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FM 5-3-2016-Hydroelectric Power
FM 5-3-2016-Hydroelectric Power
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
Table of Contents
Page
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Relay Schematic ................................................................................................................................. 8
Fig. 2. Arrangement of major components of typical hydroelectric generating station. .............................. 28
Fig. 3. Francis turbine and generator (Allis Chalmers, Hydro-Turbine Division) ......................................... 29
Fig. 4. Open flume setting ........................................................................................................................... 30
Fig. 5. Plan view of six-jet vertical impulse turbine ..................................................................................... 30
Fig. 6. Kaplan turbine and generator (Allis Chalmers, Hydro-Turbine Division) ......................................... 31
Fig. 7. Axial-flow turbine-runner on horizontal shaft .................................................................................... 32
Fig. 8. Axial-flow turbine-runner on inclined shaft ....................................................................................... 33
Fig. 9. Bulb-type hydraulic turbine and generator (Allis Chalmers, Hydro-Turbine Division) ...................... 34
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List of Tables
Table 1. Recommended Protective and Alarm Devices for Salient Pole Generators .................................... 7
Table 2. Generator Tests ............................................................................................................................... 11
Table 3. Recommended Maximum Voltages for Overvoltage Testing .......................................................... 12
Table 4. Visual Indications and Their Likely Causes .................................................................................... 13
Table 4. Visual Indications and Their Likely Causes (continued) ................................................................. 14
Table 5. Generator Tests, Failure Modes, and Acceptance Criteria ............................................................. 15
Table 5. Generator Tests, Failure Modes, and Acceptance Criteria (continued) ......................................... 16
Table 6. Resistance to Pitting of Different Runner Materials ....................................................................... 40
تمامی استانداردهای NFPAو FMرا میتوانید از طریق وبسایت و یا کانال تلگرامی ما دریافت نمایید.
5-3
Hydroelectric Power 13-2
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 3
1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet covers hydroelectric power installations of all sizes, including the various kinds of water
turbines, their hazards, and recommended safeguards.
Loss prevention recommendations related to the operation, protection, inspection, maintenance, and testing
of large, salient pole, hydroelectric generators are provided. Salient pole generators used for pumped storage
applications are also covered.
Round rotor, hydroelectric generators are not covered by this data sheet. Refer to Data Sheet 5-12, AC
Generators, for recommendations related to round rotor generators.
1.1 Hazards
Electrical failure is the main hazard associated with hydroelectric generators. Insulation failure, electrical
faults, and abnormal operating conditions can result in significant damage to the stator windings, core, and
rotor.
Electric ac generators are also subject to mechanical failure such as bearing damage, loss of lubrication or
cooling, rotor rim distortion, stator frame cracking, bearing bracket failure, and rotor pole deformation.
Electrical and mechanical failures can cause serious damage to the generator and result in cascading effects,
such as lubrication oil fires and electrical system instability, that could affect other generators.
1.2 Changes
October 2016. This document has been substantially revised to bring it up to date with current maintenance,
testing, and operating practices. The following major changes were made:
A. The use of water spray and carbon dioxide extinguishing systems for the protection of generators has
been clarified, including design and installation considerations related to fire detection, interlocks, fire
protection system design, and reference to other data sheets.
B. Water mist and hybrid (water and inert gas) extinguishing systems have been added as options for
the protection of generators.
C. The document has been reorganized to provide a format that is consistent with other data sheets.
D. References to “flammable” and “combustible” liquids have been replaced with “ignitable liquids”
throughout the document.
2.1 Protection
2.1.1 General
2.1.1.1 Where combustible construction is present, install automatic sprinklers designed to provide 0.2 gpm/ft2
(8 mm/min) over 2500 ft2 (230 m2) if a wet system is used and 0.2 gpm/ft2 (8 mm/min) over 3500 ft2
(330 m2) if a dry system is used.
2.1.1.2 Install and protect oil storage tanks in accordance with Data Sheet 7-88, Storage Tanks for Ignitable
Liquids.
2.1.1.3 Where possible, use FM Approved industrial fluids. Additional information on FM Approved industrial
fluids is provided in Data Sheet 7-98, Hydraulic Fluids.
2.1.1.4 Protect cable rooms and cable trays in accordance with Data Sheet 5-31, Cables and Bus Bars.
2.1.1.5 Where emergency power is provided, refer to the recommendations in Data Sheet 5-23, Emergency
and Standby Power.
2.1.1.6 Install and protect unit power transformers and station service transformers in accordance with Data
Sheet 5-4, Transformers.
2.1.1.7 Install and protect indoor switchgear enclosures in accordance with Data Sheet 5-19, Switchgear
and Circuit Breakers. Install and protect unit power transformers and station service transformers in
accordance with Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers.
2.1.1.8 Install and protect indoor switchgear enclosures in accordance with Data Sheet 5-19, Switchgear
and Circuit Breakers.
2.1.2 Generators
2.1.2.1 Detection
2.1.2.1.1 Provide electrical protection relays to trip the generator in the event of a fault, and lock-out to prevent
re-energization of the unit until a full investigation has been performed and the fault has been cleared.
2.1.2.1.2 Provide FM Approved photoelectric smoke detection or very early warning fire detection (VEWFD).
At a minimum, provide detection in the generator housing above and below the stator windings or in the
exhaust louver areas. Install the detection in accordance with Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection,
and Data Sheet 5-40, Fire Alarm Systems.
2.1.2.1.3 Arrange the detection system to trip the generator upon activation. When VEWFD is used, monitor
detection systems to obtain background readings before pre-alarm and alarm settings are established.
2.1.2.1.4 Design the fire protection system, if installed, to actuate upon operation of the detection system.
2.1.2.1.5 Provide electronic supervision for fire detection system trouble conditions and annunciate trouble
alarms in the control room or at a constantly attended location if the station is unmanned.
2.1.2.2 Protection
Where thermoplastic insulation materials (e.g., asphalt, cloth ribbon, polyester) are installed, provide one of
the following fixed special extinguishing systems for protection of the generator:
A. Automatic water spray system (open or enclosed generators)
B. Carbon dioxide (CO2) system (enclosed generators)
C. Total flooding water mist system FM Approved for machinery in enclosures (enclosed generators), or
hybrid (water and inert gas) system FM Approved for machinery in enclosures (enclosed generators)
2.1.2.2.1 When an automatic water spray system is provided to protect the generator, use the following design
criteria:
A. Install spray rings above and below the stator end turns, as shown in Figure 2.
B. Provide a minimum density of 0.3 gpm/ft2 (12 mm/min) for the upper and lower surfaces.
C. Design the system to discharge for the rundown time of the generator or 20 minutes, whichever is
longer.
D. Provide interlocks to prevent discharge of the system until the generator is deenergized, forced air
flow is shut down (if applicable), and any installed dampers are closed.
E. Dry out the generator following system discharge using normal air flow with the generator rotating but
not energized. Continue for approximately 24 hours, or until measurements indicate the generator is dry,
before electrical repair is attempted.
2.1.2.2.2 When a carbon dioxide (CO2) system is provided to protect the generator, use the following design
criteria:
A. Install the system in accordance with its listing in the Approval Guide, the manufacturer’s
recommendations, and Data Sheets 4-0, Special Protection Systems, and 4-11, Carbon Dioxide
Extinguishing Systems.
B. Provide sufficient agent to achieve an initial CO2 design concentration of at least 34% by volume within
one minute, and maintain a minimum of 30% for the rundown time of the generator or 20 minutes,
whichever is longer.
C. Provide interlocks to prevent discharge of the system until dampers and vents are closed and air flow
is shut down.
2.1.2.2.3 When a water mist or hybrid (water and inert gas) system is provided to protect the generator, use
the following design criteria:
A. Install the system in accordance with its listing in the Approval Guide, the manufacturer’s
recommendations, and Data Sheets 4-0, Special Protection Systems, and 4-2, Water Mist Systems, as
applicable.
B. Ensure all system limitations, such as protected volume size, ventilation rate, and opening size, are
met.
C. Hydraulically design the water mist or hybrid system in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations and the system’s listing in the Approval Guide.
D. Design the water mist or hybrid agent supply to provide discharge for the rundown time of the generator
or 20 minutes, whichever is longer.
E. Provide interlocks to prevent discharge of the system until the generator is de-energized and air flow
is shut down.
F. Dry out the generator following system discharge using normal air flow with the generator rotating but
not energized. Continue for approximately 24 hours, or until measurements indicate the generator is dry,
before electrical repair is attempted.
2.1.2.2.4 Provide FM Approved wheeled portable carbon dioxide or dry chemical extinguishers at all manned
and unmanned locations. Refer to Data Sheet 4-5, Portable Extinguishers, to determine effective sizes and
locations for the extinguishers. Protect extinguishers located outside against freezing.
2.1.2.2.5 Where small hose (1-1/2 in. [38 mm]) stations are provided, space them to allow full coverage of
the area being protected. Add a water demand of 50 gpm (190 L/min) to the combined sprinkler and hydrant
demand for a single hose station. Add a water demand of 100 gpm (380 L/min) when more than one hose
station is provided.
2.2.1 Mechanical
2.2.1.2 Provide water turbines with the following condition monitoring and safeguard systems:
A. A governor to adjust the water flow to maintain the generating unit’s speed and the system frequency.
A hydraulic turbine governor to adjust the power output of the unit in response to operator or other
supervisory commands.
B. A fail-safe governor drive mechanism to stop water flow to the turbine in the event of governor drive
failure, and to protect the unit from uncontrolled runaway following sudden isolation from the electrical load.
C. A monitoring system fully integrated with plant governor and control system to facilitate automatic
shutdown and alarming.
D. A monitoring system that provides measurements of the following:
1. Guide bearing vibration
2. Bearing temperatures
3. Water flow and temperature
4. Turbine vibration
5. Head cover/draft tube vibration
6. Rotational speed
E. A non-recycling overspeed trip device that will prevent the turbine from excessive overspeed. Ensure
the turbine cannot attain a speed in excess of 140% of normal design speed, or a lower limit if designated
by the manufacturer.
F. A second means, either manual or remote actuated, to stop the flow of water to the penstock and turbine
in the event of failure of the penstock, turbine, or guide vane apparatus.
G. An alarm that will sound at a constantly attended location in the event of the development of an abnormal
condition, such as any of the following:
1. Guide bearing vibration
2. Broken guide vane shear pin
3. Bearing temperatures
4. High shaft deflection
5. Water flow and temperature
6. Turbine vibration
7. Head cover/draft tube vibration
8. Rotational speed
9. Abnormal pressure due to the governing, lubricating, or cooling systems
2.2.1.2 Equip tube-type turbines, if not designed to withstand the turbine runaway speed, with an air clutch
between the turbine and the generator that will disengage the generator at 125% of the design speed.
2.2.1.3 Equip tube-type turbines that do not have wicket gates with an automatically operated shutoff valve
that will provide shutoff and startup functions. Have the condition of the valves and controls inspected and
tested for proper operation biannually where feasible, but at least annually.
2.2.1.4 Ensure the operating procedure and training program emphasizes that brakes should not be applied
during the following conditions:
A. Runaway speeds
B. Inability to close wicket gates
C. Failure of the braking logic sequence to attain zero speed within 60 seconds
2.2.1.5 Provide protective sensing devices for the following abnormal conditions. Functionally test and
calibrate the protective devices annually. Install protective devices to automatically shut down the turbine
on any of these abnormal conditions.
A. Automatic closing of the head gates on a flow rate of 130% of normal for a period of time greater than
the closing of the governor from full open to full closed
B. Abnormal temperature
C. Abnormal flow rates of lubrication, cooling, or sealing fluids
D. Abnormal pressure due to the governing, lubricating, cooling, sealing fluids or gases
E. Broken guide vane shear pin
F. High shaft deflection
2.2.2 Electrical
2.2.2.1 Provide protective and alarm devices for salient pole hydroelectric generators in accordance with
Table 1 and Figure 1.
2.2.2.2 Set protective and alarm devices based on engineering short circuit and relay coordination studies
that have been performed by engineers experienced with protective relaying. Do not use the factory default
settings.
2.2.2.3 Alarm and shut down the generator in a controlled manner upon detection of a field ground fault.
Do not continue to operate the generator with one field ground fault.
Table 1. Recommended Protective and Alarm Devices for Salient Pole Generators
Device
No. Protective Relay Purpose
21 or Distance protection relay or Provides backup protection for system or generator zone phase faults.
51V voltage controlled/restrained
time over current relay
24 Volts per Hertz relay Protects the generator from overexcitation.
25 Synchronism check relay Prevents generator circuit breaker from closing if the generator is not in
synchronism with the electrical grid or other generators.
32 Reverse power relay1 Anti-motoring protection for the generator and the prime mover.
40 Loss of field relay2 Protects the generator in the event of a loss of field.2
46 Negative sequence current Protects the generator from unbalanced system faults.
relay
49 RTD in stator winding Detects overload.
49 RTD in cooling system Detects a failure of the cooling system.
49 RTD in stator core Detects increased temperatures from core faults.
51GN Time overcurrent relay Primary stator ground fault protection for low resistance grounded generators
and backup stator ground fault. protection for high resistance grounded
generators.
51TN3 Time overcurrent relay Provides backup protection for stator ground faults (provided on step-up
transformer neutral).
59 Time delay overvoltage relay Protects the generator stator windings from overvoltage.
53 Exciter relay4 Protects the generator from overexcitation when the generator is offline (i.e.,
prior to synchronizing or during shutdown).
59GN Time delay overvoltage relay Primary stator ground fault protection for high resistance grounded generator.
60 Voltage balance relay Detects blown instrument transformer fuses which renders protection relays
ineffective.
61 Time over current relay Protects against turn-to-turn faults in stator winding.
63 Transformer pressure relay3 Protects the generator in the event of a step up transformer fault.
64F Field ground fault relay5 Generator field winding ground fault protection.
1.
Reverse power protection is not required if the hydro turbine is designed for operation in pumped storage or synchronous condenser
modes.
2.
Undervoltage relay or overfrequency relay supervision is needed for hydrogenerators operating as synchronous condensers, or where
loss of field protection is implemented using distance protection relays.
3.
Applicable to unit connected transformer (i.e., via a step-up transformer).
4.
This is a relay that measures the current across a field shunt to ensure the generator is not overexcited when the machine is offline and
the normal V/Hz relay is not in operation.
5. Applicable to generators with slip rings.
2.2.2.4 Equip hydroelectric units used for pump-storage or power factor improvement with the following
additional safety devices:
A. Out-of-step protection (Device 78) for machines while pumping in case motor pulls out of synchronism.
B. Generator field winding temperature monitors (Device 49) for locked rotor protection during motor start
when machine is started as an induction motor.
C. High tail-race water level detectors (where the draft tube water level is depressed) while operating as
a synchronous condenser.
2.2.2.5 Provide surge protection (arresters and, if necessary, surge capacitors) in accordance with Data Sheet
5-11, Lightning and Surge Protection for Electrical Systems.
2.2.2.6 Provide generator grounding and protection so ground fault currents are limited to minimize the
potential for stator core damage. The two most commonly used grounding schemes are high-resistance
grounding and low-resistance grounding. Solidly grounded and ungrounded generators should be converted
to either scheme.
2.2.2.7 Provide ground fault protection capable of providing 100% coverage of the stator windings.
87T
51
Unit TG
Transformer
87U
Unit
Differential
60 Voltage
Balance
Overvoltage 59
50/
27 81 Frequency
Inadv. energ.
(See Note 1)
Loss of 78
synchronism
24 V/Hz
Loss of 40
field
Auxiliary VTs
Field 32
breaker Reverse
49
41 Power
Stat.
Temp.
64F 53 Generator
87G Differential
Field
ground
46 21/ System
51V backup
Negative
Sequence
Generator 100 Percent
59G neutral 27
TN stator ground
overvoltage
(See Note 2)
2.3.1 Mechanical
2.3.1.1 Include the following during the annual operating inspection of the turbine and associated systems,
preferably during a period of high water level:
A. Ensure the inspection involves the entire system to verify the condition of the various components,
beginning at the dam and including the head gates operation and emergency system, trash racks and
screens, spillway gates, penstock, surge tank (if any), generator, turbine, governor system lubrication,
bearing temperatures, and wheel pits where accessible.
B. Verify the availability of routine and emergency startup and shutdown procedures. In case of power
failure, power extension from another station is satisfactory.
C. For high water head as defined by the turbine manufacture, test the overspeed system annually, at
initial startup, at the completion of construction of a new unit, any turbine overhaul, dewater inspection,
and replacement of any components of the overspeed protection system.
D. For low water head as defined by the turbine manufacturer, follow the OEM’s instructions as overspeed
system requirements vary according to the turbine design and application.
E. Test both routine and emergency methods of actuation of the spillway gates; partial openings annually,
and full openings every 5 years.
2.3.1.2 Make a thorough inspection of the turbine with the system shut down and drained every 3 years.
2.3.1.3 During a dewatered inspection, perform nondestructive examination (NDE) on turbine components
(turbine rotor, wicket gates, and turbine blades) in accordance with the OEM’s instructions. Removing or
pulling the generator rotor may not be required. Examine stay vanes and gate surfaces using one of the
following nondestructive methods: magnetic particle (MT), liquid penetrant (PT), or ultrasonic (UT). If there
are any signs of cracking, or their condition is questionable, conduct a volumetric ultrasonic test. The″shadow
method″ has been shown to be an effective UT procedure for this type of inspection. Wicket gate pins and
wicket gate shaft should be inspected at the turbine dismantle.
2.3.1.4 Mechanical maintenance for turbine head bolts:
A. Ensure the turbine head cover, head cover bolts, flange, and rim guidance bolts are in place and properly
secured.
B. Perform visual examination (VT) in accordance with a written procedure that describes the relevant
visual indications.
C. If there are any signs of cracking, or the condition of the bolts is questionable, remove the bolts for
further evaluation and replace them as necessary.
D. Verify the condition of the head bolts using nondestructive examination. Ultrasonic examination (UT)
is the preferred method because it can detect cracks and small flaws deep within the bolts’ shanks and
threaded ends with the bolts still in the assembly.
1. Ensure only personnel certified in nondestructive testing perform examinations and evaluate the
results.
2. Ensure a qualified, written NDE procedure is used.
3. If there are any signs of cracking, or the condition of the bolts is questionable, remove the bolts
for further evaluation and replace as necessary.
2.3.1.5 Ensure a thorough inspection of the penstocks and surge tanks is made every 5 years by personnel
qualified and equipped to do this work.
2.3.1.6 Check trash racks, screens, and intake structures periodically to be sure they are in good repair and
unobstructed. The frequency of these checks will depend on water conditions. During flood periods, when
there is likely to be more debris in the water, a check every 8-hour shift may be necessary. Make a thorough
check annually when the canal or forebay is dewatered.
2.3.1.7 Check generators that are subject to oil accumulations on the underside of the stator windings
periodically. Base the frequency on operating conditions. Clean the windings when necessary.
2.3.1.8 Keep wheel pits free of accumulated oil and grease.
2.3.1.9 Maintain prints/drawings for hydro turbine spares.
2.3.2 Electrical
2.3.2.1 In-Service
2.3.2.1.1 Operate the generator in accordance with the manufacturer’s operating instructions and within the
prescribed mechanical, thermal, and electrical limits (i.e., the capability curve).
2.3.2.1.2 Consult the manufacturer before operating the generator with part of the stator winding path or
individual stator coils bypassed. If operating a generator in this condition, check the protection settings to
ensure electrical protection for the generator is not compromised. Do not operate the generator in this
condition for an extended period. This is only a temporary measure until permanent repairs can be carried out.
2.3.2.1.3 Periodically check generators that are subject to oil accumulations on the underside of the stator
windings. Base the frequency on operating conditions. Clean the windings when necessary.
2.3.2.1.4 Provide built-in electric heaters for important motors, generators, and switchgear in damp locations
or for use during shutdown periods.
2.3.2.4 Testing
2.3.2.4.1 Table 2 lists the electrical and mechanical tests that are typically performed at major and minor
generator dismantles. Have tests performed based on condition monitoring data, visual inspections, operating
experience, and failure history.
2.3.2.4.2 Treat the pilot-mounted generator of a rotating exciter as a small generator and subject it to the
same electrical tests as those performed on the main generator.
2.3.2.4.3 Have generator circuit breakers, protection relays, batteries, cables, and surge arrestors tested in
accordance with DS 5-19, Electrical Testing, at both the major and the minor dismantles.
2.3.2.4.4 Have generator auxiliaries, such as the lubrication oil system, water cooling system, and air
cooling/filtering system, inspected during dismantles, where applicable.
2.3.2.5.8 Do not DC overvoltage test a generator close to the end of its design life.
2.3.2.5.9 Do not perform surge comparison testing of the stator.
3.3.1 Core
The stator core is made up of steel laminations. These laminations are insulated from one another to reduce
the amount of eddy currents that are induced in the core. Eddy currents generate heat and losses in the
generator. Deterioration of the interlaminar insulation will result in overheating and damage to the core. This
damage can be severe and could result in melting of the core. Causes of core interlaminar insulation damage
are described in the following sections.
E. Poor handling. When the rotor is removed from the generator, careless handling will often result in
core laminations being bent or broken. These damaged laminations could short together and result in
localized overheating of the core.
3.3.2 Stator
Form wound stator bar insulation consists of three components:
A. Groundwall insulation, which provides the main insulation between the stator bar and the grounded
core.
B. Turn insulation, which provides insulation between individual turns within each stator bar.
C. Strand insulation, which provides insulation between individual strands in each turn.
Stator winding failures occur when either the groundwall or turn insulation fails and allows a short circuit to
occur.
Failure of strand insulation does not result in immediate winding failure, but will give rise to circulating currents
within the stator bar and cause local temperatures to rise. This will accelerate localized thermal aging of
the stator insulation and eventually lead to failure. Causes of ground-wall and turn insulation failure are
described in the following sections.
3.3.2.3 Corona
Corona is a special type of partial discharge activity that occurs when a gas is subjected to high electric
stress. Corona in generators occurs mainly in air-cooled machines rated 6 kV and above. It is typically found
at the stator end windings (especially between phase coils) if there is insufficient separation between adjacent
stator bars, especially between stator bars of different phases.
The causes of insufficient separation of the stator end windings include the following:
A. Poor installation of stator coils
B. Degradation of end winding blocking
C. Operation of the generator at a higher altitude than it was originally designed for (the breakdown strength
of air is reduced at lower pressures)
3.3.2.7 Overvoltages
Overvoltages due to lightning, electrical faults, and switching will cause insulation to fail if it is stressed beyond
its withstand capability.
3.3.2.8 Contamination
Unenclosed, air-cooled hydrogenerators often operate in environments where they are exposed to
contaminants such as dust, salt air, moisture, and chemicals. These unenclosed generators are susceptible
to electrical tracking, erosion, and chemical attack as a result of these contaminants.
3.3.3 Rotor
In general, there are two types of salient pole rotor windings.
For small generators (less than 50 MW), rectangular cross section, magnet wire is wound in several hundred
layers on the pole body. The rotor winding is many layers wide as well as many layers deep from pole root
to tip.
For larger generators (more than 50 MW), flat, thin copper strips are wound on the pole body with each strip
stacked on top of another, with the thin edge of the strips against the pole body. The rotor winding is generally
one strip wide, stacked several layers deep from pole root to tip.
Rotor insulation consists of two components: (1) pole insulation, which provides the ground insulation between
the pole winding and the pole body, and (2) turn insulation, which provides insulation between the individual
turns of the rotor winding for each pole.
The pole insulation for both small and large generators is usually the same. In modern machines, this consists
of insulating glass laminate washers or collars at the pole tip and root as well as insulating Nomex strips
placed between the winding and the pole body.
The turn insulation in smaller generators consists of the enamel on the magnet wire. Some modern generators
have a Dacron glass tape over the magnet wire. In larger generators, the turn insulation consists of either
an insulating Nomex separator placed between each flat copper strip, or Nomex tape wrapped around the
copper strips.
The entire pole is sometimes dipped in a thermosetting resin. The poles are then bolted to the rotor rim.
3.3.5.5 Overexcitation
Industry standards state that generators should be operated at rated kVA, frequency, and power factor at
any voltage not more than 5% above or below rated voltage. When operation occurs outside these limits,
thermal damage is possible on the generator if continued. Overexcitation is one of these abnormalities that
can be monitored and protection can be provided.
Overexcitation occurs when the ratio of the voltage to frequency (volts/hertz) applied to the terminals of the
generator exceeds 1.05 per unit or 105%. When this volts/hertz ratio is exceeded, saturation of the magnetic
core of the generator (as well as any connected transformers) can occur.Stray flux also can occur in
non-laminated components, which are not designed to carry this magnetic current. Excessive interlaminar
voltages between stator core laminations can occur at the ends of the core and cause overheating. Field
current also can become excessive if the excitation system regulator does not operate correctly.
If the overexcitation is allowed to continue, the interlaminar insulation will eventually become overheated
and break down, causing damage. Ultimately this could lead to an electrical fault.
Causes of overexcitation include the following:
A. Operating the generator under regulator control at reduced frequencies during startups and shutdowns
B. Complete load rejection, which leaves transmission lines connected to the generator
C. Excitation system failure
D. Loss of voltage transformer signal to the regulator, causing it to go to maximum boost
Protection used to detect this condition is the volt per hertz protective function. One or more are used to
protect this ratio from becoming excessive (i.e., greater than 105%).
1. Third harmonic neutral undervoltage technique. An undervoltage relay monitoring the third harmonic
neutral voltage is used to detect ground faults near the generator neutral.
2. Third harmonic terminal residual voltage technique. An overvoltage relay monitoring the third
harmonic terminal voltage is used to detect ground faults near the generator neutral.
3. Third harmonic comparator. A voltage differential relay is used to compare the ratio of third harmonic
voltage between the terminal and the neutral. A fault will cause the ratio to change and allows the relay
to detect the fault.
Another method is voltage injection. This is applied if the generator does not generate sufficient third harmonic
voltage to apply any of the above techniques. In this method, voltage is injected into the neutral and the
resulting neutral current is monitored. During a fault, the neutral current increases and the relay operates.
or move off-center. It is important to ensure that the air gap is maintained at a minimum separation. Changes
to the air gap will cause vibration and in the worse case, rubbing damage to the stationary and rotating parts
of the generator. Air gap monitors consist of capacitive sensors mounted around the bore of the stator to
measure the average, minimum and maximum distances between the rotor and the stator.
C. Partial discharge detectors. Partial discharge detectors are used to sense partial discharge activity in stator
insulation. Early partial discharge detectors consisted of high frequency current transformers placed at the
generator neutral or between the terminal surge capacitors and ground. Modern partial discharge detectors
consist of capacitors installed at the generator phase terminals. Partial discharge monitoring is typically
applied to generators rated 2.3 kV and above. Stator slot couplers are also used to provide more accurate
detection and location of partial discharge activity. These sensors consist of strip antennae installed under the
wedge or between the top and bottom coils of the stator bar. Sometimes RTD’s wiring is used as stator slot
couplers but this is not a preferred option.
D. Bearing vibration sensors. Bearing failure is a leading cause of generator losses. Bearing vibration
monitoring is widely used on generators to detect bearing problems. Bearing vibration monitoring can also
be used to detect problems such as rotor ground faults or rotor shorted turns.
E. Stator frame vibration sensors. Vibration of the stator core and frame can cause mechanical damage to
the stator winding insulation. Vibration of the stator core and frame in large salient pole hydroelectric
generators is generally caused by poor or deteriorating generator frame supports or an uneven air gap. Stator
frame vibration sensors are mounted on either the stator core or the stator frame to detect when excessive
stator frame vibration is present.
Condition monitoring systems are not able to detect all failure modes. Therefore it is important to take the
opportunity to inspect the machine anytime the machine is opened for other purposes and not to rely wholly
on condition monitoring data.
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 4-0, Special Protection Systems
Data Sheet 4-5, Portable Extinguishers
Data Sheet 4-11N, Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers
Data Sheet 5-11, Lightning and Surge Protection for Electrical Systems
Data Sheet 5-12, AC Generators
Data Sheet 5-15, Electric Generating Stations
Data Sheet 5-19, Switchgear and Circuit Breakers
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing
Data Sheet 5-23, Emergency and Standby Power
Data Sheet 5-31, Cables and Bus Bars
Data Sheet 5-40, Fire Alarm Systems
Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection
Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations
Data Sheet 7-88, Storage Tanks for Ignitable Liquids
Data Sheet 7-98, Hydraulic Fluids
Data Sheet 13-3, Steam Turbines
Data Sheet 17-1, Nondestructive Examination
Data Sheet 17-4, Monitoring and Diagnosis of Vibration in Rotating Machinery
4.2 Others
Dawson, C. W. (Aluminum Company of Canada, Ltd). “Fire Detection in Open-Type Hydrogenerators.” IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems. 1970.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection. IEEE
C37.102.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). IEEE Guide for Generator Ground Protection. IEEE
C37.101.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Guide for Insulation Maintenance of Large Alternating
Current Rotating Machinery (10,000 kVA and Larger). IEEE 56.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Guide for Operation and Maintenance of Hydro
Generators. IEEE 492.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution
for Industrial Plants. IEEE 141.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Recommended Practice for Insulation Testing of AC
Electric Machinery with High Direct Voltage.IEEE 95.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. IEEE 242.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Recommended Practice for Testing Insulation
Resistance of Rotating Machinery. IEEE 43.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Standard Electrical Power System Device Function
Numbers. IEEE C37.2.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). NFPA 850, Recommended Practice for Fire Protection for
Electric Generating Plants and High Voltage Direct Current Converter Stations, 2015.
Stone, G. C., et. al. Electrical Insulation for Rotating Machines. IEEE Press, 2004.
Transformer
Head
gate
Tail race
Spherical
Forebay valve
Dam Turbine building
Spillway
Exciter
Hoist
Generator
Head gate Main
transformer
Thrust
bearing Oil pump
& sump
Penstock
Forebay Wicket
trash rack gate
The bulb, axial flow-type (sometimes called tube-type), and pump-storage turbines are described in detail
in this section. The various kinds of turbines that provide the motive power (Francis reaction-type turbine,
Kaplan and propeller-type turbines, and Pelton impulse turbine) are briefly described.
The turbines are generally used to drive an electric generator, but occasionally they have been employed
to power a log grinder in a paper mill or drive a line shaft.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Standard 492, Guide for Operation and
Maintenance of Hydro Generators, is the basic reference for information pertaining to the operation, loading,
and maintenance of hydrogenerators and generator/motors (pump-turbines).
Draft tube: A tapered conical tube with flared end or an elbow-shaped tube that conducts the water after
passing through the runner to the rail race. See Figure 2.
Francis turbine: The Francis turbine is a reaction-type turbine where the water under pressure is only partly
converted into velocity before it enters the turbine runner (Figure 3). This is an inward flow turbine where
water enters a spiral-shaped case from the intake passages or penstocks, passes through the stay ring, and
guided by stationary stay ring vanes passes through movable guide vanes (wicket gates), then through the
runner and into the draft tube and exits into the tail race. The movable guide vanes control the flow of water
to the runner which in turn controls the power output of the turbine. These turbines are used for medium heads
ranging from 50 ft (15 m) to 1600 ft (480 m). Some of the earlier installations for heads under 40 ft (12.1
m) and small power outputs used Francis turbines in a vertical open flume setting as illustrated in Figure 4.
The turbine is entirely submerged in an open chamber and the water surface is exposed to atmospheric
pressures.
Generator
Headwater
Draft tube
vent Runner
Trash rack
Tailwater
Flume drain
Impulse turbine: Commonly known as a Pelton turbine, consists of one or more force jets of water discharging
into an air space and impinging on a set of buckets attached around the periphery of a disc (see Figure 5)
The buckets of the modern Pelton turbine are double discharge ellipsoidal-shaped bowls withsharp center
splitters. The latter divides the jet of water into two smooth streams which escape in a direction opposite to
the movement of the runner bucket. The velocity of the exiting water is reduced to practically nothing and
falls by gravity into the tail race. The size of the jet is controlled by the nozzle opening which determines the
power output of the turbine. The impulse turbine is usually used for heads between 400 ft (122 m) and 600
ft (1828 m).
UP
'0"
25
p DN
Im
4" .
12 Dia
23' 6"
13'
5'2"
5° 33'10 1/2"
6" Distributor
pipe drain
3'6" 21'6" 20"
Manhole
90°
DN DN
6'0"
37'4"
43'6" DN 6'2"
54" Diameter
rotary valve
Needle stem
removal pocket
Kaplan turbine:A propeller turbine in which the runner blades are unshrouded, that is, it has no crown or
band like on the Francis turbine (see Figure 6). The blades may be from three to eight in number and are
adjustable. The blades may be adjusted mechanically by hand, or by an electric motor through a train of gears
or by oil pressure. The water passages to the turbine are arranged the same as in the Francis turbine and
the flow of water through the passageways is the same. The limiting head for the Kaplan turbine is about 150
ft (45.7 m) except some small units can be used for heads up to 240 ft (73.1 m).
Crossflow turbine: Impulse-type machine made by Ossberger Turbine Fabrik Company in Germany from
whom they get the name ”Ossberger Turbine.” The largest runner made for these machines is 4 ft (1.2 m)
in diameter and the allowable head ranges from 20 to 600 feet (6 to 181 m). These units require more floor
space than the horizontal type but the structure is less complex. Runners are self-cleaning and free from
cavitation but are susceptible to wear if there is excessive silt or sand in the water. In general, maintenance
is less complex than that required by other units.
Penstock: A metal or concrete conduit to conduct water from the headgate or forebay to the turbine. See
Figure 2.
Propeller turbine: The propeller turbine is a reaction-type unit that has a runner that resembles a ship’s
propeller. The blades may be fixed to the runner at a predetermined angle best suited for the hydraulic and
load conditions, or they may be adjustable as in the Kaplan turbine wherein a hydraulic servomotor is
provided to rotate the blades to the most efficient position. The Kaplan turbine is usually arranged in a vertical
position, but in later adaptations of the propeller turbines, such as the bulb and axial flow types, the shafts
are horizontal or inclined.
Runner: The rotating part of the turbine that is attached to the main turbine shaft. In the Francis turbine the
runner is a ”cage-like” rotor consisting of a number of curved blades or vanes fixed radially around the center
and partially enclosed by a shroud ring. The upper ends of the blades are attached to a ”crown” and the lower
ends are attached to a band. In the smallest size the runner may be a one-piece casting although in most
cases a separate cast iron nose piece is bolted to the hub.
Servomotor: An oil operated power cylinder that is used to control the position of the runner blades and the
wicket gates. They may be actuated manually or automatically by the governor.
Stay ring: That part of the guide apparatus between the spiral case and the wicket gates that contains the
stationary stay vanes. This serves as a foundation for the turbine and generator. See Figure 3.
Wicket gates or guide vanes: Control the flow of water to the runner. They consist of a number of pivoted
guides or vanes arranged to touch each other in the closed position. They are connected to a shifting ring by
means of a link that is designed to break when a foreign object becomes fouled in the vanes.
Surge tank: A vertical pipe connected to the water conduit at some point between the intake structure and
the turbine to protect against water hammer caused by a sudden change in rate of water flow.
Trash rack: A steel structure consisting of parallel vertical steel bars spaced from 2-1/2 in. to 5 in. (5 to 10
cm) apart, depending upon the size of the turbine, installed at the water intake to prevent the entrance of
foreign material that may damage the turbine. See Figure 2.
Axial-flow Kaplan turbine: A later, more economical development to replace the open flume and concrete
spiral settings. It is designed with the runner on a horizontal or inclined shaft installed in the waterway, which
is straight through or slightly slanted from intake to discharge (Figures 7 and 8).
Head water
Generator
Blade clutch
positioner
Tail
water
Runner
Max.H.W. Max.T.W.
Speed
Min.H.W. increasor Generator
Min.T.W.
This type of installation eliminates the spiral case and elbow-shaped draft tube and much of the construction
that is required with the conventional vertical turbines. The resulting savings in construction costs makes it
feasible to rebuild these low head or low capacity facilities that were previously considered to be
uneconomical. Standardized tube turbines (as described below) are currently available from domestic
manufacturers in capacities up to 700 kW and for heads up to 60 ft (18.1 m).
These axial-flow Kaplan turbines are suitable for use at heads up to 100 ft (30.3 m) and for tidal facilities
where the turbine is designed to operate a turbine with the water flowing in either direction.
Axial-flow propeller turbines are available in four different arrangements:
1. The rim-type turbine, whose generator rotor is mounted on the periphery of the turbine runner blades.
It was developed about 40 years ago in Switzerland and is called the Straflow. A total of 75 units are still
in service. The units have fixed blade runners. Difficulties have been encountered with sealing the large
diameter gap between the generator rotor and turbine waterway, which has resulted in frequent outages
and excessive maintenance costs. A new seal design has been developed that will permit runners up
to 32 ft (9.7 m) and 130 ft (39 m) head.
2. The pit-type, whose generator is in series with the turbine runner and is enclosed in a submerged
watertight housing which may also include a speed increaser.
3. The tube-type has some advantages over the bulb-type due to the absence of a pit or a bulb obstructing
the waterway and the generator being more accessible.
4. The bulb-type, whose generator is enclosed in a streamlined watertight steel capsule installed in the
waterway either on the upstream or downstream side of the runner (Figure 9).
Bulb-type turbines: The bulb units with a straight tapered draft tube have been found to be superior in both
operation and efficiency to the elbow draft tube associated with conventional machines. For the same head
and output the diameter of the runner of a bulb machine is 15% to 20% smaller than other Kaplan units. This
reduction in runner size results in about a 10% savings in the electromechanical assembly as compared
to a conventional set, even though the bulb turbines are more expensive to produce.
Considerable savings are also affected in structural costs due to the shallower excavations required because
of the absence of the draft tube elbow. A lower superstructure is required because the overhead crane must
lift only a distance equal to the diameter of the runner instead of the combined height of the runner, shaft,
and generator that is necessary in a conventional installation. The bulb units are also less sensitive to
cavitations than a vertical Kaplan unit.
Fig. 9. Bulb-type hydraulic turbine and generator (Allis Chalmers, Hydro-Turbine Division)
Due to the almost symmetrical form of the upstream and downstream flow passages, the bulb units are fully
reversible. Tidal power stations constructed with the bulb units operating with the flow in either direction are
considered peak power facilities.
The bulb-type turbines have an excellent performance record. Maintenance of the guide and thrust bearings,
turbine shaft seal, oil pumps, cooling fans, and leakage evacuation pumps are said to present no more
problems than do the conventional units and the runner blades and hub, blade servomotor, and the oil
distribution head assembly are the same as for a conventional machine.However, the limited accessibility to
the bulb may cause some difficulty in servicing procedures and they are more time consuming.
Problems in the generator are no more likely to occur than in a vertical unit and the probability of major
breakdowns occurring is small.
Many of the repairs, such as replacement of the following items, can be made inside the bulb units without
shutting off the flow:
• Alternator guide bearing shells and slingers
• Turbine guide bearing shells and slingers
• Thrust bearing pads and slingers
• Runner seal components
• Rotor pole shoes
• Isolated stator bars
• Rotor rings
• Ancillary equipment such as fans and pumps
Diagonal-flow Kaplan turbines differ from the vertical shaft propeller turbine in that the axis of the blades of
the propeller runner is at an angle of 45° with the main shaft instead of being at right angles to it (Figure
10). The blades may be fixed or adjustable. If they are adjustable, the unit is called a Dariaz turbine. The wicket
gates are also set at an angle of 45° and the spiral case is at the same angle. Some adjustable-blade
diagonal-flow runners are made so that the blades can be closed together to shut off the flow of water and
eliminate the need for wicket gates.
Top cover
relief drain
Spiral casing
Pump storage units: Besides the conventional hydroelectric facilities, another type of hydro facility is the
pumped-storage unit (Figure 11) which is available in sizes ranging from 500 hp (373 KW) to 300,000 (224
MW) hp and heads up to 1200 ft (366 m). This type of facility is similar to a standard hydroelectric facility
except the generator is motorized, and the turbine is used as a pump to return water to an upper level storage
area. In this type of operation the generator is used during peaking hours when the power is needed. During
off-peak hours it is operated as a synchronous motor driving the water turbine as a pump to fill a reservoir.
When the unit is not generating or pumping, it can also be operated as a synchronous condenser for power
factor improvement. After the turbine is brought up to speed as in generating, the wicket gates are closed
and the tail race water depressed with compressed air. The generator breaker is then closed and the reactive
power output can be adjusted as required.
In all cases pumps would be started with the tail water pneumatically depressed below the runner and with
the outlet spherical valves closed. Water, in the draft tube of the pump-turbine being started, is lowered by
compressed air.
The generator, being the driving unit for the pump, is operated as a synchronous motor (Figure 12). Starting
torque for the generator-motors can be provided by a small “house” turbine-generator or a direct connected
impulse turbine for each unit. Excitation is applied to the generator motor fields from static exciters.
Upper reservoir
Switch
yard Transformer
Low reservoir
Butterfly valve
Reversible
pump-turbine
Each facility being built for pumped storage operation may have a new design with unique features that should
be carefully reviewed. Larger units of over500 MW may have the generator-motor water cooled. Load-break
switches and reversing switches at generator voltage are a necessity for any synchronous starting scheme.
Some of the smaller units of the 200 MW size may have manual reversing.
Water turbines intakes: The water intake to every hydroelectric facility is usually known as the forebay and
its purpose is to act as a storage reservoirto supply water to the penstock or conduit under controlled
conditions as the load is increased and to store water when the load is reduced.
Fig. 12. Reversible pump/turbine-generator unit; upper section: generator- motor; lower section: Francis-type reversible
pump/turbine (Allis Chalmers, Hydro-Turbine Division)
Overspeed design: The speed of a hydroelectric turbine is normally designed to be as high as possible. The
higher the speed, the smaller and lessexpensive will be the turbine. Likewise, the generator will be more
efficient and less costly. However, with the high speeds there may be more mechanical problems.
The specific speed (Ns), also called characteristic speed, is used as a common basis of comparison for all
turbines. This is because turbine runners of different types have widely varying characteristics of power,
speed, dimensions, and operating head. Any given runner has a definite horsepower at1 ft (0.3 m) head
and a definite speed at which it is most efficient. Each type and design of runner will have a given Ns
independent of the size but characteristic of the shape or geometry. This value is used in selecting a runner
for a given set of conditions of head, horsepower, and speed.
By definition, specific speed is the number of revolutions per minute a runner will revolve if it were so reduced
in proportion that it would develop 1 hp (746 W) under 1 ft (0.3 m) head.
The specific speed for a given wheel is calculated from data obtained by test by means of the following
formula.
Ns = N√P
H5/4
Where Ns = Specific speed
N = Rpm at gate and head H
P = Horsepower per runner
H = Head in feet
Runaway speed: If a turbine runner is allowed to revolve freely without load and with the guide vanes wide
open, it will overspeed to a value called the runaway speed. The runaway speed of a turbine at normal head
varies with the specific speed and is expressed as a percentage of normal operating speed.Francis turbines
range from about 170% at low specific speed to 195% at high specific speed. For propeller turbines the
runaway speed varies with blade angle; the steeper the blade angle, the lower the runaway speed. For fixed-
blade propellers with blades set at 16-20 degrees (where maximum efficiency is usually obtained), the
runaway speed is about 255 to 235 percent, respectively.
For adjustable-blade turbines, where the minimum blade angle is sometimes as low as 10-12 degrees in
order to obtain high efficiency at low load, the maximum possible runaway speed will be about 290-270
percent, respectively. However, with adjustable-blade propeller turbines, there is, from the standpoint of
efficiency, an optimum relationship between runner blade angle and guide vane opening, usually controlled
by a cam on the operating mechanism. The higher the gate opening, the steeper the blade angle. Thus the
combination of wide open gate and minimum blade angle can occur only in the so called “off-cam” position,
which is an extremely rare possibility. Inmost units this maximum possibly “off-cam” runaway speed is
reduced by limiting the minimum blade angle to 14-16 degrees.
The overspeed trip device commonly called the “runaway speed limiter” may be connected mechanically,
hydraulically, or electrically to the turbine governor to shut off the flow of water to the runner.
The runaway speed for impulse turbines ranges from 180-190 percent of normal speed, depending on the
specific speed of the runner per jet. The higher the specific speed, the higher the runaway speed.
For all turbines, if the maximum head is higher than the normal head, the runaway speed will be increased
in proportion to the square root of the head. Therefore, runaway speed should be based on the maximum
operating head rather than on the normal head. Water turbines and their driven generator should always be
designed for the maximum runaway speed that can possibly be achieved.
The ordinary type Francis turbine will reach about 180% of its normal speed at runaway, but should the
maximum head increase, for example, to 15% above normal due to heavy rains, the turbine would reach
about 193% of its normal speed at runaway. For some fixed blade propeller installations, the maximum
runaway speed for which the turbines and generators are built is as high as 21/2 times normal. Once an initial
runaway speed test has been conducted and the unit accepted by the owner, additional overspeed tests
of the unit are not necessary or advisable. However, a bench test of the overspeed device may be conducted.
Cavitations and water hammer: A serious problem associated with many hydraulic turbines is pitting of the
runner blades or draft tubes which is caused by the formation of rapidly whirling water as it flows through the
water passage. When the head acting on the water passage is reduced to that of vapor pressure (about
1.25 absolute head at usual water temperature), flashing of the water into vapor occurs. Voids or cavities
are produced, causing what are known as cavitations. Slight changes in static pressure or velocity with
resultant changes in pressure cause these cavities to form and collapse alternately. This is accompanied
by intense local water hammer and high local momentary pressure. When these cavities collapse on the
surface of runner blades or draft tubes, the pressure generated tends to enter microscopic cracks and pitting
results.
Cavitations are also caused by protrusions such as rivet heads, overlapping joints, or manholes not flush
with the draft tube surface; excessive draft heads resulting in a vacuum on runner surfaces; defects on the
blade formation due to faulty manufacture; improper design of the runners; and the improper materials used
during construction.
Severe cavitations can cause loss of efficiency and excessive vibration. It usually occurs on the back side
of the runner blades and, on Francis turbines, can weaken the runner and lead to structural failure.
On Kaplan and other propeller-type turbines cavitations pitting can occur on the bottom side of the blades
at the trailing edge near the blade tip.Propeller runners are most susceptible because of their high relative
velocity and small blade area.
The resistance to cavitations action by the various types of metals commonly used in turbine runners is shown
in Table 6.
Turbine runners are also subject to corrosion and erosion. Per Table 6, cast iron is most susceptible to
corrosion, and stainless steel is the most resistant.
Erosion of the runner and water control equipment is caused by abrasive silts or sand in the water and by
operating at light loads for extended periods.
Repairs: Depending upon the material used in the construction of the runners, cavitations damage is usually
repaired by welding on new material. The parts of small and medium size water turbines, especially the older
units, are usually made of cast iron or cast manganese bronze. These metals are not easily welded, however,
and will have to be replaced if damaged. Modern larger units are made of cast or fabricated plate steel which
if damaged can be repaired by welding which should be performed only by qualified technician.
Stainless steel bars applied to the underside of the propeller blade along the blade tip are also effective in
controlling cavitations damage. Some manufacturers will weld stainless steel in a depression purposely cast
in a surface that is most subject to cavitations damage as a preventive measure. The most favorable material
to use which has a high resistance to cavitations and erosion from impurities in the water is now considered
to be one that contains 12 to 14% chromium with not more than 1% nickel.
While bronze is very resistive to cavitations pitting, its principal disadvantage in comparison to stainless steel
is that it cannot be welded. Aluminum bronze containing about 10% aluminum and 1% iron has better
resistance to cavitations and in addition has good tensile strength and can be welded.
Note: The use of magnetic surface inspection techniques to check for defects is ineffective for bronze and
stainless steel. Liquid penetrant methods should be employed instead.
Governor system: Satisfactory control of a hydraulic turbine depends upon a sensitive governor and an
accurate and reliable means of registering turbine speed with the flyball head. Belts and other forms of
mechanical drive have not proven sufficiently reliable and require considerable maintenance.
A hydraulic turbine intended to operate only in conjunction with a larger power system will, in many cases,
require no speed governor. In this case, only equipment for load control is necessary. If the hydraulic turbine
is to feed into a local system or a system that is isolated from a large system, the speed and power of the
turbine must be regulated by changing the flow of water to the turbine. A governor senses the speed changes
resulting from a load or head change and causes movement of the wicket gates (guide vanes) and/or blade
pitch on reaction turbines.
Several types of governors may be found on hydraulic turbine installations. Common governors are the
flyweight governor, which is a mechanical device that takes advantage of centrifugal force to tilt flyweights
mounted on a plate to control a speed rod; the hydraulic governor which uses a special centrifugal pump
instead of flyweights for speed sensing; the mechanical hydraulic governor which uses a flyweight system
to control a hydraulic oil system (see Figure 13); the electric governor system which can use a motor drive
powered by a transformer in the generator leads or a separate permanent magnet generator and may be
used separately or as an electric hydraulic governing system; and, on new units from 5000 KW up, an
electronic( analog or digital) governor which offers more reliable speed governing accuracy and stability.
Flyballs
To close
Follow up
Pilot valve
To open
Dashpot
To sump
Pressure Valve
oil supply servomotor
To sump
To sump
Pressure
oil supply
To sump Servomotor
Relay or distribution valve
A modern governing system for a hydraulic turbine usually includes the following:
A. Governor head (speed-sensing device)
B. A means for transmitting rotational speed of the turbine to the governor head
C. A hydraulic power system which consists of:
1. A pilot valve and distributing valve hydraulic system
2. Hydraulic servomotors to operate wicket gates, deflectors, or nozzles
3. A hydraulic power source to supply pressurized oil to valves and servomotors
D. A restoring connection between wicket gates, deflectors, or nozzles and the valve system
E. Compensating dashpot (stabilizing device)
The Woodward Cabinet Actuator includes these devices and also may include pumps, pressure tanks, sump
pump, connecting piping, and various auxiliary devices in the control system.
Electronic governing system: The permanent magnet generator shown in Figure 14 is employed with an
electronic governing system. This type of system is considered to be most reliable and accurate. The flyball
head is driven by a synchronous motor that is supplied with current directly from a permanent magnet
generator which is mounted on top of the unit and driven directly from the main shaft. As the unit starts to
rotate, voltage is supplied immediately to the governor head motor locking in synchronism with the speed of
the unit.
Drive coupling
Upper drive pin Drive shaft
Upper drive coupling Mercury switch
Sliding sleeve Terminal block
Flyball
Ballarm spring
Flyball arm
Cover
Stop screw
Reset adjusting screw Rotating sleeve
Drive gear
Rotating bushing Bearing locknut
Ball bearing
Case Rotor ring
Terminal block
Stator
Outer spacer
Lower cover
Inner spacer
Pilot screw
Stationary sleeve
Insulating gasket
Lower drive coupling
In the event of failure of the governor drive, the governor senses the lower speed and the shutdown solenoid
will shut the unit down when it is de- energized. When this occurs, the shutdown rod is raised and the
hydraulic system that operates the wicket gates is actuated. The equipment is part of the apparatus contained
in a modern Woodward Cabinet Actuator.
Load limit: Another mechanically operated device called the load limit is provided to block the movement of
the pilot valve in the opening direction to limit the output.
Auxiliaries: Unattended automatic generating stations are usually provided with the following additional
devices placed on the governor: (1) normal shutdown device, (2) emergency shutdown device, (3) starting
device, (4) interlock with generator brakes when provided, (5) interlock with main circuit breaker, and (6)
automatic synchronizing and speed-matching devices.
Generator windings: The windings of most of the older small air-cooled generators had Class A insulation.
The insulation of the stator windings on most modern generators is Class B or better and designed to
withstand the turbine runaway speed.
Since about 1970, the insulation on stator windings of large hydrogenerators has consisted mainly of mica
bonded with a synthetic thermoset resin, the so- called “hard” insulation systems. While these have high
thermal stability and high dielectric and mechanical strength, serious problems with coil looseness and slot
discharge have developed in a number of installations, leading to rapid erosion of the groundwall insulation.
Prior to 1970 the groundwall insulation on a large stator coil consisted mainly of mica bonded by asphalt
which is relatively soft, especially when warm. The asphalt insulation readily conforms to the irregularities in
the slot and when wedged a good contact is made between the semiconducting paint on the coil and the
core laminations. The ”hard” insulations do not fit so snugly in the slots and loosening of wedges and side
packing and shrinkage or creep occurs when the machine is in operation. Magnetic forces at double rated
frequency or about 10 million cycles a day will cause the loose coils to vibrate and pound. Wearing of the
groundwall insulation results and failure will occur if the condition is not corrected.
Although significant differences exist between the thermoset systems from different manufacturers, they are
all considerably harder than the asphalt insulations. The mica can be all mica splitting, all mica paper, or
a combination of both. The thermosetting resin can be applied by vacuum pressure impregnation or by using
resin-rich tapes. The resin can be either polyester or epoxy with heat distortion temperatures varying from
65°C (175°F) to 150°C (328°F).
Hydrogenerators that are constructed with thermoset stator windings require frequent thorough inspection
of the windings, paying special attention to loose wedges, downward migration of slot filling material and
wedge packing, coil separators, and bottom sticks. Deposits of white powder are an indication of “corona ash”
or mechanical erosion of slot materials. In a number of cases stator windings with “hard” insulations have
been replaced after only 5 years of service.
Bus
Gen. breaker
***
51V 32 * 40 46
To
exciter Volt transf. 59
87
** 87
GN * 40
L.A.
64F
Field Gen. 49
Relay Code
Synchronizer------------------------------ 25
Reverse power relay-------------------- 32
51G Loss of excitation relay----------------- 40
Negative phase sequence relay----- 46
R Stator thermal relay--------------------- 49
* Alternatives Stator grd. overcurrent relay-------- 51-G
** Ground differential relaying (87 GN) should be
Voltage controlled or
utilized in cases where the generator is low restrained time O.C. relays---------- 51-V
impedance grounded and it can be established Field ground relay---------------------- 64-F
that other generator relaying will not protect
against iron damage for ground faults that are Ground differential relay----------- 87-GN
up to 90% into the generator windings.
Differential relay-------------------------- 87
*** 21 relays may be substituted for 51V relays for Overvoltage relay------------------------ 59
coordination purposes.
Fig. 15. Protective devices for synchronous hydroelectric generator. Note: Large machines should have all protective
devices shown. Small machines (as defined) should have only those devices shown by dashed lines.
Bus
Gen. breaker
50 49 46
51 32
50
G
L.A.
87
Gen. 64F
Note:
Differential relays
maybe omitted on
small units. Relay Code
Tests were conducted to compare the response time of smoke and heat detection. Smoke detectors were
arranged so they were de-energized, until the generator came to a stop, after the occurrence of the fault. Six
tests were conducted. Smoke detectors operated in all tests, most within 6 seconds after the generator
stopped. Thermal detectors did not go into alarm during these incidents. It was concluded that smoke
detection provided a significant chance of false alarm, making heat detection a more reliable method.
Sincethese tests, there have been improvements in smoke detector technology. If smoke detectors are used
there still are cases where smoke detection would need to be bypassed, such as when brakes are used
to slow the generator (Dawson 1970).
برای مشاهده مقاالت و ویدیوهای آموزشی حوزه مهندسی ایمنی (اطفا ،اعالن و تهویه دود) به سایت ما
مراجعه نمایید.
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