SPECIAL ISSUE PAPER 535

Aerospace applications of shape memory alloys

D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas∗
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA

The manuscript was received on 14 February 2007 and was accepted after revision for publication on 13 April 2007.
DOI: 10.1243/09544100JAERO211

Abstract: With the increased emphasis on both reliability and multi-functionality in

the aerospace industry, active materials are fast becoming an enabling technology capturing the
attention of an increasing number of engineers and scientists worldwide. This article reviews the
class of active materials known as shape memory alloys (SMAs), especially as used in aerospace
applications. To begin, a general overview of SMAs is provided. Their useful properties and engi-
neering effects are described and the methods in which these may be utilized are discussed.
A review of past and present aerospace applications is presented. The discussion addresses appli-
cations for both atmospheric earth flight as well as space flight. To complete the discussion, SMA
design challenges and methodologies are addressed and the future of the field is examined.

Keywords: shape memory alloys, nitinol, aerospace design, active materials, smart structures,
intelligent systems

1 INTRODUCTION TO SMAs Although they have been around for over half a cen-
tury, new applications continue to be developed for
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are metallic alloys that SMAs [3]. Many of these applications are intended
undergo solid-to-solid phase transformations induced to serve the needs of the biomedical industry while
by appropriate temperature and/or stress changes others are intended for use in consumer products.
and during which they can recover seemingly perma- However, the aerospace industry is actively pursu-
nent strains. Such alloys include NiTi, NiTiCu, CuAlNi, ing the development of new SMA technologies as
and many other metallic alloy systems [1]. The phase well as assimilation of SMAs into existing systems.
transformation of an SMA is unique because such An SMA component, being both structural and active,
transformation is accompanied by large recoverable can effectively reduce the complexity of a system
strains that have the potential to result in significant when compared to the same system utilizing standard
stresses when the material element is sufficiently con- technology (i.e. an electromechanical or hydraulic
strained. Such strains are referred to as transformation actuator). This increased simplicity gained by trad-
strains and are in addition to standard thermoelas- ing multiple moving parts for a single active element
tic strains. Because of their ability to recover strain in can lead to higher overall reliability, especially at low
the presence of stress, SMAs are included in the class cycles. Such an integration of structure and actuator
of materials known as active materials, which also can also be accomplished in a compact arrangement.
includes piezoelectrics, magnetorestrictive materials, This compact integration is possible due to the high
and shape memory polymers, among others [2]. SMAs actuation stresses and strains generated, leading to
provide high actuation forces and displacements com- high energy density. These beneficial attributes make
pared to other active materials, though at relatively low SMAs an attractive active material candidate as the
frequencies. aerospace industry continues to push for so-called
‘smart’ structures and ‘intelligent’ systems [2]. This
is a natural evolution within the aerospace field as
these systems are often the only viable solution to
∗ Corresponding author: Department of Aerospace Engineering, very complex engineering problems. Furthermore, the
Texas A&M University, 3141 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3141, technological requirements of the industry, especially
USA. email: [email protected] in the area of defence, often reduce the importance

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
536 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

of cost as a design driver. However, as more SMA temperature is lowered until the martensitic finish
applications are designed, produced, and used, the temperature (Mf ) is reached. When the SMA is heated
affordability of SMAs will continue to increase. from the martensitic phase in the absence of stress,
The remainder of the introduction will present a the reverse transformation (martensite to austenite)
brief survey of SMA properties (section 1.1) and their begins at the austenitic start temperature (As ), and
exhibited effects (section 1.2). Section 2 provides a upon reaching the austenitic finish temperature (Af ),
summary of the many current aerospace applications the material is purely austenite. There is often a hys-
of SMAs, including not only commercially available teresis between the transformation regions As to Af
systems but also those in development. Finally, in and Ms to Mf , as can be seen on the temperature
section 3, design methods and challenges are briefly axis in Fig. 1. The transformation into austenite will
reviewed and the future of SMA research and contin- always complete at a higher temperature than the
ued application is discussed. transformation into martensite (Af > Mf ). An impor-
tant characteristic of SMAs is that the temperatures
at which the martensitic transformation begins and
1.1 Properties of SMA behaviour ends vary with stress and this is schematically repre-
sented in Fig. 1. Though they are not strictly linear,
As previously mentioned, phase transformation plays the overall slope of the transformation lines in stress–
the key role in the SMA’s unique behaviour. The temperature space is often referred to as the stress
martensitic transformation converts the material rate [3] or the stress influence coefficient [6, 7].
between two particular phases, namely austenite and To help an analyst or designer identify which phase
martensite. Austenite is the high temperature or ‘par- is present at a given thermomechanical state, a phase
ent’ phase and exhibits a cubic crystalline structure diagram is constructed [8–10], which illustrates the
whereas martensite is the low temperature phase stress dependence of the martensitic transformation
that exhibits a tetragonal or monoclinic crystalline temperatures. This is schematically represented in
structure [1, 4, 5]. The martensitic transformation is Fig. 1. Some distinct partitions of the phase diagram
a shear-dominant, diffusionless transformation that indicate where phases are expected to exist in pure
occurs via the nucleation and growth of the marten- form, and other regions indicate where transforma-
sitic phase from the parent austenitic phase. The tion from one phase to another will occur and where
transformation from austenite to martensite may lead two or more phases can coexist. Recall once more
to twinned martensite in the absence of internal that these transformation boundaries are not nec-
and external stresses or detwinned martensite if such essarily linear and are only represented as such for
stresses exist at a sufficient level. Because the transfor- this schematic illustration. A more descriptive pre-
mation from austenite to twinned martensite results sentation of these transformation regions and their
in negligible macroscopic shape change, twinned optional representations can be found in the litera-
martensite is often referred to as self-accommodated ture [10]. Note that in the phase diagram presented
martensite. The reorientation of twinned martensite in Fig. 1, the stress axis represents a uniaxial com-
into detwinned martensite can take place under the ponent of stress or, in general, some scalar mea-
application of sufficient stress. sure of stress (e.g. Von Mises stress). Note also that
Although SMAs can be fabricated in a single crystal
form, the vast majority of SMA applications use poly-
crystalline components. In polycrystals, the crystallo-
graphic effects described above are observed in each
individual grain and the total macroscopic response
of the material is based on the combined response
of all grains. This micromechanical ‘averaging’ leads
to a smoother material response as different grains
experience transformation at different points in the
thermomechanical loading path due to variation in
orientation and local stress concentrations. In poly-
crystalline materials, the effects of plasticity are also
apparent and must be considered. For the reminder
of this work, polycrystalline SMA components will be
assumed.
The transformation from austenite to marten-
site begins, in the absence of stress, at a temper-
ature known as the martensitic start temperature Fig. 1 SMA stress–temperature phase diagram
(Ms ). The transformation continues to evolve as the (schematic) [10]

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007
 Aerospace applications of SMAs 537

polycrystalline SMA materials often show significantly application of one of these two engineering effects,
different transformation behaviour in compression as with SME used for actuation and pseudoelasticity
opposed to tension. This tension/compression asym- employed for applications such as vibration isolation
metry is not accounted for in this description, but and dampening. These two behaviours will now be
a complete discussion has been provided in refer- discussed in more detail. The stability of the material
ence [11]. In many practical cases, particular regions response when considering both effects will also be
of SMA components are generally known to be under reviewed.
either tension or compression, and thus this behaviour
can easily be considered by using different material 1.2.1 The shape memory effect
properties for these different regions.
The detwinning of martensite can also be repre- Recovery of the seemingly permanent deformation
sented on the phase diagram, which is schematically observed during detwinning is associated with the
shown in Fig. 1. The application of stress to pure phenomenon known as the stress-free SME. The
martensite above a certain stress threshold, σ s , causes nature of the SME can be better understood by fol-
the twinned martensite to begin to deform in shear lowing the process depicted in the stress–temperature
into detwinned martensite. Detwinning completes phase diagram, schematically shown in Fig. 2. This
at the detwinning finish stress, σ f . The process of loading path is experimentally exemplified in σ –ε–T
stressing twinned martensite into detwinned marten- space in Fig. 3, which shows an actual loading path for
site is not reversible by mechanical means. Upon a NiTi wire actuator captured during experimentation
removal of the detwinning load, the material will at Texas A&M University. At the start of the loading path
remain detwinned and thus deformed. A detwinning (indicated by A in Figs 2 and 3) the SMA is in its par-
loading path is schematically demonstrated on the ent austenitic phase. In the absence of applied stress,
phase diagram in Fig. 2, where it is represented by the the SMA will transform upon cooling into martensite
mechanical loading/unloading path B–C–D. Figure 3 in the twinned or self-accommodated configuration
also illustrates detwinning by showing actual exper- (indicated by B in Figs 2 and 3). As stress is applied
imental results obtained during the loading nitinol causing the martensitic phase to be reoriented into
SMA wire in the martensitic state (B–C–D). The recov- a fully detwinned state, deformation takes place and
ery of this seemingly permanent deformation will be large macroscopic strains are observed (indicated by
discussed in the following section. C in Figs 2 and 3). The magnitude of this strain is
in the order of 8 per cent for some NiTi alloys [12].
Upon unloading, the elastic portion of the total strain
1.2 Engineering effects of SMAs is recovered while the inelastic strain arising from the
detwinning process remains due to the stability of
Having introduced the key properties of an SMA, it
detwinned martensite. This point is indicated by D in
is now possible to review two important behaviours
Figs 2 and 3. Upon heating the SMA at zero stress, the
exhibited by such materials. These are the shape mem-
reverse transformation to the austenitic parent phase
ory effect (SME) and the pseudoelastic effect. The
begins when the temperature reaches As (point E), and
usefulness of SMAs is most commonly found in the
is completed at temperature Af (point F, Figs 2 and 3).
The inelastic strain due to reorientation is recovered,
and thus the original shape (before deformation B–C)
is regained. Note that, in this case, the formation of
any non-recoverable plastic strain has been neglected.
Therefore, point A is equivalent to point F in terms of
the state of the material. It is this reversion to an orig-
inal or ‘remembered’ shape that inspired the names
‘SMA’. Note that subsequent cooling in the absence
of stress will again result in twinned martensite with
no substantial shape change in a manner identical to
loading path A–B previously described.
Now consider another loading path denoted by
α–β–γ –δ–ε in Fig. 2 and also shown experimentally
in Fig. 4 [13]. Such a path is similar to the one pre-
viously described, though in this particular case a
constant stress is maintained throughout the thermal
Fig. 2 Phase diagram schematic highlighting stress-free cycle. This is exemplified by hanging a weight on an
SME, isobaric SME, and isothermal pseudoelastic SMA component such as a wire or spring. If the SMA
loading paths material begins in austenite (α) and is cooled through

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
538 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

Fig. 3 Experimental stress–strain–temperature curve of a NiTi SMA illustrating the shape memory
effect (NiTiCu, Texas A&M University)

actuation strain (ε act ). Note that this shape recovery

will cease to occur if the applied stress exceeds some
maximum level. This characteristic maximum actua-
tion stress is often referred to as the blocking stress and
can be easily experimentally determined.

1.2.2 The pseudoelastic effect

A second commonly utilized phenomenon observed

in SMAs is the pseudoelastic effect. This behaviour
is associated with stress-induced detwinned marten-
site (SIM) and subsequent reversal to austenite upon
unloading. The transformation from austenite to
detwinned martensite during pseudoelastic loading
Fig. 4 Experimental results illustrating the SME under a is analogous to the reorientation of twinned marten-
constant 200 MPa stress (NiTi [13]) site into detwinned martensite during detwinning
from the point of view that, in both cases, recov-
erable inelastic strains are created. However, in the
transformation into martensite (β–γ ), it will exhibit case of the pseudoelastic effect, the starting phase is
large strains associated with the phase transformation. austenite, and there is an actual phase transforma-
Such strains are the result of both the alteration of the tion that takes place under the influence of stress. An
crystal structure from austenite to detwinned marten- isothermal pseudoelastic loading path in the stress–
site as well as the change in the elastic modulus during temperature space is schematically shown in Fig. 2.
phase change. However, this elastic contribution is Note that any load path which includes formation
minor. Heating the material through the reverse trans- of SIM and begins and ends in the austenitic region
formation region (δ–ε) leads to reversion to austenite results in the pseudoelastic effect. Initially, the mate-
and subsequent recovery of the large macroscopic rial is in the austenitic phase (point 1 in Figs 2 and 5).
strains, with the exception of any non-recoverable The simultaneous transformation and detwinning of
plastic strains. Such plastic strains can be observed the martensite starts at point 2 and results in fully
at the end of heating as shown in Fig. 4. Because the transformed and detwinned martensite (point 3). Con-
recovered strain is used to provide displacement under tinued loading will lead to elastic deformation of the
a some force, it is also sometimes referred to as the detwinned martensite. Upon unloading, the reverse

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007
 Aerospace applications of SMAs 539

1.2.3 Stabilization of material response

For polycrystalline SMA materials, the exact strain

versus temperature and stress versus strain responses
are heavily dependent on the loading history of the
material. Transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) is
a phenomenon by which plastic strains are gener-
ated during a transformation cycle. Such permanent
irrecoverable strain will often be generated more
quickly during initial material cycles and will then sta-
bilize as the number of applied cycles increases. The
topic of TRIP in SMAs has been discussed in more
detail in references [14] and [15]. Many SMAs will
cease to generate plastic strain after sufficient cycling,
Fig. 5 Experimental results for a single isothermal and this stabilizes the overall material response. Such
pseudoelastic loading cycle (NiTi, Texas A&M repetition until stabilization is often referred to as
University) training [1]. Aside from producing a stable material,
sufficient training can also effectively eliminate the
A → Mt transformation, thereby driving the minimum
transformation starts when point 4 is reached. By the stress for shape recovery during (A ↔ Mdt ) transfor-
end of the unloading plateau (point 5), the material mation to zero. This ability to recover shape at zero
is again in the austenitic phase and upon unloading stress is known as two-way shape memory effect.
to zero stress all elastic strain (ε el ) and transforma- The phase diagram for a material exhibiting such
tion strain (εt ) is recovered. Only plastic strain (ε p ), if behaviour would therefore not require A ↔ Mt regions
generated, remains. (Figs 1 and 2).
A typical experimental result generated at Texas For SMA material which will be used as an actua-
A&M and showing the pseudoelastic response of a tor via utilization of SME, such training often occurs
NiTi SMA is presented in Fig. 5. Here the temperature by applying constant stress to an element and then
was maintained at a constant 80 ◦ C. For stresses below cycling the temperature until the response has sta-
σ M s the SMA responds elastically. When the polycrys- bilized. An example of this can be seen in Fig. 6,
talline SMA critical stress (σ M s ) is reached, (A → Mdt ) where the final cycle has been darkened. For mate-
transformation initiates and SIM begins to form. Dur- rial intended for pseudoelastic application, training is
ing the transformation into SIM, large inelastic strains often performed by applying many stress cycles while
are generated (upper plateau of stress–strain curve maintaining a constant temperature. Figure 7 illus-
in Fig. 5). This transformation completes when the trates an example of such pseudoelastic training. The
applied stress reaches a critical value, σ M f . The mate- first of the grey cycles is equivalent to the loading
rial is now in a detwinned martensitic state. For further cycle shown in Fig. 5 while the 18th cycle is bolded.
loading above σ M f the material responds nearly elas- In agreement with previous discussion, it can be seen
tically. Upon unloading, which is initially elastic, the
reverse transformation initiates at a critical stress, σ As ,
and completes at a stress σ Af because the mechanical
load is applied at a temperature above Af . Note that,
due to the positive slopes of the four transformation
lines in the phase diagram (Fig. 1), increasing the test
temperature results in an increase in the value of each
critical transformation stress.
A hysteretic loop is obtained in the loading/
unloading stress–strain diagram. If the applied stress
exceeds the critical value σ M f , then the width of the
hysteresis loop, less any accumulated non-recoverable
plastic strain, is representative of the maximum
amount of recoverable strain which can be produced
due to stress-induced phase transformation from
austenite to martensite (ε t ). Another important mate-
rial characteristic observed in Fig. 5 is the residual
plastic strain (ε pl ) of ∼0.6 per cent seen remaining at Fig. 6 Experimental results for training via isobaric
the end of the loading cycle. thermal cycling (Ni60Ti [16])

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
540 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

ailerons while an SMA torque tube was used to initiate

spanwise wing twisting of a scaled-down F-18. In each
of these applications, the SME is used to provide actu-
ation via shape recovery, and the recovery occurs at a
non-zero stress as described in section 1.2. Unlike the
previous discussion, however, the stress state during
actuation is variable and is a function of the elastic
response of the actuated structure, in this case the
wing. Although the SMA was able to provide satisfac-
tory actuation at 16 per cent scale, it was found that
the SMA torque tube in particular was not of sufficient
strength to actuate a full-scale wing. As SMA material
providers continue to increase their output, however,
fabrication of larger SMA components for stronger
Fig. 7 Experimental results for training via isothermal actuation is now practical. The as-tested torque tube
cycling of stress (NiTi Texas A&M University) installation can be seen in Fig. 8. This work was
performed as part of a Defense Advanced Research
that several cycles are required before the stress–strain Projects Agency (DARPA) contract to Northrop Grum-
response becomes repeatable, and this is common in man and monitored by the Air Force Research Lab
all SMAs. (AFRL).
The SAMPSON program [24] was designed to
demonstrate the usefulness of active materials in tai-
2 AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS OF SMAs loring the inlet geometry and orientation of various
propulsion systems. An experimental validation was
From the early ‘thermal engines’ [16], engineers and performed on a full-scale F-15 inlet. The first series of
other designers in many fields have been develop- wind tunnel tests performed at NASA Langley’s high
ing ways to convert thermal energy into mechanical speed facility tested an antagonistic system in which
work via the crystallographic phase change of SMAs, one SMA cable is set in opposition to another. Here
which have now been used in real-world applications the SMAs employing the SME were used to rotate the
for several decades. One of the most well-known of inlet cowl in order to change its cross-sectional area.
these early applications was the hydraulic tubing cou- Two opposing SMA bundles were used to actuate in
pling used on the F-14 in 1971 [17]. Since that time, two directions, with the heating of one bundle causing
designers have continued to utilize both the shape shape recovery and thereby detwinning the unheated
memory and pseudoelastic effects of SMAs in solving bundle. After the heated bundle was allowed to cool,
engineering problems in the aerospace industry. Such the previously detwinned bundle was then heated,
implementations of SMA technology have spanned and reverse actuation occurred. SMA bundles con-
the areas of fixed wing aircraft, rotorcraft, and space- sisting of 34 wires/rods were used to provide up to
craft; work continues in all three of these areas. The a 26 700 N force and rotated the inlet cowl 9◦ . Fur-
following section describes some of the more recently ther tests demonstrated more complex SMA actuation,
explored aerospace applications of SMAs and then including inlet lip shaping [24]. This experimental
briefly summarizes the challenges facing the designers setup can be seen in Fig. 9. This work was performed
of such systems. as part of a DARPA contract to Boeing and monitored
by the NASA Langley Research Center and the Office
of Naval Research.
2.1 Fixed-wing aircraft and rotorcraft applications
Portions of the SAMPSON project also studied the
Applications which apply specifically to the propul- use of SMA ‘cables’ wrapped circumferentially around
sion systems and structural configurations of fixed- the aft portion of the fan cowling of a high-bypass
wing aircraft will first be considered. Perhaps two of jet engine in order to increase/decrease fan nozzle
the most well-known fixed-wing projects of the past area in different regions of the flight regime [25]. In
are the Smart Wing program and the Smart Aircraft the design, high exhaust temperature produced dur-
and Marine Propulsion System demonstration (SAMP- ing take-off and landing (slow speed flight) was used
SON) [18, 19]. The Smart Wing program was intended to cause SMA structural elements to transform into
to develop and demonstrate the use of active materi- austenite, thus providing recovery strain and open-
als, including SMAs, to optimize the performance of ing the nozzle to its maximum cross-sectional area.
lifting bodies [20–23]. The project was split into two At cruise, however, lower temperatures would allow
phases with the first being the most SMA-intensive. the nozzle to close, optimizing performance at high
Here, SMA wire tendons were used to actuate hingeless altitudes. The experiment, which utilized SMA cable

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007
 Aerospace applications of SMAs 541

Fig. 8 Total and cut-away view of the SMA torque tube as installed in the model wing during phase I
of the SMART Wing project [20]

bundles for both opening and closing of the nozzle, straighten at high altitude and high speeds, increasing
proved the technology to be practical. engine performance. In reference [26], results are
Research into a similar principle utilizing bending presented for both autonomous operation as well
actuation of SMAs is also being performed. In this as controlled operation via installed heaters. Tests
case the goal is to optimize the trade-off between demonstrated that the device works as expected, and
noise mitigation at take-off and landing and perfor- development continues. Figure 10 illustrates the cur-
mance at altitude [26–29]. Such engine noise levels are rent Boeing design for the variable geometry chevron.
often highly regulated by various civil agencies. Often, Note that the composite layer has been removed from
flow mixing devices known as ‘chevrons’ are stati- the chevron for exposition of the active SMA ele-
cally installed along the trailing edges of the exhaust ments. Figure 11 illustrates the results of current efforts
nozzles. Here the composite chevrons were designed to model the Boeing chevron system. Here, com-
to be reconfigurable with SMA beam components plex behaviours such as elastic laminate response of
embedded inside. Again, actuation was based on the the composite substrate, sliding contact, and three-
principle of changing flow temperature with altitude. dimensional non-homogeneous SMA loading have all
The SMA beam elements are formed such that they been considered [28, 29].
force the chevron inward and mix the flow of gases NASA has approached the same chevron problem
(reducing noise) at low altitudes and low speeds where with a different design. In this case the active chevron
the engine temperature is high. They then relax and is induced to bend by the incorporation of tensile SMA

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
542 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

implementing a model which predicted the non-linear

evolution of this strain in a finite-element design envi-
ronment. Experimental results were consistent with
those of the model, and actuator performance was
shown to meet the design goals. Each of these chevron
research efforts demonstrate the capability of SMAs to
be fabricated in the form required and then to be com-
pletely embedded within a structure, providing truly
integrated actuation.
In addition to propulsion system applications, SME
actuation is also commonly applied to the problem
of adaptable lifting bodies, including the morph-
ing of the wing structure. The concept of integrat-
ing SMA elements into an aerostructure has been
the topic of a number of studies [31]. One such
research effort led to an aerofoil which could effec-
tively change its configuration from symmetric to
cambered via actuation of SMA wires [32]. It was
shown that the wing configuration could be changed
during flight to optimize performance. The shape
memory behaviour of the SMA wires was exploited
and they were arranged in a spanwise configuration
to increase actuation displacement. A series of pul-
leys transferred the load, now acting in a chordwise
direction, to chosen points on the aerofoil skin inner
surface. During the design process, a genetic algorithm
Fig. 9 The SAMPSON F-15 inlet cowl as installed in the was used to determine the placement of these attach-
NASA Langley Transonic Wind Tunnel [20] ment points in order to achieve a predetermined
final aerofoil configuration. This modelling effort con-
sidered the full thermomechanical problem of SMA
strips during chevron laminate fabrication. The strips actuation and the coupled aerodynamic/structural
are installed on each side of the chevron centroid [30]. response. A 9 per cent increase in lift at constant 5◦
Upon sufficient heating, the SMA elements contract angle of attack was measured in the wind tunnel
and this leads to asymmetric stresses within the beam experiments. These results demonstrated the useful-
and thus an effective internal bending moment. Mod- ness of an integrated design/analysis environment
elling was performed by considering both the SMA that accounts for both the constitutive response of
transformation and thermal strains as being caused the SMA actuator behaviour and other external system
by one ‘effective coefficient of thermal expansion’ and effects (i.e. aeroelastic loads).

Fig. 10 Boeing variable geometry chevron, flight testing [28]

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007
 Aerospace applications of SMAs 543

Fig. 11 Stress contour results; FEA analysis of Boeing VGC, actuated position [16, 29]

A different and interesting structural implementa- in a sinusoidal sense, such devices would create a
tion of SMA actuation is found in a patent pertaining travelling wave in the skin which would help to ener-
to actuation of the wing main spar [33]. Here the gize the boundary layer and thus decrease turbulent
active elements are placed inside tubular spars which drag. Although it is a problem that SMA components
would be used to extend and/or retract a telescop- of standard size provide low actuation frequencies,
ing portion of the wing in the spanwise direction, sufficiently thin SMA films have exhibited actuation
again using SME. Another example of lifting body mor- frequencies of 30 Hz [39].
phing is the ‘macro-scale morphing’ which involves In addition to developing actuation applications,
alterations in geometry with dimensional changes of research is being performed into optimizing the
the same order as the wing span [34]. Although the dynamic properties of aircraft structural panels using
final morphed configuration chosen in this case was SMA elements. Such applications often take advantage
not explicitly intended to provide any type of aerody- of the simple fact that an SMA will exhibit a change in
namic enhancement, it demonstrated the feasibility of elastic stiffness as it undergoes transformation. This
designing the mechanism required, should such mor- behaviour is often secondary in other applications but
phing prove to be advantageous. Finally, in another can be very important in manipulating the dynamic
application, researchers studied both the theoretical response of a structure. In one study [40], it was shown
and experimental responses of morphing entire struc- that thermally-induced postbuckling deflection could
tures utilizing an antagonistic flexural unit cell, in be decreased by increasing the volume fraction of
which two opposing one-way SMA linear elements SMA fibres or the prestrain (detwinned strain) of the
(ribbons or wires) are installed on either side of a SMA. It also happened that the natural frequencies
simple hinging mechanism [35, 36]. This subsystem for each mode of vibration were decreased due to
(the unit cell) is then repeated lengthwise to form a the added weight and reduced stiffness of the added
morphing truss-like structure. This idea was shown to SMA, thus changing the structural flutter response.
be experimentally feasible and generally can apply to Modelling was performed by simply considering only
both aircraft as well as spacecraft as the structural unit the known non-linear stress–strain behaviour of SMA
cells can be arranged to fit the needs of the designer. elements during loading with the hysteresis being
Although morphing entire structures such as wings neglected. Such a model was implemented in a finite-
is one possibility, SMAs are also commonly used to element environment. In a similar attempt to alter
actuate other smaller aerodynamic elements. This is dynamic properties, the concept of a tunable SMA
possible because the behaviours which are unique ‘Smart Spar’ has also been introduced [41]. It should
to SMAs are exhibited across a large range of be noted that while the fabrication of SMA panels
sizes. One recent example of small scale actuation has been proven to be difficult, especially due to the
is an extension of an earlier study into actuating curing step [42], investigations of alternative fabrica-
wing surface vortex generators using shape mem- tion methods have been performed [43], which utilize
ory wires [37]. Another proposed application pairs thinner wire configurations.
SMAs and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS). There has also been significant research into apply-
This MEMS-activated active skin [38] would include ing the capabilities of SMAs to rotorcraft, especially
many devices incorporating thin-film SMA elements for use in the main rotor [44]. An early preliminary
which could be microfabricated and placed under the study used SMA torque tubes to vary the twist of a
skin of an aerodynamic surface. Activated spanwise rotor blade as used on a tiltrotor aircraft [45]. It was

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
544 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

proposed that such onboard actuation provided by Rotorcraft applications which do not include
shape recovery of the torque tube would allow for the tracking tab manipulation include the use of SMA
significantly different blade configurations required wires for the collective control [51] or in a more recent
to optimize tiltrotor performance in both the hover study into providing rotor blade tip anhedral via SMA
and forward flight regimes. An experiment including actuation [52]. This idea of minimizing blade vortex
the torque tube in opposition with a restoring force interaction noise by displacing the blade tip vortex
(to simulate the elastic rotor) as well as the proposed from the rotor plane via SMA interaction may hold
heating and cooling thermoelectric elements was per- promise for future research.
formed. The system was simulated by considering a
simple one-dimensional SMA model which accounted
2.2 Spacecraft applications
for both detwinning and transformation. Experimen-
tal results matched those predicted and it was shown Space applications are those which seek to address the
that such a system was feasible. Today, research in this unique problems of release, actuation, and vibration
area of SMA blade twist actuation continues to move mitigation during either the launch of a spacecraft or
forward [46, 47]. The SMA solution is ideal for such its subsequent operation in a microgravity and zero-
an application because of the high energy density and atmosphere environment. Although actuated struc-
force requirements on an actuator embedded in the tures in space are subject to low gravitational forces
small volume of a rotor blade. Aside from actuating the which reduce required actuator power, heat transfer
entire blade, recent work on developing SMA-actuated can quickly become problematic because of the lack
tabs for installation on the trailing edge of rotor blades of a convective medium. It should be noted that for
to improve tracking has been performed [48, 49]. To most designs described below, little or no modelling
accomplish in-flight tracking adjustment, SMA wires of the SMA behaviour was performed. Systems were
actuating a trailing edge tab were built into an aero- designed through careful experimentation.
foil section. One attractive feature in this design is the Perhaps the most prolific use of SMAs in space is
inclusion of a passive friction brake, which allows elec- in solving the problem of low-shock release. These
trical current to be removed from the SMA wires once devices are quite popular in the design of spacecraft,
the tracking tab is set at a given angle. The SMA wires and have been in development for some time [53].
were modelled with a simple one-dimensional model It has been estimated that, up to 1984, 14 per cent
which was coupled to the inputs and constraints of of space missions experienced some type of shock
the overall system. The results of the initial bench- failures, half of these causing the mission to be
top testing were promising and matched the modelled aborted [54]. Pyrotechnic release mechanisms were
behaviour. Both open-loop and closed-loop responses often found to be the root cause. Because they can be
showed improvement over that of earlier generation actuated slowly by gradual heating, SMA components
tracking tab actuators. In another phase of the study, are suited for use in low-shock release mechanisms
operation under aerodynamic loading was attempted. and have been introduced for use on both average-
Although optimal control laws were not utilized in this sized and smaller ‘micro’-sized satellites [55]. The
test, it was shown that the tab deflection could be set advent of these smaller satellites has created a need
from −5◦ to 5◦ to within less than 0.05◦ in airspeeds for more compact release devices which are an order
ranging from 0 to 37 m/s. of magnitude smaller than their off-the-shelf coun-
Another research team, working on the Smart Mate- terparts. Investigation into this unique problem has
rial Actuated Rotor Technology (SMART) Rotor project, led to devices which are currently available, including
approached this same application in a different man- the popular Qwknut [56]. Other, much smaller devices
ner [50]. Instead of utilizing antagonistic wires to pro- which use SMA elements for actuation have also been
vide tracking tab actuation, an SMA torque tube was proposed, such as the Micro Sep-Nut [55]. In both of
linked to the tracking tab. Here active SMA braking was these devices, the simple SME is used. The active com-
also employed, which allowed the brake to be released ponent is deformed and detwinned before installation.
when the actuator was heated, thus allowing for freer In orbit, the element is then heated, shape is recovered,
motion of the tab. Although no modelling of the SMA and release occurs. Repeated use mechanisms such as
components was performed, benchtop tests showed the rotary latch have also been introduced, and this
that 7.5◦ actuation was possible with an error of 0.5◦ . example can been seen in Fig. 12. Even smaller rotary
Both tracking studies predict that dynamic testing (i.e. actuators are being developed through microfabri-
high-G rotational testing of the rotor blades) should cation methods such as shape deposition manufac-
produce similar satisfactory results. However, the low turing and electroplating [57]. Using these methods,
duty cycle was mentioned as a negative aspect of this it was demonstrated that rotary actuators could be
design, and such a problem can only be overcome with constructed with a maximum dimension of 5 mm,
creative heating/cooling configurations and sufficient yet provide an actuation angle of 90◦ . Each of these
power. small release devices demonstrates the scalability of

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007
 Aerospace applications of SMAs 545

Fig. 12 The rotary latch as design and tested at the Applied Physics Laboratory [55]

designing with SMA components. To provide the same in space [59]. This interesting application can utilize
compact actuation with conventional methods (e.g. both the shape memory and pseudoelastic effects as
electric motors) would require that very small moving described in section 1.2. The actuation of SME is used
parts be fabricated. Active SMA components, on the to help deploy the structure, while the large yet fully
other hand, are on the same size scale as the actuator recoverable deformations provided during pseudoe-
housing itself. lastic loading help preserve its shape. Finite-element
Another SMA application is the actuation of various implementation of a three-dimensional SMA constitu-
spacecraft components via SME. One early exam- tive model [6] was used to model this system and it was
ple includes an SMA-actuated solar collector utilizing shown that such activated strips are able to maintain
torsional elements which can modify its shape to opti- a given surface configuration of an inflatable struc-
mize performance [44]. In a variation on this idea, ture. However, problems exist in using a relatively thick
another satellite utilized an SMA wire-actuated step- SMA strip attached to a thin inflatable membrane; it
per motor for orientation of its solar flaps [54]. For is expected that a thin-film SMA may yield even better
a similar purpose, the lightweight flexible solar array results.
(LFSA) and the shape memory alloy thermal tailoring SMAs have also been used as sensors. In the case of
experiment (SMATTE) were developed [54, 58]. The sensing, SMAs are used to acquire information from
LFSA incorporated a thin SMA strip at the hinge loca- a thermomechanical system. This is possible because
tion which, when heated and actuated, opened a pre- of the material property changes which occur dur-
viously folded solar array. Deployment has been shown ing the phase transformation induced during heating
to take approximately 30 s. An illustration of this design or loading. For example, each phase has its own dis-
is shown in Fig. 13. This work was a collaborative effort tinct electrical resistivity [1], which can be monitored
between Lockheed Martin and NASA-Goddard. The to indicate when an SMA element is experiencing a
SMATTE is a proof-of-concept experiment showing phase transformation induced by stress which is itself
that a panel could be deformed from one stable shape induced by deformation. An early example of a space
to another via actuation of an SMA foil attached to application concept utilized ability of an SMA to act
only one surface of the panel. Such a design could as a sensor in monitoring the deflection of large span
be used to tailor the shape of spacecraft antennae. space structures [44].
Another example of potential structural morphing is Finally, the large hysteresis and strong non-linearity
the antagonistic flexural unit cell discussed earlier in exhibited during the pseudoelastic effect make SMAs
reference to fixed-wing aircraft [36]. suitable for use as vibration dampers and isola-
A different and well-known SMA space actuation tors [54, 60]. The hysteresis present in the pseu-
application of SMAs is the Mars Pathfinder mission doelastic stress–strain response is indicative of some
in 1997. The mission included an SMA actuator which amount of mechanical energy being dissipated as
served to rotate a dust cover from a specific region of a thermal energy for every loading cycle. In addition,
solar cell so that the power output of this protected the initial stiffness and subsequent transformation
and clean region could be compared to the power plateau lend themselves to effective vibration isola-
output of non-protected regions, thereby quantifying tion. Several US patents have been filed employing
the negative effects of dust settling on the solar pan- this idea [61–63]. Such properties may prove to be
els [54]. Finally, researchers have investigated using useful in mitigating the high vibration loads placed
SMA strips to support inflatable structures for use on payloads during launch. Research is also being

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
546 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

Fig. 13 LFSA and detail of hinges, folded and deployed configurations [58]

performed which takes into account the tunable The pseudoelastic effect provides two very useful
nature of SMA vibration isolators. This concept was advantages to the aerospace designer: a non-linearity
introduced around the beginning of the decade [64] which allows vibration isolation and large recoverable
and continues today. Because of the large change in deformations as well as an accompanying hystere-
elastic as well as transformation properties with tem- sis which can dissipate energy and therefore dampen
perature, SMA elements properly placed in structural vibration. Because of these, SMAs can provide a highly
attenuators allow for attenuation across a range of innovative method of addressing a given design prob-
frequencies. Also interesting is an MEMS implementa- lem and are often the only viable option. When consid-
tion of such vibration isolation. Sputtering deposition ering actuation, a single SMA component represents a
of an NiTi layer onto an MEMS sensing device in significantly more simplified solution than a standard
order to mitigate damage caused by external vibration electromechanical or hydraulic actuator. Compared
has been studied [65]. Although no dynamic testing to other classes of active materials, SMAs are able to
was performed in the given reference, it was shown provide substantial actuation stress over large strains.
that such a device could be fabricated and that, in The subsequent high energy density leads to compact
theory, vibration isolation was possible. Finally, new designs. Finally, SMAs are capable of actuating in a
investigation is being performed into the detailed fully three-dimensional manner, allowing the fabri-
dynamic response of SMA vibration isolation sys- cation of actuation components which extend, bend,
tems. Both numerical studies, including full thermo- twist, or provide a combination of these and other
mechanical coupling, and experimental studies are deformations. Each of the actuation application exam-
being performed [66] to determine the operation ples listed above exploit one or more of these positive
regimes in which any adverse dynamical behaviour attributes of SMA behaviour. Some require simplic-
(i.e. chaos) might exist in order to provide guidelines ity and resulting reliability (Mars Pathfinder [54],
for avoiding such adverse behaviour in any future LFSA [58]). Others require compact actuation (active
applications. skin [38], microspace actuation [55]), and still others
impose geometric challenges (active chevrons [27],
rotor blade actuation [50]). Because of their unique
3 DESIGN ADVANTAGES, CHALLENGES, AND THE properties, SMAs are able to provide solutions to each
FUTURE OF SMAs of these sets of problems.
The SMA design process is not without some
To conclude this work, the advantages and challenges challenges, however, and several material attributes
of designing SMA applications are now reviewed, espe- must be carefully considered. One common design
cially in the aerospace field, and some outline of challenge is the difficulty in rapidly transferring heat
developments to come is provided. into and especially out of an SMA component. This
is a result of the fact that, as a metallic material,
SMAs have a relatively high heat capacity and den-
3.1 Advantages and challenges of SMA design
sity. When considering repeated actuation of SMA
As reviewed above, SMAs are capable of providing elements, for example, this heat transfer difficulty
unique and useful behaviours. The SME, especially leads to a limited frequency of system response.
when utilized under applied stress, provides actuation. Although the material mechanisms involved in the

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007
 Aerospace applications of SMAs 547

diffusionless phase transformation can occur almost solutions, others will only be mitigated by future
instantaneously, the time-dependent process of suffi- improvement of the material itself.
ciently changing temperature to drive that transfor-
mation can limit actuation speed. Moreover, while
the supply of thermal energy can be quickly accom- 3.2 The future of SMAs
plished (e.g. by direct Joule heating via the application The enabling advantages of SMA utilization often out-
of electricity), the speed of energy removal is limited weigh the challenges, and because of this, the future
by the mechanisms of heat conduction and convec- of this field is promising. As more applications across
tion. Several methods have been employed in the all industry sectors are designed and put into use, the
hopes of expediting heat transfer, including forced SMA market will continue to grow and the cost of the
convection via flowing cooled water [67] and forced material will continue to fall. The medical industry
conduction through the use of thermoelectric cooling seems to be a key driver of this trend. At the same
modules [68]. A second challenge is the low actuation time, the quality of material produced will increase
efficiency. Efficiencies can reach levels in the range while advances in SMA research will lead to new alloys
of 10–15 per cent [69] though in some studies they and much improved design and analysis tools.
have fallen short of the idealistic Carnot predictions of The ‘smart materials’ market worldwide is grow-
∼10 per cent [70, 71]. This is often not important for ing at a strong pace, and will continue to grow into
commercial and military aircraft applications because the foreseeable future [74]. In 2005, these materials
engine power and waste heat are often in excess. How- represented a global market of $8.1 billion, with prod-
ever, this property can present a significant challenge ucts that use these materials valued at $27.7 billion.
to those proposing SMA use on spacecraft, where By 2010, it is projected that these numbers will rise
power is more limited. to $12.3 and $52.2 billion, respectively [74]. SMAs
Finally, there are challenges stemming from the represent 15 per cent of the smart materials mar-
response of an SMA material when subjected to mul- ket and will also continue to grow in production
tiple transformation cycles. If a low number of cycles and utilization. They are widely used in the biomed-
are required, the issue is material stability. For con- ical industry where the number of vascular stents
sistent multi-cyclic actuation, SMA elements which made from NiTi has grown dramatically, for example.
have developed a sufficiently stable thermomechan-
ical response via repeated training cycles should
be used, as discussed in section 1.2.3. SMA com- Table 1 Summary of various SMA properties and their
ponents which are not completely trained yet are effects
repeatedly transformed will lead to system responses
SMA traits Consequences
which evolve with every cycle. However, if a device is
intended for one-time operation, such as a microac- Shape memory effect Material can be used as an
tuator for satellite use, then training is not necessary. actuator, providing force during
shape recovery
Designers must also consider the possible degradation Pseudoelasticity Material can be stressed to provide
of material response due to the generation of TRIP, large, recoverable deformations
especially when considering many actuation cycles. at relatively constant stress
The topic of SMA fatigue has been discussed in refer- levels
Hysteresis Allows for dissipation of energy
ences [4], [72], and [73]. For the first 10–100 cycles, during pseudoelastic response
the material will stabilize, as previously discussed. High actuation stress Small component cross-sections
As with all other metals, however, repeated deforma- (400–700 MPa) [18, 74] can provide substantial forces
High actuation strain Small component lengths can
tion of sufficient magnitude will eventually lead to (8%) [18, 74] provide large displacements
failure. Experimental studies on NiTi or NiTiCu SMA High energy density Small amount of material required
wires undergoing up to 2 per cent transformation (∼1200 J/kg) [69] to provide substantial
actuation work
strain have shown that such SMA components can Three-dimensional Polycrystalline SMA components
survive for ∼10 000 cycles [4]. This implies a limita- actuation fabricated in a variety of shapes,
tion on the number of cycles an SMA application can providing a variety of useful
geometric configurations
provide.
Actuation frequency Difficulty of quickly cooling
As a summary of the various advantageous and components limits use in high
challenging traits exhibited by SMAs, Table 1 has frequency applications
been provided. Note that while some behaviours are Energy efficiency Amount of thermal energy required
(10–15%) [69] for actuation is much larger than
clearly positive or negative, others will depend upon mechanical work output
the details of a given utilization. These have also Transformation- Plastic accumulation during cyclic
been summarized. Although some of the challenges induced plasticity response eventually degrades
material and leads to failure
described above can be met by creative engineering

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
548 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

Although such applications of SMAs are not directly it is important to note that many of these devices
related to aerospace, the overall growth in SMA pro- were designed and built without the use of modern
duction has lead to an increase in production quality tools of design and analysis. Throughout all indus-
and consistency. Major manufacturers such as Wah trial sectors, most utilized SMA systems have been
Chang, Johnson–Mattheys, Memory-Metalle GmbH, the result of repeated design/build/test cycles which
and Memry Corporation have continued to grow are almost purely empirical. One reason for this fact
in both size and knowledge base. As one example, is that reliable models which can accurately account
the shape memory division of Memry Corporation for the complex thermomechanical behaviour of SMA
reported revenue growth averaging 4.4 per cent per components under completely general loading con-
year from 2000 to 2005 (adjusted for inflation) [75, 76]. ditions had not yet been fully implemented into
As these business units grow, their ability to produce commercial codes. In addition, the incorporation of
consistent material which meets customer specifica- new advances in material constitutive modelling into
tions should improve, and this benefits designers in all legacy numerical codes commonly used through-
fields. out the aerospace industry was not straightforward.
Although the market for conventional SMAs con- Some non-linear packages, including ABAQUS [88]
tinues to grow, new alloys are also being developed. and MSC.MARC [89], have begun including SMAs as
As described above, conventional SMAs are capable material options. However, many of the constitutive
of providing motion and force as a result of manip- models currently preinstalled are more accurate for
ulating a single field, namely temperature, over a loading cases such as pseudoelastic loading, while in
reasonable range. However, new alloy systems are most aerospace applications it is actuation, usually
being designed which increase the utility of SMAs, over multiple cycles, which is of interest. Fortunately,
and research on these classes of materials is cur- some commercial codes also allow for the imple-
rently very active. One class can be used to provide mentation of custom material subroutines to account
actuation as a result of applied magnetic fields, and for unique constitutive behaviour such as is found
these materials are known as magnetic shape mem- in SMAs [90, 91]. In this way, powerful, fully three-
ory alloys (MSMAs) [77]. Because they convert the dimensional FEA implementations will continue to be
energy of magnetic fields into actuation, MSMAs are developed, and these will account for an increasing
not hindered by the relatively slow mechanisms of number of material effects. Material degradation and
heat transfer. Therefore, high frequency actuation is failure due to plastic and viscous creep effects will be
possible. Although several such alloys have been dis- included, as well as the ability to model the response
covered (NiMnGa, FePd, NiMnAl) and actuators based of MSMAs by including ever-improving constitutive
on these alloys are already commercially available, models. One example of such full three-dimensional
fundamental research will continue as the mechan- modelling of an SMA-based application was discussed
ics community seeks to understand the constitutive above in section 2.1 with an illustration provided in
behaviour of these novel alloys [78, 79]. Another new Fig. 11.
alloy type can actuate at high temperatures, and this Considering the variety of research and develop-
class is therefore known as high temperature shape ment currently being performed in the area of SMAs,
memory alloys (HTSMAs) [80, 81]. HTSMAs, include it is clear that new applications will continue to
NiTiPd, NiTiPt, and TiPd, and are being widely stud- be developed and that this field will continue to
ied. These alloys can actuate at temperatures ranging grow. The needs of various defence agencies will
from 100 to 800 ◦ C, and potential applications include continue to present greater challenges to engineers
oil drilling support [82] and actuation of internal and designers. The complexity of space operations
jet engine components [83]. Basic research on these is ever increasing and more is demanded of aircraft,
materials will include experimental observation and both commercial and military, thus more innovative
theoretical modelling of any viscous behaviour exhib- technological solutions will be required. The fields
ited due to sometimes lengthy exposure times at of SMA research and application are providing the
elevated temperatures. tools to meet these challenges. The ability to custom
For all classes of SMAs, whether conventional, order SMA material with particular properties man-
MSMA, or HTSMA, computational tools for the design ufactured to prescribed specifications has improved.
and analysis of smart structures are being developed The design and analysis environments are becoming
and will continue to improve. Perhaps the most useful more powerful by becoming more comprehensive. At
of these are finite-element analysis (FEA) implemen- the same time, systems integration capabilities have
tations of some of the many available SMA constitutive grown. These developments will result in an increased
models [4, 5, 7, 14, 84–87]. This is a new and welcome prevalence of integrated multi-functional SMA sys-
development in the area of SMA application design. In tems for aerospace applications. Such systems will
reviewing the variety of applications discussed above, be highly beneficial to the design of new UAVs and

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007
 Aerospace applications of SMAs 549

micro- and nano-satellites. Other industries will also 8 Brinson, L. C. One-dimensional constitutive behavior
benefit from the advances made in the SMA field. of shape memory alloys: thermomechanical derivation
The automotive and oil exploration sectors, each of with non-constant material functions and redefined
which has already shown increasing interest, will con- martensite internal variable. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct.,
1993, 4, 229–242.
tinue to employ the properties of SMAs in solving
9 Leclercq, S. and Lexcellent, C. A general macroscopic
design problems where constraints are imposed by
description of the thermomechanical behavior of shape
extreme environments and operating conditions. It memory alloys. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1996, 44(6),
is widely expected that medical applications will fur- 953–980.
ther increase in number. This overall growth in the 10 Popov, P. and Lagoudas, D. C. A 3-D constitutive model
utilization of SMAs and other active materials will pro- for shape memory alloys incorporating pseudoelasticity
vide designers with more options, and those in the and detwinning of self-accommodated martensite. Int. J.
aerospace industry should continue to take advan- Plast., in press.
tage of the unique engineering solutions provided 11 Qidwai, M. A. and Lagoudas, D. C. On the thermody-
by SMAs. namics and transformation surfaces of polycrystalline
NiTi shape memory alloy material. Int. J. Plast., 2000, 16,
1309–1343.
12 Perkins, J. Shape memory effects in alloys, 1975 (Plenum
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Press, New York).
13 Miller, D. A. and Lagoudas, D. C. Thermo-mechanical
The authors would like to acknowledge the support characterization of NiTiCu and NiTi SMA actuators:
of the National Defense Science and Engineering influence of plastic strains. Smart Mater. Struct., 2000,
Grant (NDSEG) Fellowship and the Texas Institute 9(5), 640–652.
for Intelligent Bio-Nano Materials and Structures for 14 Bo, Z. and Lagoudas, D. C. Thermomechanical model-
Aerospace Vehicles (TiiMS) funded by NASA Coop- ing of polycrystalline SMAs under cyclic loading, part III:
erative Agreement No. NCC-1-02038. Further appre- evolution of plastic strains and two-way shape memory
ciation is extended to those referenced entities who effect. Int. J. Eng. Sci., 1999, 37, 1175–1203.
provided the images of aerospace applications which 15 Lagoudas, D. and Entchev, P. Modeling of transforma-
tioninduced plasticity and its effect on the behavior
were used in this publication. These include DARPA,
of porous shape memory alloys: part I: constitutive
Northrop Grumman, AFRL, Boeing, NASA Langley, model for fully dense SMAs. Mech. Mater., 2004, 36,
Office of Naval Research, The Johns Hopkins Applied 865–892.
Physics Lab, Lockheed Martin, and NASA Goddard. 16 Renner, E. Thermal engine, US Pat. 3 937 019, 1976.
17 Melton, K. R. General applications of shape memory
alloys and smart materials. In Shape memory materi-
REFERENCES als (Eds K. Otsuka and C. M. Wayman), 1999, ch. 10,
pp. 220–239 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge).
1 Otsuka, K. and Wayman, C. M. (Eds) Shape mem- 18 Garcia, E. Smart structures and actuators: past, present,
ory materials, 1999 (Cambridge University Press, Cam- and future. In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures
bridge). and Materials, San Diego, CA, 17–21 March 2002,
2 Srinivasan, A. V. and McFarland, M. D. Smart structures: pp. 1–12.
analysis and design, 2000 (Cambridge University Press, 19 Sanders, B., Crowe, R., and Garcia, E. Defense advanced
Cambridge). research projects agency – smart materials and struc-
3 Duerig, T., Melton, K., Stockel, D., and Wayman, C. tures demonstration program overview. J. Intell. Mater.
(Eds) Engineering aspects of shape memory alloys, 1990 Syst. Struct., 2004, 15, 227–233.
(Butterworth-Heinemann, London). 20 Kudva, J. Overview of the DARPA smart wing project.
4 Patoor, E., Lagoudas, D. C., Entchev, P. B., Brinson, L. C., J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., 2004, 15, 261–267.
and Gao, X. Shape memory alloys, part I: general proper- 21 Kudva, J., Appa, K., Martin, C., and Jardine, A.
ties and modeling of single crystals. Mech. Mater., 2006, Design, fabrication, and testing of the DARPA/Wright
38(5–6), 391–429. lab ‘smart wing’ wind tunnel model. In Proceedings of
5 Lagoudas, D. C., Entchev, P. B., Popov, P., Patoor, E., the 38th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Struc-
Brinson, L. C., and Gao, X. Shape memory alloys, part tural Dynamics, and Materials Conference and Exhibit,
II: modeling of polycrystals. Mech. Mater. 2006, 38(5–6), Kissimmee, FL, 1997, pp. 1–6.
430–462. 22 Jardine, P., Kudva, J., Martin, C., and Appa, K.,
6 Qidwai, M. A. and Lagoudas, D. C. Numerical imple- Shape memory alloy NiTi actuators for twist control
mentation of a shape memory alloy thermomechanical of smart designs. In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Mate-
constitutive model using return mapping algorithms. Int. rials and Structures, San Diego, CA, 1996, vol. 2717,
J. Numer. Methods Eng., 2000, 47, 1123–1168. pp. 160–165.
7 Lagoudas, D. C., Bo, Z., and Qidwai, M. A. A unified 23 Jardine, P., Flanigan, J., and Martin, C. Smart wing shape
thermodynamic constitutive model for SMA and finite memory alloy actuator design and performance. In Pro-
element analysis of active metal matrix composites. ceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, San
Mech. Compos. Mater. Struct., 1996, 3, 153–179. Diego, CA, 1997, vol. 3044, pp. 48–55.

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
550 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

24 Pitt, D., Dunne, J., White, E., and Garcia, E. SAMPSON Structures and Materials, San Diego, CA, 2003, vol. 5056,
smart inlet SMA powered adaptive lip design and static pp. 1–8.
test. In Proceedings of the 42nd AIAA Structures, Struc- 38 Mani, R., Lagoudas, D., and Rediniotis, O. MEMS based
tural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Seattle, WA, active skin for turbulent drag reduction. In Proceedings
16–20 April 2001, pp. 1–11. of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, San Diego, CA,
25 Reya, N., Tillmana, G., Millera, R., Wynoskyb, T., and 2003, vol. 5056, pp. 9–20.
Larkin, M. Shape memory alloy actuation for a variable 39 Gill, J., Ho, K., and Carman, G. Three-dimensional
area fan nozzle. In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Struc- thin-film shape memory alloy microactuator with two-
tures and Materials, Newport Beach, CA, 2001, vol. 4332, way effect. J. Microelectromech. Syst., 2002, 11(11),
pp. 371–382. 68–77.
26 Mabe, J., Cabell, R., and Butler, G. Design and control of a 40 Tawfik, M., Ro, J., and Mei, C. Thermal post-buckling and
morphing chevron for takeoff and cruise noise reduction. aeroelastic behaviour of shape memory alloy reinforced
In Proceedings of the 26th Annual AIAA Aeroacoustics plates. Smart Mater. Struct., 2002, 11, 297–307.
Conference, Monterey, CA, 2005, pp. 1–15. 41 Nam, C., Chattopadhyay, A., and Kim, Y. Application of
27 Mabe, J. H., Calkins, F., and Butler, G. Boe- shape memory alloy (SMA) spars for aircraft maneuver
ing’s variable geometry chevron, morphing aerostruc- enhancement. In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Struc-
ture for jet noise reduction. In Proceedings of the tures and Materials, San Diego, CA, 2002, vol. 4701,
47th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural pp. 226–236.
Dynamics and Materials Conference, Newport, Rhode 42 Birman, V. Stability of functionally graded shape mem-
Island, 2006, pp. 1–19. ory alloy sandwich panels. Smart Mater. Struct., 1997, 6,
28 Hartl, D., Volk, B., Lagoudas, D. C., Calkins, F. T., 278–286.
and Mabe, J. Thermomechanical characterization and 43 Otsuka, X. Y. K., Toyama, N., Yoshida, H., Nagai, H., and
modeling of Ni60Ti40 SMA for acutated chevrons. In Kishi, T. A novel technique for fabricating SMA/CFRP
Proceedings of ASME, International Mechanical Engi- adaptive composites using ultrathin TiNi wires. Smart
neering Congress and Exposition (IMECE), Chicago, IL, Mater. Struct., 2004, 13, 196–202.
5–10 November 2006, pp. 1–10. 44 Birman, V. Review of mechanics of shape memory alloy
29 Hartl, D. and Lagoudas, D. C. Characterization and 3- structures. Appl. Mech. Rev., 1997, 50(11), 629–645.
D modeling of Ni60Ti SMA for actuation of a variable 45 Prahlad, H. and Chopra, I. Design of a variable
geometry jet engine chevron. In Proceedings of SPIE, twist tiltrotor blade using shape memory alloy (SMA)
Smart Structures and Materials, San Diego, CA, vol. 6529, actuators. In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures
2007, pp. 1–12. and Materials, Newport Beach, CA, 2001, vol. 4327,
30 Turner, T., Buehrle, R., Cano, R., and Fleming, G. Model- pp. 46–59.
ing, fabrication, and testing of a SMA hybrid composite 46 Caldwell, N., Glaser, A., Gutmark, E., and Ruggeri, R.
jet engine chevron concept. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., Heat transfer model for blade twist actuator system. In
2006, 17, 483–497. Proceedings of 44th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting
31 Balta, J., Simpson, J., Michaud, V., Manson, J., and and Exhibit, 2006, pp. 1–22.
Schrooten, J. Embedded shape memory alloys confer 47 Jacot, A., Ruggeri, R., and Clingman, D. Shape memory
aerodynamic profile adaptivity. Smart Mater. Bull., 2001, alloy device and control method. US Pat. 7 037 076, 2 May
8–12. 2006.
32 Strelec, J. K., Lagoudas, D. C., Khan, M. A., and Yen, J. 48 Singh, K. and Chopra, I. Design of an improved shape
Design and implementation of a shape memory alloy memory alloy actuator for rotor blade tracking. In Pro-
actuated reconfigurable wing. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., ceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, San
2003, 14, 257–273. Diego, CA, 2002, vol. 4701, pp. 244–266.
33 Knowles, G. and Bird, R. W. Telescopic wing system. US 49 Singh, K., Sirohi, J., and Chopra, I. An imporoved shape-
Pat. 6 834 835, 28 December 2004. memory alloy actuator for rotor blade tracking. J. Intell.
34 Manzo, J., Garcia, E., Wickenheiser, A., and Horner, G. Mater. Syst. Struct., 2003, 14, 767–786.
Design of a shape memory alloy actuated macro–scale 50 Kennedy, D., Straub, F., Schetky, L., Chaudhry, Z., and
morphing aircraft mechanism. In Proceedings of SPIE, Roznoy, R. Development of an SMA actuator for in-flight
Smart Structures and Materials, San Diego, CA, 2005, vol. rotor blade tracking. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., 2004, 15,
5764, pp. 232–240. 235–248.
35 Elzey, D., Sofla, A., and Wadley, H. Shape memory–based 51 Loewy, R. Recent developments in smart structures with
multifunctional structural actuator panels. In Proceed- aeronautical applications. Smart Mater. Struct., 1997, 6,
ings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, San Diego, R11–R42.
CA, 2002, vol. 4698, pp. 192–200. 52 Test, C., Leone, S., Ameduri, S., and Concilio, A. Feasi-
36 Sofla, A., Elzey, D., and Wadley, H. An antagonis- bility study on rotorcraft blade morphing in hovering. In
tic flexural unit cell for design of shape morph- Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, San
ing structures. In Proceedings of ASME International Diego, CA, 2005, vol. 5764, pp. 171–182.
Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, 2004, 53 Johnson, A. Non-explosive separation device. US Pat.
pp. 1–9. 5 119 555, June 1992.
37 Geraci, F., Cooper, J., and Amprikidis, M. Development 54 Godard, O., Lagoudas, M., and Lagoudas, D. Design
of smart vortex generators. In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart of space systems using shape memory alloys. In

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007
 Aerospace applications of SMAs 551

Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, San 69 Jackson, C. M., Wagner, H. J., and Wasilewski, R. J.
Diego, CA, 2003, vol. 5056, pp. 545–558. 55- Nitinol – the alloy with a memory: its physicalmet-
55 Willey, C., Huettl, B., and Hill, S. Design and devel- allurgy, properties and applications. Technical Report
opment of a miniature mechanisms tool-kit for micro NASA SP-5110, NASA Technology Utilization Office,
spacecraft. In Proceedings of the 35th Aerospace Mech- Washington, DC, 1972.
anisms Symposium, Ames Research Center, 9–11 May 70 Jun, H., Rediniotis, O., and Lagoudas, D. Development
2001, pp. 1–14. of a fuel-powered shape memory alloy actuator system:
56 Peffer, A., Denoyer, K., Fossness, E., and Sciulli, D. Devel- II. fabrication and testing. Smart Mater. Struct., 2007, 16,
opment and transition of low-shock spacecraft release S95–S107.
devices. In Proceedings of IEEE Aerospace Conference, 71 Thrasher, M., Shahin, A., and Meckl, P. Efficiency analysis
2000, vol. 4, pp. 277–284. of shape memory alloy actuators. Smart Mater. Struct.,
57 Park, B., Shantz, M., and Prinz, F. Scalable rotary actu- 1994, 3, 226–234.
ators with embedded shape memory alloys. In Proceed- 72 Lagoudas, D. C., Miller, D. A., Rong, L., and Li, C. Ther-
ings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, Newport momechanical transformation fatigue of SMA actuators.
Beach, CA, 2001, vol. 4327, pp. 79–87. In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials,
58 Carpenter, B. and Lyons, J. EO-1 technology valida- 2000, vol. 3992, pp. 420–429.
tion report: lightweight flexible solar array experiment. 73 Bertacchini, O., Lagoudas, D., and Patoor, E. Fatigue
Technical report NASA Godard Space Flight Center, life characterization of shape memory alloys undergo-
Greenbelt, MD, 8 August 2001. ing thermomechanical cyclic loading. In Proceedings of
59 Roh, J., Han, J., and Lee, I. Finite element analysis of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, San Diego, CA,
adaptive inflatable structures with SMA strip actuator. 2003, pp. 612–624.
In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, 74 RGB-154N. Smart materials: a technology and mar-
San Diego, CA, 2005, vol. 5764, pp. 460–471. ket assessment. Technical Report vol. 35(2), Business
60 Saadat, S., Salichs, J., Noori, M., Hou, Z., Davoodi, H., and Communications Company, Norwalk, CT, 2006.
Baron, I. An overview of vibration and seismic applica- 75 Form 10–K. Technical report Memry Corporation, Bethel,
tions of NiTi shape memory alloy. Smart Mater. Struct., CT, September 2004.
2002, 11, 218–229. 76 Form 10–K. Technical report Memry Corporation, Bethel,
61 Renz, R. and Kramer, J. Metallic damping body. US Pat. CT, September 2006.
5 687 958, November 1997. 77 Murray, S. J., Marioni, M., Allen, S. M., and O’Han-
62 Grosskruger, D., Carpenter, B., Easom, B., and Draper, J. dley, R. C. 6% magnetic-field-induced strain by twin-
Apparatus and associated method for detuning from boundary motion in ferromagnetic Ni-Mn-Ga. Appl.
resonance a structure. US Pat. 6 024 347, February Phys. Lett., 2000, 77(6), 886–888.
2000. 78 Murray, S. J., Marioni, M., Tello, P. G., Allen,
63 Sherwin, Y. and Ulmer, D. Method for vibration damp- S. M., and O’Handley, R. C. Giant magnetic-field-
ing using superelastic alloys. US Pat. 6 796 408, September induced strain in Ni-Mn-Ga crystals: experimental
2004. results and modeling. J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 2001, 226,
64 Williams, K., Chiu, G., and Bernhard, R. Controlled 945–947.
continuous tuning of an adaptively tunable vibration 79 Kiefer, B., and Lagoudas, D. C. Magnetic field-induced
absorber incorporating shape memory alloys. In Pro- martensitic variant reorientation in magnetic shape-
ceedings of SPIE, Smart Structures and Materials, New- memory alloys. Philosophical Magazine Special Issue:
port Beach, CA, 2000, vol. 3984, pp. 564–575. Recent Advances in Theoretical Mechanics, in Honor of
65 Ngo, E., Nothwang, W., Cole, M., Hubbard, C., and SES 2003 A. C. Eringen Medalist G. A. Maugin 85 (33–35),
Hirsch, G. Fabrication of active thin films for vibra- 2005, pp. 4289–4329.
tion damping in MEMS devices for the next generation 80 Lidquist, P. G. and Wayman, C. M. Shape memory and
army munition systems. In Proceedings of the 24th Army transformation behavior of martensitic Ti-Pd-Ni and
Science Conference, Orlando, FL, 2004, pp. 1–6. Ti-Pt-Ni alloys. In Engineering aspects of shape mem-
66 Lagoudas, D. C., Machado, L. G., and Lagoudas, M. ory (Eds T. W. Duerig, K. N. Melton, D. Stöckel, and C.
Nonlinear vibration of a one-degree of freedom shape M. Wayman), 1990, pp. 58–68 (Butterworth-Heinemann,
memory alloy oscillator: A numerical-experimental London).
investigation. In 46th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 81 Thoma, P. E. and Boehm, J. J. Effect of composition on
Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Confer- the amount of second phase and transformation tem-
ence, Austin, TX, USA, 2005, pp. 1–18. peratures of NixTi90-xHf10 shape memory alloys. Mater.
67 Rediniotis, O., Wilson, L., Lagoudas, D., and Khan, M. Sci. Eng. A., 1999, 273–275, 385–389.
Development of a shape memory alloy actuated 82 Kumar, P., Lagoudas, D., Zanca, K., and Lagoudas, M.
biomimetic hydrofoil. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., 2002, Thermomechanical characterization of high temper-
13, 35–49. ature SMA actuators. In Proceedings of SPIE, Smart
68 Bhattacharyya, A., Lagoudas, D. C., Wang, Y., and Structures and Materials, San Diego, CA, 2006,
Kinra, V. K. On the role of thermoelectric heat vol. 6170, pp. 306–312.
transfer in the design of SMA actuators: theoretical 83 Noebe, R., Quackenbush, T. R., and Padula, S. A. Bench-
modeling and experiment. Smart Mater. Struct., 1995, 4, top demonstration of an adaptive chevron completed
252–263. using a new high-temperature shape-memory alloy.

JAERO211 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering
552 D J Hartl and D C Lagoudas

Technical Report 20060054078, NASA, Glenn Research 87 Bo, Z. and Lagoudas, D. C. Thermomechanical model-
Center, May 2006. ing of polycrystalline SMAs under cyclic loading, part IV:
84 Boyd, J. G. and Lagoudas, D. C. A thermodynamical con- modeling of minor hysteresis loops. Int. J. Eng. Sci., 1999,
stitutive model for shape memory materials. Part I: the 37, 1205–1249.
monolithic shape memory alloy. Int. J. Plast., 1996, 12(6), 88 ABAQUS/Standard user’s manual, 2006 (Hibbit, Karlsson,
805–842. and Sorenson, Inc., Pawtucket, RI).
85 Bo, Z. and Lagoudas, D. C. Thermomechanical model-
89 MSC MARC User’s Manual, 2006 (MSC Software
ing of polycrystalline SMAs under cyclic loading, part
Corporation).
I: theoretical derivations. Int. J. Eng. Sci., 1999, 37,
1089–1140. 90 Teresko, J. The new materials age. Industry Week, 2004,
86 Lagoudas, D. C. and Bo, Z. Thermomechanical model- 253(6), 24–32.
ing of polycrystalline SMAs under cyclic loading, Part II: 91 Lagoudas, D., Bo, Z., Qidwai, M., and Entchev, P.
material characterization and experimental results for SMA_UM: user material subroutine for thermomechan-
a stable transformation cycle. Int. J. Eng. Sci., 1999, 37, ical constitutive model of shape memory alloys, 2003
1141–1173. (Texas A&M University, College Station, TX).

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering JAERO211 © IMechE 2007