1

PRINCIPLES, COMMENTS
AND CASES IN
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
Volume I

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Constitutional Law I and Constitutional Law II are pre-

requisite subjects before a law student could take up the other
subjects which are covered by and included in the study of Political
Law, a major subject in the bar examinations.
A good preparation and knowledge of the said subjects provide
the students with a strong foundation to grasp and understand the
succeeding subjects in the eld of Political Law, to wit: Administrative
Law, Law of Public Ofces and Public Ofcers, Election Law, Local
Government and Public International Law.
The rst two semesters in the law school are too valuable and
important. It is during this period when the students are grilled
during verbal and written examinations on the principles, doctrines,
legal terms and jurisprudence not only in political law but also in
other bar subjects. Hence, a great number of decided cases are
assigned from time to time to train the students on how to digest
and analyze the decisions of the Supreme Court.
All these preparations, coupled with self-initiative, diligence,
perseverance and nishing touches in the review school, give the
students a ghting chance in the bar examinations. In fact, they
form an integral part of a lawyer’s skill and competence when they
nally go to law practice and other endeavors.

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2 PRINCIPLES, COMMENTS AND CASES IN
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
VOLUME I

BASIC DEFINITIONS
POLITICAL LAW
Political law is that branch of jurisprudence which treats of
the science of politics, or the organization and administration of
government. (Black’s Law Dictionary, Sixth Edition, p. 1158)
Our Supreme Court dened political law in more specic terms
by saying that it is that branch of public law which deals with the
organization and operation of the governmental organs of the State
and denes the relation of the State with the inhabitants of its
territory. (People vs. Perfecto, 43 Phil. 887)

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
It is that department of the science of law which treats of
the nature of constitutions, their establishment, construction and
interpretation, and of the validity of legal enactments as tested
by the criterion of conformity to the fundamental law. (Black,
Constitutional Law, 1). A more simple denition is that of Justice
Isagani A. Cruz. According to him, constitutional law is the study
of the maintenance of the proper balance between authority as
represented by the three inherent powers of the State and liberty as
guaranteed by the Bill of Rights.

BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SUBJECTS

COVERED BY AND INCLUDED IN THE STUDY OF
PHILIPPINE POLITICAL LAW

I. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
A. Constitutional Law, Volume I
This involves (1) the study of the historical background that
led to the establishment of the Commonwealth Government of
the Philippines in 1935; the different Constitutions that govern
the Philippines since the establishment of the Commonwealth
Government until the approval of the present Constitution on
February 2, 1985, (2) the study of the structure and powers of our
government, of the basic principles and concepts of political law
such as those pertaining to our Constitution, its nature, purpose
and interpretation, the nature of the State and the rules governing
its relationship with its inhabitants, the separation of powers,
the principle of republicanism and the rule of the majority and
 CHAPTER I 3
INTRODUCTION

the supremacy of civilian authority, and the other principles and

policies stated in the Declaration of Principles and State Policies; (3)
the study of the three (3) independent Constitutional Commissions;
(4) Accountability of Public ofcers, including the popular topic of
impeachment.

B. Constitutional Law, Volume II

This involves the comprehensive study of the Constitution,
the Bill of Rights, the fundamental powers of the State such as
police power, taxation, eminent domain, the rights of the accused,
(i.e., preliminary investigation; right to bail; right to be informed
of the nature and cause of accusation against him; right to speedy,
impartial and public trial; right to confront the witnesses against the
accused; right to secure the attendance of witness; right to speedy
disposition cases; right just self-incrimination; right to be heard and
to be assisted by counsel; and other rights granted to citizens.
II. ADMINISTRATIVE LAW
It is a study of the laws that regulate the administrative
organization and operations of the governmental organs of the State
and determines the competence of the administrative authorities
and the remedies available to the individual in case of violation of
his rights.

III. ELECTION LAW

It is a study of the laws, rules and procedures involving
the conduct of election of all public ofcials who will exercise the
powers of government as allocated to and within their functions and
responsibilities.

IV. LAW OF PUBLIC OFFICES AND PUBLIC OFFICERS

It is a study of the creation, modication and dissolution of
public ofce as well as the eligibility of public ofcers, the manner
of their election or appointment and assumption of ofce their
rights, duties, powers, inhibitions and liabilities, and the modes of
terminating their ofcial relations.

V. LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Before the passage and effectivity of Rep. Act No. 7160, otherwise
known as the Local Government Code, this was denominated as
a course described as the Law on Municipal Corporations. Said
 PREFACE

I wrote the first edition of this book in 1999.

At that time and even before that, I was assigned to teach
Constitutional Law I, Constitutional law II, and other subjects to
first year and second year law students.
Much later, I was assigned to teach Constitutional Law
Review, Political Law Review and other subjects to third year and
fourth year law students. This eventually led me to write a Political
Law Reviewer in 2001, and to be a reviewer and lecturer in different
review classes.
Last semester, I was requested to allot a portion of my time to
first year law students to be able to help in giving a good foundation
to the beginners, I realized the importance of the mission, and I
actually acceded to teach Constitutional Law I and Constitutional
Law II again to first year law students. This ignited my interest to
revise the first edition of my book, not only to update the contents of
the same but also to help strengthen the foundation of the beginners
who, later on, will be in the fourth year and will be attending the
review classes.
This book, which is actually the second edition, now contains
a simplified presentation of the new cases and jurisprudence,
including new principles and important precedents, hoping that
somehow, I will be able to lighten the load and burden of the
students, particularly the working students, who are saddled by
time constraints and the growing number of cases in all subjects.
May this modest piece of work be of valuable help to all students
and professors of Constitutional Law.
January 8, 2011, Parañaque City.

ROLANDO A. SUAREZ

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I acknowledge the assistance rendered by the members of my

present staff, Rosalie M. Ramoran and Hanna Marie M. Manila.
I am grateful to my daughter, Rhina Rizza M. Suarez, for her
valuable efforts and assistance to me in the printing, encoding and
arrangement of the final layout of the manuscript, and to my son,
Atty. Roland Rhonnel M. Suarez, also for his own contribution in
particular cases I have assigned to him.
I also wish to thank the whole staff of Rex Printing for helping
me throughout the entire printing process.
Above all, I am immensely grateful to God for all the blessings,
guidance and fortune that I have received and those still to come.

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 DEDICATION

To my wife, Nora, and children, Revelyn, Roland Rhonnel,

Reina Ricci and Rhina Rizza; to my beloved and deceased parents,
Marcelo A. Suarez and Elena Arevalo Suarez, my first teachers, who
taught me the rudiments of writing and the value of hardwork; to
my thoughtful and loving aunt, Cornelia Arevalo Vda. De Capul; to
my kind and equally thoughtful mother-in-law, Niflea Lautchang
Vda. De Manalese, who just passed away; to my deceased brothers
and sisters, Buendegardo, Proserfina, Elvira, Manolo and Rodolfo,
with whom I have shared the blessings of a modest home and
hardworking parents; to all my former teachers who guided me in
my quest for knowledge; to my townmates and friends who share my
thoughts and aspirations for a better society; and above all to my
dear God who is always generous to help me in any of my endeavors,
I dedicate this humble work.

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I—INTRODUCTION

Introduction ......................................................................................... 1
Basic definitions .................................................................................. 2
Brief descriptions of the subjects covered by and included in
the study of Philippine Political Law ....................................... 2
The principal basis of the study of the Political Law ........................ 4
The Constitution that govern the Philippines since the
establishment of the Commonwealth Government ................ 5
Brief historical background of said Constitutions............................. 5
The Constitution that governed the Philippines in 1935 ................. 6
1973 Constitution................................................................................ 8
The Freedom Constitution.................................................................. 10
The 1987 Constitution ........................................................................ 11

CHAPTER II—THE PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION:

IT’S DEFINITION, NATURE, PURPOSE
AND CLASSIFICATION

Definition of a Constitution ................................................................ 13

Difference between a Constitution and a Statute ............................. 14
Classifications of Constitutions .......................................................... 14
Nature and powers of a Constitutional Convention ......................... 15
Different kinds of construction of a Constitution .............................. 15
Advantages and disadvantages of a written Constitution................ 16
Purpose of a Constitution ................................................................... 17
Essential parts of a written Constitution .......................................... 17
Requisites of a good written Constitution ......................................... 18

CHAPTER III–AMENDMENTS OR REVISIONS

Sections 1, 2, 3 and 4 of Art. XVII of the 1987 Constitution ............ 20

Distinction between revision and amendment .................................. 21
Steps required in the revision or amendment of the
Constitution ............................................................................... 21
How may the 1987 Constitution be amended? .................................. 22
How may the 1987 Constitution be revised? ..................................... 22
People’s initiative ................................................................................ 22

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Conduct of initiative or referendum is under the supervision
of the COMELEC....................................................................... 23
Publication of the petition .................................................................. 24
Effectivity of the amendment to the Constitution proposed
through people’s initiative ........................................................ 24
Is the right of the people to directly propose amendments
to the Constitution self-executing? ........................................... 24
Plebiscite .......................................................................................... 24
Can proposed amendments to the Constitution be submitted
at a plebiscite which is scheduled on the same day as the
regular elections?....................................................................... 25
Is the power to amend or revise the Constitution included
in the general grant of legislative power to Congress? ........... 25
Is an amendment or revision and ratification of the Constitution
a justiciable question? ............................................................... 26
Can the Constitution be validly amended by “Transposition”? ........ 26
Is it possible that the procedural requirements for amendment
or revision of the Constitution are not complied with,
and yet, it is considered validly ratified? ................................. 26

CHAPTER IV—CONSTRUCTION AND INTERPRETATION

OF THE CONSTITUTION

The Constitution is superior to statute ............................................. 33

Effectivity of the 1987 Constitution ................................................... 34
Effect of the ratification of the 1987 Constitution............................. 34
How should the 1987 Constitution be construed? ............................. 34

CHAPTER V—THE PHILIPPINE AS A STATE

Definition of a State ............................................................................ 41

Nation .................................................................................................. 41
Distinguish State from Nation ........................................................... 41
Distinguish Government from State .................................................. 41
Element of a State............................................................................... 42
Power and jurisdiction of the state .................................................... 52
Distinguish sovereignty from independence ..................................... 56
Titular sovereignty and actual sovereignty, distinguished .............. 56
Doctrine of jus postlimini ................................................................... 56

CHAPTER VI—PREAMBLE OF THE 1987 CONSTITUTION

Meaning of the preamble .................................................................... 57

Brief background ................................................................................. 59
It is not part of Constitution .............................................................. 59

CHAPTER VII–NATIONAL TERRITORY

What is the scope of our national territory as defined in Art. I? ...... 61

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What is the Archipelago Doctrine? .................................................... 64
Creation of the Bangsamoro Juridical Entity (BJE) ......................... 66
Concepts and Principles ..................................................................... 68
Territory .......................................................................................... 69
Resources .......................................................................................... 70
Governance .......................................................................................... 71
Territorial Sea, Breadth or width of the territorial sea,
Internal waters, Archipelagic waters,Territorium nullius ..... 75
Background of the adoption of UNCLOS........................................... 76
The three navigable rivers ................................................................. 81
The Freedom of the Seas .................................................................... 82
The freedom of navigation .................................................................. 82
The contiguous zone ............................................................................ 82
The exclusive economic zone .............................................................. 83
The continental shelf .......................................................................... 83
The word “archipelago” in Art. I ........................................................ 84

CHAPTER VIII
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES

Six principles mentioned in Sections 1 to 6, Art. II,

1987 Constitution ...................................................................... 87
Sec. 1 – Principle of Republicanism ................................................... 87
Sec. 2 – Renunciation of War as an instrument of national policy .. 102
Sec. 3 – Principle of Civilian Authority ............................................. 102
Sec. 4 – The prime duty of the government is to serve and
protect the people ...................................................................... 103
Sec. 5 – Promotion of general welfare and maintenance
of peace and order...................................................................... 105
Sec. 6 – Separation of Church and State ........................................... 105
Sec. 7 – Independent foreign policy ................................................... 108
Sec. 8 – Policy of freedom from nuclear weapons .............................. 108
Sec. 9 – Promotion of a just and dynamic social order...................... 108
Sec. 10 – Social Justice ....................................................................... 109
Sec. 11 – Full respect for human rights and dignity
of every person ........................................................................... 112
Sec. 12 – Sanctity of Family Life........................................................ 112
Sec. 13 – Vital role of the youth in nationa-building ........................ 114
Sec. 14 – Role of women in nationa-building ..................................... 114
Sec. 15 – Promotion of right to health of the People ......................... 115
Sec. 16 – Protection of the right to a balanced and
healthful ecology ........................................................................ 115
Sec. 17 – Priority to education, science and technology,
arts, culture and sports ............................................................. 116
Sec. 18 – Labor as a primary social economic force .......................... 117
Sec. 19 – Self-reliance and independent national economy .............. 117
Sec. 20 – Encouragement of private enterprise and incentives
to needed investments............................................................... 117

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Sec. 21 – Comprehensive rural development and
agrarian reform ......................................................................... 117
Sec. 22 – Rights of indigenous cultural communities ....................... 121
Sec. 23 – Encouragement of non-governmental, community
based, or sectoral organizations ............................................... 122
Sec. 24 – Vital role of communication and information
in nation-building ...................................................................... 122
Sec. 25 – Autonomy of local governments.......................................... 122
Sec. 26 – Equal access to opportunity for public service................... 122
Sec. 27 – Honesty and integrity in public service ............................. 124
Sec. 28 – Full public disclosure of all state transactions
involving public interest ........................................................... 124

CHAPTER IX
LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT
(ART. VI, SECS. 1 TO 32)

Legislative power ................................................................................ 140

Distinction, referendum and plebiscite.............................................. 141
Three (3) systems of initiative ............................................................ 142
Two (2) kinds of referendum .............................................................. 142
People’s Initiative................................................................................ 143
Original legislative power; Derivative legislative power;
Constituent legislative power; Ordinary legislative power..... 147
Two limitations to legislative power .................................................. 147
Constitutional restrictions ................................................................. 148
Other limitations................................................................................. 154
Can congress amend, modify and repeal its own laws? .................... 155
Can a member of the House of Representatives or the Senate
introduce any kind of bill or law? ............................................. 156
Can Congress pass an irrepealable law? ........................................... 157
Can legislative powers be delegated?................................................. 157
Tests to determine whether a given power has been validly
exercised by a particular department ...................................... 157
Emergency powers .............................................................................. 162
Specific power delegated by the legislature to
administrative bodies ................................................................ 163
Requisites of a valid administrative regulation ................................ 165
Composition, qualifications, term of office, manner of election,
immunities of Senators and Members of Congress ................. 177
What are the immunities of Senators and members of Congress? .. 179
Term of office ....................................................................................... 192
Gerrymandering .................................................................................. 193
Section 11 .......................................................................................... 198
What is Parliamentary Privilege of Speech? ..................................... 199
Sections 12-14, Art. VI ........................................................................ 199
Obligation of Senators and members of Congress ............................ 200

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Conflict of interest............................................................................... 200
Section 13 .......................................................................................... 201
Common prohibitions to Senators and members of the House
of Representatives ..................................................................... 201
Section 14 .......................................................................................... 202
Inhibitions and disqualifications of a Senator or a member
of the House of Representatives ............................................... 203
Section 15 .......................................................................................... 203
Sessions .......................................................................................... 203
Section 16 .......................................................................................... 206
Quorum .......................................................................................... 207
Officers of the Senate and the House of Representatives ................. 208
Discipline of members......................................................................... 209
Journals .......................................................................................... 210
Adjournment ....................................................................................... 214
Electoral Tribunals ............................................................................. 215
The Commission on Appointments .................................................... 218
Classification of the Powers of Congress ........................................... 219
Legislative investigation .................................................................... 220
Can the president of the Republic of the Philippines,
or Congress, declare war? ......................................................... 227
Ex-post facto law ................................................................................. 230
Bill of attainder ................................................................................... 232
Bill of pains and penalties .................................................................. 232
Procedure in the Approval of Bills ..................................................... 236

CHAPTER X
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT

Control of all executive departments, bureaus and offices ............... 238

Powers of the president are not limited only to those
that are expressly enumerated in the Constitution ................ 238
Residual power .................................................................................... 239
Executive power .................................................................................. 239
Qualifications of a president ..................................................... 241
Qualifications of a vice president ............................................. 241
How are the president and the Vice-President elected?.......... 241
What is their term of office and up to when shall they
serve as such?................................................................... 242
Oath of the president/vice-president/acting president...................... 247
Section 6, Article VII........................................................................... 248
Salary of the President and Vice-President ............................. 249
Sections 7 and 8, Article VII............................................................... 249
Rules and procedure if a vacancy occurs in the offices
of the president and Vice-President................................ 252
Simple questions on presidential succession ........................... 254
Sections 13, Article VII ....................................................................... 255
Inhibitions of the President ...................................................... 256

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 Does the president enjoy immunity from suit? ........................ 257
Section 14, Article VII......................................................................... 258
Power to appoint ........................................................................ 258
Section 15, Article VII......................................................................... 258
Section 16 .......................................................................................... 265
Scope of the President’s appointing power............................... 266
Nature of the appointing power of the president .................... 266
Distinction between regular and ad interim appointment ..... 267
Distinguish ad-interim appointment from an appointment
in an acting capacity ........................................................ 268
Section 17 .......................................................................................... 268
Extent of the control power of the President ........................... 268
Doctrine of Qualified Political Agency ..................................... 269
Section 18 .......................................................................................... 270
Sections 19-23 ..................................................................................... 271
Powers of the president ...................................................................... 272

CHAPTER XI
JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT

Section 1 .......................................................................................... 303

What makes up the judicial department? ......................................... 303
Traditional concept of judicial power ................................................. 307
New definition of judicial power ......................................................... 307
Grave abuse of discretion ................................................................... 312
Constitutional safeguards that guarantee the independence
of the judiciary ........................................................................... 312
Are the findings in a congressional committee report
binding to the court? ................................................................. 313
Sections 2 and 3, Art. VIII .................................................................. 313
Power of Congress under Sec. 2 and the limitation
to the exercise of this power ............................................ 314
Section 3 .......................................................................................... 314
Limitation to the power of congress under Sec. 3 ............................. 314
Section 4, Article VIII ......................................................................... 315
Composition of the Supreme Court .......................................... 316
Section 5, Art. VIII .............................................................................. 318
Sections 6 .......................................................................................... 319
Powers of the Supreme Court ................................................... 319
May Congress diminish the jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court? ............................................................... 320
Power of judicial review or judicial supremacy ................................. 321
Requisites of judicial review or inquiry.................................... 321
Difference between a political question and a
justiciable question .......................................................... 334
Effect of a statute which is declared unconstitutional ............ 338
Extent of judicial power to declare the unconstitutionality
of assailed legislative and executive acts ...................... 339

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 Requisites for declaration of partial unconstitutionality ........ 339
Separability clause .................................................................... 340
Is the power of judicial review exclusively vested only
in the Supreme Court? .................................................... 340
Example of cases where the Supreme Court exercised
administrative power and supervision over
judges of lower courts ...................................................... 340
The Rule on the Writ of Amparo .............................................. 345
Writ of Habeas Data .................................................................. 357
Section 7 .......................................................................................... 365
General qualifications of every member of the judiciary ........ 365
Qualifications of the Supreme Court justices .......................... 366
Qualifications of judges of lower court ..................................... 366
May the qualifications of members of judiciary
be altered by Congress? ................................................... 366
Section 8 .......................................................................................... 366
Principal function of the judicial and bar council .................... 367
Composition of the judicial and bar council ...................................... 367
Who appoints the regular members of the council? ................ 367
Who shall be the secretary of the council? ............................... 368
Composition of the Supreme Court .......................................... 368
Section 9 .......................................................................................... 369
Procedure in the appointment of justices and judges.............. 369
Section 10 .......................................................................................... 370
Can the salary of judges and justices be decreased? ............... 370
Are the salaries of judges subject to income tax? .................... 370
Section 11 .......................................................................................... 370
What specifically is the guarantee under Sec. 11? .................. 370
Can disciplinary action be taken against judges of the
inferior or lower courts by the executive
department? ..................................................................... 371
Can statutory courts be abolished by congress? ...................... 371
Section 12 .......................................................................................... 372
Section 13 .......................................................................................... 373
Procedure and the mechanics in the issuance of decisions
of the Supreme Court and all over collegiate courts ...... 374
Does the absence of the said certification invalidate
a decision? ........................................................................ 374
Importance of stating the reasons behind a
dissenting opinion ............................................................ 374
Section 14 .......................................................................................... 375
Why should a court decision express clearly and
distinctly the facts and the law on which it is based? ... 375
Section 15 .......................................................................................... 380
Within what period must cases be decided or resolved? ................... 380
Is the period for making the decision mandatory or
discretionary for all courts? ...................................................... 381
Section 16 .......................................................................................... 382

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 CHAPTER XII
THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSIONS

Common provisions ............................................................................. 383

Each commission en banc may promulgate its own rules
concerning pleadings and practice before it
or before any of its offices (Sec. 6, Art. IX) .............................. 384
Civil Service Commission, Commission on Elections, and
Commission on Audit are independent commissions ............. 385
Fiscal Autonomy of Constitutional Commissions ............................. 385
Salaries, Term of Office, Prohibitions at a glance ............................. 390
Mechanics of staggering the terms .................................................... 391
Concerning promulgation of rules...................................................... 392
The Civil Service Commission ............................................................ 393
Objective of a civil service system ............................................ 393
Composition and qualifications at a glance ............................. 393
Coverage of the civil service system................................................... 395
Test to determine whether a government-owned or controlled
corporation is subject to the civil service law ......................... 395
Employees shall not be removed or suspended except for cause
as provided by law ..................................................................... 396
Right to self-organization.......................................................... 401
Temporary appointment ........................................................... 401
Advantage of an efficient career service system ...................... 403
Sec. 6, Art. IX, prohibits the appointment of a defeated
candidate in any election within one year
after the election .............................................................. 403
Commission on Elections .................................................................... 406
Composition and qualifications of the chairman and the
six (6) commissioners ................................................................ 407
Practice of law ..................................................................................... 408
Can the chairman and members of the Commission on Elections
be appointed or designated on a temporary or acting
capacity?..................................................................................... 408
Can the President appoint or designate a temporary chairman
of the COMELEC? ..................................................................... 408
Term of office of the commissioners .................................................. 409
Mechanics of staggering the terms .................................................... 409
Nature of the powers of the Commission on Elections ..................... 411
Powers of the Commission on Elections ............................................ 411
Jurisdiction of the COMELEC before and after the
proclamation .............................................................................. 416
Is there a pre-proclamation controversy in national offices?............ 416
Can the COMELEC annul a proclamation or suspend the
effects of a proclamation? .......................................................... 416
Failure of Election ..................................................................... 418
Recall Election ........................................................................... 418
Power to register political parties, etc. (Sec. 2[5]) ................... 420
Prosecution of cases (Sec. 2[6]) ................................................. 420

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 How shall election cases be held and decided by
the COMELEC? ............................................................... 422
Objective of Sec. 4 ...................................................................... 423
Section 5 .......................................................................................... 425
Can the president on his own grant pardon, amnesty,
parole or suspension of sentence? ................................... 425
Section 6 .......................................................................................... 425
Is there a distinction between an accredited political
party and a registered political party? ........................... 426
Is block-voting allowed? ............................................................ 426
Election period ........................................................................... 427
Campaign period ....................................................................... 427
Commission on Audit .......................................................................... 428
Composition and qualifications of the chairman and
two commissioners of the Commission on Audit ........... 429
Term of office ............................................................................. 429
Mechanism of staggering the terms ......................................... 429
Broad powers, authority and duty of the Commission
on Audit ............................................................................ 430
Post audit authority of COA ..................................................... 431
Extent of the auditing authority of the COA over
government-owned corporations ..................................... 431
How can it protect public funds? ........................................................ 432
Power of the commission to “settle accounts” .................................... 432

CHAPTER XIII
ACCOUNTABILITY OF PUBLIC OFFICERS

The principle of “public office is a public trust” ................................. 436

Public office ......................................................................................... 436
Meaning of the word “office” ............................................................... 437
Distinction, public office and contract ............................................... 437
Definition of impeachment ................................................................ 438
Officials removable by impeachment ................................................. 438
Grounds for impeachment .................................................................. 438
Simplified procedure of impeachment ............................................... 443
Who can file a complaint for impeachment? ...................................... 444
Can an impeachment proceeding be initiated against the
same official more than once within a period of one year?...... 444
When is impeachment proceedings considered “initiated”? ............. 444
Sole power to try and decide all cases of impeachment .................... 446
The nature of an impeachment proceeding ....................................... 446
Rules applicable in impeachment proceeding ................................... 447
Quantum of evidence required for conviction.................................... 447
What is needed in order to convict a person subject
of impeachment? ........................................................................ 447
The effect of judgment in case of impeachment ................................ 447
Effect of the judgment of conviction ................................................... 451
Brief Comparison of the Sandiganbayan and the Ombudsman ...... 461

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