Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process,

and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, the methodology section allows the
reader to critically evaluate a study's overall validity and reliability.

What are some qualitative research methods? The three most common qualitative methods,
explained in detail in their respective modules, are participant observation, in-depth interviews, and
focus groups. Each method is particularly suited for obtaining a specific type of data. • Participant
observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring behaviors in their usual
contexts. • In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories,
perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored. • Focus
groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in generating broad
overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups represented.

What are the basic differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods?
Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ primarily in: • their analytical objectives • the
types of questions they pose • the types of data collection instruments they use • the forms of data
they produce • the degree of flexibility built into study design.

Qualitative research design- is a research method used extensively by scientists and researchers
studying human behavior, opinions, themes and motivations.

Grounded theory is a systematic procedure of data analysis, typically associated with qualitative
research, that allows researchers to develop a theory that explains a specific phenomenon.
Grounded theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss and is used to conceptualize phenomenon
using research; grounded theory is not seen as a descriptive method and originates from sociology.
The unit of analysis in grounded theory is a specific phenomenon or incident, not individual
behaviors. The primary data collection method is through interviews of approximately 20 – 30
participants or until data achieves saturation.

Ethnographic studies are qualitative procedures utilized to describe, analyze and interpret a
culture’s characteristics. Ethnography was developed in the 19thand 20th centuries and used by
anthropologists to explore primitive cultures different from their own; it originated from
Anthropology. Ethnography is used when a researcher wants to study a group of people to gain a
larger understanding of their lives or specific aspects of their lives. The primary data collection
method is through observation over an extended period of time. It would also be appropriate to
interview others who have studied the same cultures.

Phenomenology is used to identify phenomena and focus on subjective experiences and

understanding the structure of those lived experiences. It was founded in the early 20th century by
Edmund Husserl and Martin Heideggar and originated from philosophy. Phenomenology is used to
describe, in depth, the common characteristics of the phenomena that has occurred. The primary
data collection method is through in-depth interviews.

Case studies are believed to have originated in 1829 by Frederic Le Play. Case studies are rooted
in several disciplines, including science, education, medicine, and law. Case studies are to be
used when (1) the researcher wants to focus on how and why, (2) the behavior is to be observed,
not manipulated, (3) to further understand a given phenomenon, and (4) if the boundaries between
the context and phenomena are not clear. Multiple methods can be used to gather data, including
interviews, observation, and historical documentation.
Sample and Sampling Techniques

What is purposive sampling? Purposive sampling, one of the most common sampling strategies,
groups participants according to preselected criteria relevant to a particular research question (for
example, HIV-positive women in Capital City). Sample sizes, which may or may not be fixed prior
to data collection, depend on the resources and time available, as well as the study’s objectives.
Purposive sample sizes are often determined on the basis of theoretical saturation (the point in
data collection when new data no longer bring additional insights to the research questions).
Purposive sampling is therefore most successful when data review and analysis are done in
conjunction with data collection.

What is quota sampling? Quota sampling, sometimes considered a type of purposive sampling, is
also common. In quota sampling, we decide while designing the study how many people with
which characteristics to include as participants. Characteristics might include age, place of
residence, gender, class, profession, marital status, use of a particular contraceptive method, HIV
status, etc. The criteria we choose allow us to focus on people we think would be most likely to
experience, know about, or have insights into the research topic. Then we go into the community
and – using recruitment strategies appropriate to the location, culture, and study population – find
people who fit these criteria, until we meet the prescribed quotas.

How do purposive and quota sampling differ? Purposive and quota sampling are similar in that they
both seek to identify participants based on selected criteria. However, quota sampling is more
specific with respect to sizes and proportions of subsamples, with subgroups chosen to reflect
corresponding proportions in the population. If, for example, gender is a variable of interest in how
people experience HIV infection, a quota sample would seek an equal balance of HIV-positive men
and HIV-positive women in a given city, assuming a 1:1 gender ratio in the population. Studies
employ purposive rather than quota sampling when the number of participants is more of a target
than a steadfast requirement – that is, an approximate rather than a strict quota.

What is snowball sampling? A third type of sampling, snowballing – also known as chain referral
sampling – is considered a type of purposive sampling. In this method, participants or informants
with whom contact has already been made use their social networks to refer the researcher to
other people who could potentially 6 participate in or contribute to the study. Snowball sampling is
often used to find and recruit “hidden populations,” that is, groups not easily accessible to
researchers through other sampling strategies.

What is Convenience sampling is another non-probability sampling strategy that is employed by

both qualitative and quantitative researchers. To draw a convenience sample, a researcher simply
collects data from those people or other relevant elements to which he or she has most convenient
access. This method, also sometimes referred to as haphazard sampling, is most useful in
exploratory research.

Research Locale- This discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in brief the place
where the study is conducted. Only important features which have the bearing on the present study
are included. --Shows the target population.

Population Sampling or Respondents of the Study- This describes the target population and the
sample frame. It specifies the sampling technique used and how the sample size is determined.
Research Instrument- This explains the specific type of research instrument used such as
questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-checklists, structured interview, teacher– made test,
standardized instrument which are adopted or borrowed with permission from the author or from
other sources.

-The parts of the instruments should be explained and what bits of information are derived.

-The establishment of validity and reliability should be explained and only experts should be
chosen to validate such instrument. Specific and appropriate statistical test used should be given
and the computed values derived. Interpretation should be included in the discussions.

Procedure- in qualitative research it uses unstructured data collections methods, such as

observations, interviews, surveys and documents, to find themes and meanings to inform our
understanding of the world.

Validation- shows the soundness of the research methodology and the results generated, based on
the extent to which the research remains in congruity with universal laws, objectivity, truth, and
facts.

*A reliable research is a credible research. Credibility of a qualitative research depends on the

ability and effort of the researcher. We have established that a study can be reliable without being
valid, but a study cannot be valid without being reliable.

Credibility

Credibility refers to believability or reasonableness. Credibility as an element of validity of

qualitative research denotes the extent to which the research approach and findings remain in sync
with generally accepted natural laws and phenomenon, standards, and observations.

Validity

Refers to the in-depth description that shows the complexities of variables and embedding on the
interactions in data derived from the setting

Transferability

External validity in quantitative research refers to the extent to which the same methodology
applied to another set of sample works in a similar way and produce similar results. Qualitative
research does not require external validity, for each research is unique and has different settings.
The validity of qualitative research depends rather on transferability. Transferability is the ability to
generalize, or the extent to which the results of the research apply to other contexts or settings.

Dependability is the description of changes that occur during the course of research, and an
understanding of how such changes affect the research or the study.

Conformability

Conformability is the degree to which others agree or corroborate with the research findings. Each
qualitative research is unique in itself, but the researcher can still adopt means such as
documenting the procedures for rechecking data, unearth negative instances that contradict
previous observations, play devil’s advocate and more to ensure conformability.