the water may synchronise with -- - -=== ~
the roll of the ship and create dangerous rolling conditions.
Alternatively the cross-sectional area of the duct may be ,-
- -,
VALVES
, ..
-- -,
adjusted by means of a gate valve.
(b) Controlled Passive Tanks (Fig. 140)
The principle of action is the same as for the previous
f
I
\
restrict the flow of water in a U-tube system, or the flow of air SHAFT
in a fully-enclosed system. The mass of water required in the ---.; --==--.
~ 0--=
~. . . DIRE~TlON OF
system is about 2% to 2Y2% of the displacement of the ship.
---
- WAlE FLOW
--'" ~
ROll TO PORT
!Xl AIR DUCT IX]
\._AIR CONTROlJ
VALVES
WING W1NG
-=:=:= ::::== -.5=' r-=--
---=--- -----=---
TANK TANK
DIRECTION OF. .
t ~
WATER DUCT
WATER F~OW
t
-..,.
ROll TO STARBOARD
-- --
CONTROLLED PASSIVE TANK ACTIVE CONTROLLED TANK
:~!fI't'AnoN
(c) Active Controlled Tanks (Fig. 141)
In this system the water is positively driven across the ship Ship vibration is the periodic movement of the structure
in opposition to the roll. The direction of roll, and hence the and may occur vertically, horizontally or torsionally.
required direction of the water, changes rapidly. It is There are several sources of ship vibration, any of which
therefore necessary to use a uni-directional impeller in could cause d,i,comtcmlp,perspnnel, damage to fittings and
conjunction with a series of valves. The impeller runs in.itrUmems and strueturat f8~ure. If the frequency of the
continually and the direction of the water is controlled by main or auxiliary machinery at any given speed coincides
valves which are activated by a gyroscope system similar to with the natural frequency ofthe hull structure, then vibration
that used for the fin stabiliser. may occur. In such circumstances it is usually easier to alter
"
the source of the vibration by changing the engine speed or energy of the wave is considered to be the source. Such
fitting dampers, than to change the structure. The natural vibrations are dampened by a combination of the hull
frequency of the structure depends upon the length, mass structure, the cargo, the water friction and the generation of
distribution and second moment of area of the structural waves by the ship.
material. For any given mass distribution a considerable
change in structural material would be required to cause any
ENGINE CASING
practical variation in natural frequency,
Similarly vibration may occur in a"WJi~,:$p8ce due to
~CedforC8S from the main or auxiliary machinery or as ' The main part of the machinery space in a ship lies
a result of uneven power distribution in the main engine. This between the double bottom and the lowest deck. Above this
vibration may be transmitted through the main structure to deck is a large vertical trunk known as the engine casing,
the superstructure, causing extreme discomfort to the which extends to the weather deck. In the majority of ships
personnel. this casing is surrounded by accommodation. An access door
Severe vibration of the after end of some ships has been is fitted in each side of the casing, leading into the
caused by~,ptopeller tip'clearance. As the blade tip accommodation. This door may be of wood unless fitted in
passes the top of the aperture it attempts to compress the exposed casings. At the top of the the trunk the funnel and
water. This creates a force on the blade which causes engine room skylight are fitted. The skylight supplies natural
bending of the blade and increased torque in the shaft. The light to the engine room and may be opened to supplement
periodic nature of this force, i.e. t.~ number of blades, the ventilation, the whole casing then acting as an air trunk.
produces the vibration of the stern. Classification Societies The volume taken up by the casings is kept as small as
recommend minimum tip clearances to reduce propeller possible since, apart from the light and air space, they serve
induced vibrations to reasonable levels. Should the. tip no useful purpose. It is essential, however, that the minimum
clearance be constant, e.g. with a propeller nozzle, then this width and length should be sufficient to allow for removal of
problem does not occur. If an existing ship suffers an the machinery. The dimensions of the engine room skylight
unacceptable level of vibration from this source, it may be are determined on the same basis and it is common practice
necessary to crop the blade tips, reducing the propeller to bolt the skylightto the deck to facilitate removal.
efficiency, or to fit a propeller of smaller diameter. The casings are constructed of relatively thin plating with
A.q.~ propeller blade will create out-of-balance small vertical angle stiffeners about 750 mm apart. In welded
moments due to the unequal weight distribution and the ships, flat bars may be used or the plating may be swedged.
uneven loading on the blades. Little may be done to relieve The stiffeners are fitted inside the casing and are therefore
the resultant vibration except to repair or replace the continuous. Pillars or deep cantilevers are fitted to support
propeller. , the casing sides. Cantilevers are fitted in many ships to
V){:.:,.' '" .... ~.' ,. . ... . g, dispense with the pillars which interfere with the layout of
heavi~.-mminfJ·CH'ttte . -c, the ship. In machinery. The cantilevers are fitted in line with the web
smaller vessels pitching and slamming are the main sources frames.
but are soon dampened. In ships over about 300 m in length, The casing sides in way of accommodation are insulatedto
however, hull vibration has been experienced in relatively reduce the heat transfer from the engine room. While such
mild sea states due to the waves. In some cases the vibration transfer would be an advantage in reducing the engine room
has been caused by the periodic increase and decrease in temperature, the accommodation would be most
buoyancy with regular waves much shorter than the ship, uncomfortable. A suitable insulant would be glass fibre in
whilst in other cases, with non-uniform waves, the internal slab form since it has high thermal efficiency and is fire
!
i
L
resistant. The insulation is fitted inside the casing and is Efficient lifting gear is essential in the engine room to allow
faced with sheet steel, asbestos or stiffened cement. the removal of machinery parts for inspection, maintenance
BOAT DECK and repair. The main equipment is a travelling crane of 5 or 6
tonne lifting capacity on two longitudinal rails which run the
full length of the casing. The rails are formed by rolled steel
joists, efficiently connected to the ends of the casing or the
engine room bulkheads by means of large brackets.
Intermediate brackets may be fitted to reduce movement of
the rails, as long as they do not obstruct the crane.
----I i ,
Fig. 143 shows a typical arrangement.
Tha,height of the rails depends upon the height and type of
the machinery, sufficient clearance being allowed to remove
long components such as pistons and cylinder liners. The
width between the rails is arranged to allow the machinery to
WATERTIGHT
be removed from the ship.
PILLAR PILLAR BULKHEAD An alternative method used in some ships is so carry two
cranes on transverse rails. This reduces the length of the rails
ELEVATION OF ENGINE CASING
but no intermediate support may be fitted.
Fig. 142
Two strong beams are fitted at upper deck or bridge deck FUNNEL
level to tie the two sides of the casing together. These strong
beams are fitted in line with the web frames and are each in The size and shape of the funnel depends upon the require
the form of two channel bars at adjacent frame spaces, with a ments of the shipowners. At one time tall funnels were fitted
shelf plate joining the two channels. to steam ships to obtain the required natural draught and, in
STIFFENER STIFFENER passenger ships, to ensure that the smoke and grit were
carried clear of the decks. Modern ships with forced draught
do not require such high funnels. The funnel has now become
a feature of the design of the ship, enhancing the appearance
and being a suitable support for the owners' housemark. They
are built much larger than necessary, particularly in motor
ships where the uptakes are small. They may be circular,
BULKHEAD aULKHEAD elliptical or pear shaped in plan view, while there are many
ELEVATION
varied shapes in side elevation. In many cases the funnel is
CASING SIDE STtFFENER
,__ , __ ,_ _, CRAN.E_ _ •_ _._ _. _
designed to house deck stores or auxiliary machinery such as
ventilating fan units.
The funnel consists of an outer casing protecting the
uptakes. The outer funnel is constructed of steel plate 6 mm to
SECTION 8 mm in thickness. It is stiffened internally by ordinary angles
or flat bars fitted vertically. Their scantlings depend upon the
CRANE RAIL SUPPORT
size and shape of the funnel. The plating is connected to the
Fig. 143
deck by a boundary angle, while a moulding is fitted round the
I
i
I
J..
top to stiffen the free edge. Steel wire stays are connected to The uptakes from the boilers, generators and main engine
lugs on the outside of the funnel and to similar lugs on the are carried up inside the funnel and stopped almost level with
deck. A rigging screw is fitted to each stay to enable the stays the top of the funnel (Fig. 145). A steel platform is fitted at a
to be tightened. A watertight door is fitted in the funnel, height of about 1 m inside the funnel. This platform extends
having clips which may be operated from both sides(Fig. 144). right across the funnel, holes being cut in for the uptakes and
access. The uptakes are not connected directly to this
platform because of possible expansion, but a ring is fitted
above and below the plating, with a gap which allows the pipe
to slide. Additional bellows expansion joints are arranged
where necessary. At the top a single platform or separate
platforms may be fitted to support the uptakes, the latter
being connected by means of an angle ring to the platform. In
motor ships a silencer must be fitted in the funnel to the main
BOUNDARY engine exhaust. This unit is supported on a separate seat.
aAR Ladders and gratings are fitted inside the funnel to allow
access for inspection and maintenance.
FUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
Fig, 144
"
UPPER
PLATFORM
ELEVATION
PLAN VIEW
ARRANGEMENT OF FUNNEL UPTAKES
Fig. 145 ,J.'
~. '
1. ~
,'"
A.
2. Draw an outline midship section of a ship and show 10. Describe with the aid of sketches the terms: (a)
the position of the following items: (a) sheer strake, camber, (b) sheer. (c) rise of floor. (d) flare. What is the
(b) garboard strake, (c) stringer. (d) bilge plating. (e) keel purpose of these?
plate. (f) floors. (g) frames.
11. A ship has a small hole below the waterline. What
would be the procedure in making a cement box round
3. With the aid of a sketch showing only the compart
the hole?
ments concerned. show the arrangement of windlass
and anchor cables. How is the end of the cable secured
in the chain locker? What is meant by the terms: 12. Show how the hatch and main hold of a refri
(a) hawse pipe. (b) spurling pipe. (c) cable lifter. (d) cable gerated vessel are insulated. What materials are used?
stopper? How are the compartments drained?
..
j~;
~'.!(:\.
J
....
f.j,
,j
172 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SELECTION OF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 173
"
*18. Describe with the aid of a diagrammatic sketch the 27. Explain why the plating of the hull and transverse
following types of keel. Show how they are attached watertight bulkheads is arranged horizontally. Which
to the ship's hull and indicate on the sketch the main
structural members: (a) bilge keel, (b) flat plate keel,
r sections of the ship's structure constitute the strength
members, and what design considerations do they
(c) duct keel. receive?
19. What are the main functions of: (a) fore peak,(b) 28. Define the following terms: (a) displacement, (b)
after peak, (c) deep tank, (d) double bottom? Give gross tonnage, (c) net tonnage, (d) deadweight.
examples of the liqu ids carried in these tanks.
29. What are cofferdams and where are they situated?
20. Describe the causes of corrosion in a ship's structure Describe their use in oil tankers.
and the methods used to reduce wastage. What parts
ofthe ship are most liable to attack? 30. Sketch the panting arrangements at the fore end
of a vessel.
21. Sketch and describe a rudder suitable for a ship
120 m long and speed 14 knots. Show how the rudder *31. With respect to stability explain what is meant by:
is supported. (a) stiff, (b) tender. Comment on the type of loading or
cargo associated with each of the above conditions.
*22. Enumerate the examination and tests which should
be carried out on the exterior of a ship's hull when in 32. Explain why and where transverse bulkheads are
dry dock. Detail the inspection necessary in the region fitted in a ship. In which ships are longitudinal bulk
of the ship's hull which is adjacent to the main heads fitted and what is their purpose?
machinery spaces. Discuss the nature of the defects
liable to be found in these areas. *33. Sketch the construction of a bulbous bow and briefly
comment on the advantages of fitting this bow to
*23. Explain, with the aid of diagrammatic sketches certain vessels.
where applicable, the meaning of the following terms:
(a) spurling pipe, (b) centre girder, (c) cofferdam, (d) 34. Sketch and describe an arrangement of funnel up
collision bulkhead, (e) metacentre. takes for a motor ship or a steam ship, giving details of
the method of support in the outer funnel.
24. What precautions must be taken on entering ballast
or fuel tanks when empty? Explain why these pre
cautions are necessary.
1. Sketch and describe the methods used to connect 11. Sketch and describe a riveted watertight bulkhead
the shell plating to the side frames. How is a deck indicating plate thickness and stiffener sizes. How is
made watertight where pierced by a side frame? it made watertight? Show how ballast pipes, electric
cables and intermediate shafting are taken through
2. Sketch and describe a hatch fitted to an oil tanker. the bulkhead.
When is th is hatch opened?
12. Sketch and describe the arrangement of a rudder
3. Discuss the forces acting on a ship when floating stock and gland and the method of suspension of a
andwhen in dry dock. pinteless rudder. How is the wear-down measured?
What prevents the rudder jumping?
*4. Enumerate the THREE principal sources of ship
board vibration. Severe vibration is sometimes experi 13. By what means is the fire risk in passenger accom
t enced on vessels in service. Explain how you would modation reduced to a minimum? Describe with the
, trace the source of the forces causing these vibrations aid of diagrammatic sketches the arrangements for
:, \ I L> fire fighting in the accommodation of a large pas
I. '" \ and the measures that could be taken to reduce the
*5. Give reasons why a tanker is normally assigned a *14. Describe with the aid of diagrammatic sketches a
minimum basic freeboard less than that of other types keyless propeller showing how it is fitted to the
of ship. Enumerate any supplementary conditions of tailshaft and discuss the advantages of this design.
assignment applicable to tankers; '" ,>c~ ~{( ~,l-n( \..Jc I"
L
.v.;' Give details of the method of driving the propeller
f'll . (-.... l 1.-" e-C.: ('("'~" (11\ I . . ·,~;·,;~ . . . ~, ~ ........ I""~:- 1......,·tt..fl',..J-· ",~-,,((-"~;f r\,o.. ,(,,,t.·~ :., on to the shaft and how it is locked in position.
6. " ~R~t<~h ~~d \~e~cabe'-'a[gra~itY"~d~~ii:- Wh~t'\';;:{a~~~L ~l(5,{ ,
tenance is required to ensure its efficient working? 15. Explain what is meant by the following terms:
(a) exempted space, (b) deductible space, and (c) net
7. Sketch a transverse section through a cargo ship tonnage. Give two examples of(a) and (b).
showing the arrangement of the frames and the double
bottom. 16. Explain the purposes of a collision bulkhead. Des
cribe with the aid of sketches the construction of a
8, Sketch and describe the arrangements to support collision bulkhead paying particular attention to the
stern tubes in a twin screw ship. strength and attachment to the adjacent structure. /
9. Explain in detail the forces acting on the fore end *17. Describe the precautions and procedures which
of a vessel. Sketch the arrangements made to with should be taken to minimise the dangers due to
stand their effects. water accumulation during fire fighting: (a) while the
• Ouestions marked with an asterisk have been selected from Department of Trade papers and are
ship is in dry dock, (b) while the ship is at sea.
reproduced by kind permission of The Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office. ;:
j.
J(;:.
','1'
,. ,
176 REED'S SHIPCONSTRUCTION FORMARINE STUDENTS SELECTION OF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 177
18. What precautions are taken before dry-docking a *27. Enumerate TWO methods of generating inert gas
vessel? What precautions are taken before re-flooding for use in a Very Large Crude Oil Carrier (VLCC).
the dock? What fire precautions are taken while in Describe with the aid of a diagrammatic sketch the
dock? distribution layout of the piping and associated equip
ment of an inert gas system suitable for a VLCC.
19. Why and where are deep tanks fitted in cargo Itemise the safety features incorporated in the
ships? Describe the arrangements for filling, emptying system. \-\ i ~ '\[~, ; L, ( H" k, :",0 i;;:- 1:;lr (Ie '-'( d l r ', ,)
and drainage.
28. Sketch and describe the construction of a corru
*20. Discuss with the aid of diagrammatic sketches gated bulkhead. What are the advantages and dis
THREE of the following ship stabilisation systems: advantages of such a bulkhead compared with the
(a) bilge keel, (b) activated fins, (c) active tanks, (d) normal flat bulkhead?
passive tank.
29. Where do discontinuities occur in the structure of
*21. Aluminium and high tensile steel now often replace large vessels and how are their effects minimised?
mild steel in ship construction. State the types of
30. Sketch and describe the various types of floors used
vessel in which these materials are used and give
in a cellular double bottom, and state where they are
reasoned explanations why they have replaced mild used.
steel. State the precautions which must be observed
when aluminium structures are fastened to steel hulls. 31. Show how an aluminium superstructure is fastened
to a steel deck. Explain why special precautions must
22. Explain with the aid of sketches what is meant by be taken and what would happen if no such measure
breast hooks and panting beams, giving approximate were taken.
scantlings. Where are they fitted and what is their
purpose? 32. Sketch and describe briefly: (a) bilge keel, (b) duct
keel, (c) chain locker, (d) hawse pipe.
23. Sketch and describe the freeboard markings on a
ship. By what means are they determined? How dothe 33. Define hogging and sagging. What members of the
authorities prevent these marks being changed? vessel are affected by these conditions? State the
stresses in these members in each condition.
24. Sketch and describe the construction of a bulbous
bow. Why is such an arrangementfitted? *34. With reference to a bulk-ore carrier explain how:
(a) the ship is constructed to resist concentrated loads,
*25. Describe in detail the main causes of corrosion in a (b) the GM is maintained at an acceptable value.
ship's internal structure and the measures which can
be taken to minimise this action. 35. Define the following: gross tonnage; net tonnage;
Enumerate the parts of a vessel's internal structure propelling power allowance.
• ~5)
most liable to corrosion. r
j'
36. Sketch and describe a sternframe. What material
26. Draw a cross section through a modern oil tanker is used in its construction and why is this material
in way of an oiltight bulkhead. suitable?
178 REED'S SHIP CONSTRUCTION FOR MARINE STUDENTS SELECTION OF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 179
37. Describe with the aid of sketches the arrangements 46. Describe the destructive and non-destructive tests
to withstand pounding in a ship. which may be carried out on welding material or
welded joints.
38. Sketch any two of the following, giving approximate
sizes: (a) a peak tank top manhole, (b) a windlass 47. Why may tank cleaning be dangerous? State any
bed, (c) a bilge keel for a large, ocean going liner, precautions which should be taken. How does the
(d) a bollard. density of the gas vary throughout the tank during
cleaning?
*39. Explain the essential constructional differences
between the following types of vessels: (a) container 48. A vessel has taken a sudden list in a calm sea.
ship, (b) ore carrier, (c) bulk oil carrier. What investigations should be made to ascertain the
cause and what steps should be taken to right the
vessel?
40. Describe the methods adopted in large passenger
vessels to prevent the spread of fire. Show how this
is accomplished in way of stairways and lift trunks.