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Bakery and Confectionery
Bakery and Confectionery
Review
Starch is an important source of energy in human nutrition. It is also widely used as a processing aid in
several food and non-food industries. Starch in wheat flour contributes to the development of optimal
bread crumb and crust texture. It is also responsible for physical deterioration of bread quality through
staling. Starch is mainly extracted from starch-rich plants such as cereals, root and tuber crops and
legume seeds. It can be modified using chemical, physical or enzymatic techniques to obtain modified
starch. Traditional plant breeding or genetic modification can also be used to produce starches with
modified functionalities. Modified starches are essential food processing aids because of their
enhanced functional properties. The aim of this paper is to review the role of starch in bread making
and subsequently elucidate the influence of modified starch on the quality of wheat bread.
INTRODUCTION
Bread is an important source of energy in the human diet used in bread making are first mixed into viscoelastic
because of its high content of readily digestible starch (40 dough which is then fermented in two or several stages
g/100 g) (Mckevith, 2004). Bread is an unstable, elastic, before being baked. Starch is the most abundant fraction
solid foam, the solid part of which contains a continuous of milled wheat flour. The amount of starch (and sugars)
phase composed in part of an elastic network of cross- in wheat flour increases from about 64% (dry-basis) in
linked gluten molecules and in part of leached starch flour of 100% extraction rate to 71% (dry-basis) in flour of
polymer molecules; and a discontinuous phase of 70% extraction rate (Delcour and Hoseney, 2009). The
entrapped, gelatinized, swollen, deformed starch granules contribution of starch to bread making is related to its
(Gray and Bemiller, 2003). It is made from four principle water absorption property during dough development;
ingredients: wheat flour, water, salt and yeast. In modern gelatinization and pasting behavior during baking; and
production processes, other ingredients and additives crystallization and retro gradation behavior on cooling
such as fat, sugar, emulsifiers and enzymes must be and storage. The impact of starch on bread making is
added to ensure uniformity in quality and increase product also influenced by other flour components, especially
diversity. These essential and non-essential ingredients protein, which, although present in a relatively smaller
Author(s) agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
Onyango 345
quantity (12-14%, dry-basis), plays an important functional granules differ in shape, size, size distribution and
role in the development of the characteristic bread texture crystallinity depending on the botanical source. Starch
(Lagrain et al., 2013; Goesaert et al., 2005). The other granules may be lenticular, polyhedral, spherical, oval,
important dry-matter constituents of wheat flour are the elliptical or kidney-shaped, and range in size from 2 to
non-starch polysaccharides, lipids and ash (Goesaert et 150 µm (Belitz et al., 2009; Liu, 2005; Tester et al., 2004).
al., 2005; Delcour and Hoseney, 2009). Starch granules are simple or compound in nature with
concentric or eccentric layers of varying density (Belitz et
al., 2009). Some granules have bimodal size distribution
Starch structure and composition whereas others have unimodal size distribution (Delcour
and Hoseney, 2009; Tester et al., 2004; Copeland et al.,
Starch is the major source of stored energy in plants. 2009). Starch granules exist individually or clustered as
Cereal grains, legume seeds and root and tuber crops compound granules (Copeland et al., 2009; Delcour and
are the principle sources of starch for human nutrition. Hoseney, 2009). About 70% of the mass of a starch
Starch is a macronutrient in several foods and supplies granule is amorphous and 30% crystalline (Belitz et al.,
50 to 80% of the calories consumed by most of the 2009). The semi-crystalline character of starch granules
world’s population (Bertolini, 2010; Copeland et al., indicates a high degree of orientation of glucan
2009). Starch is metabolized in the human body to molecules, which is attributed to double helical structures
sugars, which are an important source of energy, and formed by the outer branches of amylopectin polymers.
which enables the body to perform several functions. Amylose, amylopectin branching points and the
Starch also serves as an important ingredient in several amylopectin molecules in a disordered conformation
food products and as a processing aid in several non- make up the amorphous portion of starch granules
food industries (Bertolini, 2010; Bemiller and Whistler, (Eliasson et al., 2013; Copeland et al., 2009).The major
2009). Starch is synthesized in the plastid of plant cells sources of industrial starch are maize (corn), cassava
through a series of complex biosynthetic pathways (tapioca), wheat and potato. These crops account for
controlled by several enzymes (Jobling, 2004). It is more than 99% of world starch production (Bertolini,
deposited as water insoluble semi-crystalline granules in 2010). United States of America is the major producer of
the storage tissues of plants such as grains, roots and maize starch; Europe is the major producer of wheat and
tubers (Copeland et al., 2009). Each starch granule is potato starch; whereas cassava starch is mainly
composed of two homo-polysaccharide fractions produced in Asia (Jobling, 2004).
(amylose and amylopectin), which make up 98-99% of Native starch has limited industrial applications because
the dry-weight of the granule (Tester et al., 2004; of its high hot-paste viscosity; poor thermal, shear and
Copeland et al., 2009). The amylose fraction makes up acid stability; and high susceptibility to retrogradation and
20 to 30% of the starch granule while the amylopectin syneresis (Huber and Bemiller, 2010; Bertolini, 2010;
fraction makes up 70 to 80% (Belitz et al., 2009; Liu, Singh et al., 2007). However, when starch is modified, it
2005; Jobling, 2004). Starch granules also contain small serves as a useful polymer material in several food and
amounts (0.5 to 2% w/w) of non-starch polysaccharides, non-food industries. Starch modification changes several
lipids, proteins and ash (Liu, 2005; Copeland et al., physicochemical features of the amylose and
2009). amylopectin polymers: the positive characteristics are
The amylose fraction of starch is an essentially linear enhanced whereas the undesirable qualities are
polymer that is made up of about 99% α-(1→4) linked D- suppressed (Ashogbon and Akintayo, 2014; Kaur et al.,
glucopyranose molecules and less than 0.5% α-(1→6) 2012; Huber and Bemiller, 2010). Starch can be modified
branches (Copeland et al., 2009). The degree of using physical, chemical, enzymatic or genetic methods
polymerization of amylose ranges from 1,000-10,000 (Kaur et al., 2012; Huber and Bemiller, 2010;
glucose units, which corresponds to a molecular weight Tharanathan, 2005) in order to enhance its positive
5 6
of 10 -10 (Copeland et al., 2009). By contrast, the functional attributes that can be used in food and non-
amylopectin fraction is a highly branched polymer food processing industries. Modified starch is used in the
consisting of about 95% α-(1→4) linked D-glucopyranose food industry to texturize and thicken foods, maintain gel
molecules and 5% α-(1→6) branches (Copeland et al., strength and clarity, make edible food coatings, retard
2009). The degree of polymerization of amylopectin retro gradation, stabilize emulsions, improve freeze-thaw
6
exceeds 10 glucose units, which corresponds to a stability, substitute fat, encapsulate aroma compounds
8
molecular weight of about 10 (Copeland et al., 2009). In and increase the resistant starch content (Belitz et al.,
addition to amylose and amylopectin, some starch 2009; Bertolini, 2010). Modified starch is also an
granules also contain molecules with characteristics important raw material in several non-food industries,
(such as chain length of linear molecules, branch chain such as paper, adhesive, agricultural, cosmetic, medical,
length and density of branching points) that lie between pharmaceutical, oil, plastics and textile industries
those of amylose and amylopectin (Liu, 2005). Starch (Bertolini, 2010; Bemiller and Whistler, 2009). Starch
346 Afr. J. Food Sci.
hydrolysis products (i.e. glucose syrups, high fructose dough (Gray and Bemiller, 2003). The net effect is that
syrups, syrup solids, maltodextrins and fructose) are only a small amount of amylose is leached in the
used in confectionery and beverage industry and can be intergranular phase where it forms inclusion complexes
subjected to microbial fermentation to yield organic acids, with polar lipids, which are endogenously present in
alcohols, ketones, polyols, amino acids, nucleotides, wheat starch or which may have been added as a baking
biopolymers, lipids, proteins, vitamins, antibiotics and ingredient (Goesaert et al., 2005). Moisture gradient in
hormones (Bertolini, 2010; Bemiller and Whistler, 2009). the bread, the temperature profile and added ingredients,
such as sugar, are the most important factors that affect
starch gelatinization and swelling in dough (Hoseney and
Starch in bread making Rogers, 1990; Varriano-Marston et al., 1980). Starch
granules in the exterior portions of the bread are less
The unique dough-forming and bread making property of swollen, and thus less gelatinized, than those in the
wheat flour is attributed to the storage protein fraction centermost portions because the higher temperatures on
known as gluten, which is formed when wheat flour is the crust surface accelerate loss of moisture by
hydrated and subjected to mechanical shear (Goesaert et evaporation and thus limit the extent of gelatinization
al., 2005). The three dimensional gluten network is (Varriano-Marston et al., 1980). The different molecular
responsible for retention of carbon dioxide formed during organizations of starch in the crumb and crust can be
fermentation, temporary binding of water required to evaluated using X-ray diffraction patterns. Starch
gelatinize starch and formation of the typical foam crystallinity is higher in the crust than in the crumb. The
structure of bread (Lagrain et al., 2013; Goesaert et al., X-ray pattern of starch granules in the crust is
2005). Gluten functionality in bread making is enhanced predominantly an A pattern superimposed with a V
by interaction with other wheat flour components, pattern (fat-amylose complex) whereas crystallinity in the
especially starch. Starch constitutes 70 to 85% of wheat crumb is mainly characterized by the fat-amylose
flour (Goesaert et al., 2005; Slavin et al., 2001) and is, complex (Varriano-Marston et al., 1980). Freshly baked
after gluten, the second most important fraction in wheat bread has a soft and resilient crumb that is attributed to
flour for bread making. When starch granules in wheat crystallization of amylose (Goesaert et al., 2005; Hug-Iten
flour are hydrated, they absorb up to 50% of their dry et al., 2003). Long term storage of bread leads to loss of
weight of water and swell slightly and reversibly flavour, deterioration of crumb quality and development of
(Goesaert et al., 2005). The interaction of starch and a tough leathery crust (Delcour and Hoseney, 2009; Gray
gluten in dough creates a stable network that can retain and Bemiller, 2003), which are collectively referred to as
fermentation gas in the dough structure and prevent staling. Amylopectin recrystallization (i.e. retrogradation)
collapse of bread during baking and cooling (Delcour and plays a major role in bread firming after the initial cooling
Hoseney, 2009; Ahlborn et al., 2005; Hoseney and process (Eliasson et al., 2013; Bosmans et al., 2013;
Rogers, 1990). Wheat flour destined for bread making Goesaert et al., 2009a; Goesaert et al., 2008; Ribotta and
usually has a small amount of damaged starch (about Le Bail, 2007; Hug-Iten et al., 2003). However, it is
8%) (Goesaert et al., 2005), which is vital to the important to note that the mechanism of staling is a
development of bread with good quality characteristics. complex phenomenon that is also influenced by several
Damaged starch in wheat flour increases the water other physico-chemical reactions, such moisture
absorption capacity of the flour and is hydrolyzed by α- migration from the crumb to the crust (Bosmans et al.,
amylase into maltose, which is used as a fermentable 2013; Purhagen et al., 2011; Ribotta and Le Bail, 2007)
sugar by yeast (Delcour and Hoseney, 2009). However, and gluten-starch interactions (Goesaert et al., 2008).
too much damaged starch (> 10%) is not desirable in Microbial amylases or malt enzymes are regularly added
wheat flour because it causes formation of sticky dough, to wheat flour to optimize the amylase activity of the flour
which is difficult to handle and gives bread with an (i.e. standardize the flour) and retard bread staling
adhesive crumb (Sluimer, 2005). (Goesaert et al., 2005). Amylase degrades damaged
When dough is heated, starch granules absorb water, starch particles in the dough and thus increases the
swell, gelatinize and lose their semi -crystalline nature. maltose content, which promotes yeast activity during
The linear amylose polymers leach out of the granules fermentation. The increased levels of maltose also
leaving amylopectin-enriched granules. Starch gelatini- promotes the formation of Maillard reaction products,
zation in the crumb causes formation of a porous crumb which intensify bread flavor and give the crust its
structure whereas the higher temperature at the dough characteristic smell and dark brown colour. Furthermore,
surface results in crust formation (Eliasson et al., 2013; amylase decreases the molecular weight of starch
Primo-Martin et al., 2007). Starch swelling and loss of polymers and causes the formation of maltodextrins,
granular structure is restricted by the limited amount of which contribute to increased crumb softness, improved
water in dough and competition between starch and non- crumb resilience and decreased staling rate (Goesaert et
starch polysaccharides for the available water in the al., 2009a; Hug-Iten et al., 2003; Rojas et al., 2001). The
Onyango 347
reduction in molecular weight of starch polymers Breads treated with OSA starches show improved specific
contribute to the antifirming effect by weakening the volumes, crumb whiteness and softness (Hadnadev et
amylopectin networks and increasing amylose mobility, al., 2014).
crystallization and network formation (Goesaert et al., Partial substitution of wheat flour with cross-linked
2009b; Hug-Iten et al., 2003). Maltodextrins act as starch increases crumb dryness and firmness but does
antifirming agents by hindering the association of not improve the specific volume or decrease the staling
crystallizable helices and / or by their plasticizing action, rate (Goesaert et al., 2008; Miyazaki et al., 2008;
which reduce amylopectin chain mobility (Goesaert et al., Miyazaki et al., 2005a; Hung and Morita, 2005; Hung and
2009b). Morita, 2004). Hung and Morita (2004) found that cross-
linked corn starch (5-10%) was able to increase the
specific volume of bread and decrease crumb firmness
Chemically modified starch in bread making when vital gluten was added to the formulation. Yeo and
Seib (2009) found that partial substitution of wheat flour
Chemically modified starch is obtained when starch is with cross-linked wheat starch (30%) and supplemented
treated with chemical reagents to introduce new chemical with vital gluten increases the specific volume of bread
substituent groups, effect molecular scission, or promote but decreases crumb firmness. Furthermore, Yeo and
molecular oxidation or molecular re arrangement (Huber Seib (2009) noted changes in the nutritional quality of the
and Bemiller, 2010). Starch is a suitable material for bread in the form of increased contents of total dietary
chemical modification because of the numerous hydroxyl fibre, slowly digestible fibre and resistant starch.
groups in its constituent polymers. The reaction of
chemicals with starch takes place at the hydroxyl groups
on carbon 2, 3 and 6 of the anhydroglucose units to give Genetically modified starch in bread making
converted (depolymerized), dextrinized, cross-linked,
stabilized (substituted), oxidized, cationized or graft Native starch granules contain 70-80% amylopectin and
copolymerized starch (Singh et al., 2007; Huber and 20-30% amylose and small amounts (0.5-2% w/w) of
Bemiller, 2010; Tharanathan, 2005). Due to concerns on non-starch polysaccharides, lipids, proteins and ash
consumer safety and technological reasons, not all types (Belitz et al., 2009; Copeland et al., 2009; Liu, 2005).
of substituted starches are suitable for application in food Traditional plant breeding techniques or genetic
processing. The types of chemically modified starches modification can be used to produce novel starches with
that are useful in food processing are the converted, modified functionalities (Davis et al., 2003). High amylose
dextrinized, cross-linked, stabilized and oxidized starches starch (starch with up to 70% amylose content), waxy
(Huber and Bemiller, 2010). starch (99-100% amylopectin content) or starch with
Bread made from wheat flour that is partially modified amylopectin structure, phosphate content or
substituted with esterified (acetylated) or etherified granule size and number have been produced by genetic
(hydroxypropylated) starch shows increased crumb modification (Kaur et al., 2012; Jobling, 2004). Starch
adhesiveness and a more open crumb structure but no modification in planta changes the physicochemical
improvement in specific volume (Miyazaki et al., 2008; properties, thermal characteristics and granule structure
Miyazaki et al., 2005; Goesaert et al., 2008). However, of starch and consequently its functionality during
when vital gluten is added to wheat flours containing processing (Abdel-Aal et al., 2002). High-amylose wheat
hydroxypropylated or acetylated tapioca starch, the bread flour and waxy wheat flours are, on their own, unsuitable
is softer than that containing the same amount of native for bread making. Waxy wheat flour decreases bread
tapioca starch or wheat flour alone (Miyazaki et al., volume and gives a glutinous and weak crumb with large
2005a, b). Among the various esterified and etherified gas cells (Park and Baik, 2007; Morita et al., 2002).
starches studied by Miyazaki et al. (2005a) and Miyazaki Sahlstrom et al. (2006) found that waxy wheat flour has
et al (2008), it is only hydroxypropylated starch that was no significant effect on the volume of hearth bread, but it
able to decrease the staling rate of bread. Octenyl decreases the form ratio, weight and overall appearance
succinic anhydride starch (OSA starch) is an esterified of the bread and causes development of a crumb with a
starch with surface active properties (Eliasson et al., more open pore structure. High amylose wheat flour
2013; Sweedman et al., 2013; Dokić et al., 2008). The gives bread with low specific volume and crumb with
glucose subunits within the starch molecule are small gas cells (Morita et al., 2002). The only positive
hydrophilic and soluble in aqueous solution, whereas the attribute of bread made from waxy wheat flour is that it
n-octenyl succinate chains are hydrophobic and lipophilic stales at a slower rate than bread made from standard
(Sweedman et al., 2013). These starch granules have wheat flour or high-amylose wheat flour (Morita et al.,
high effective surfaces, which induce high density of non- 2002). This is because the absence of amylose in waxy
covalent bonds between the system components and starch decreases the tendency of gelatinized material to
thereby increase dough rigidity (Hadnadev et al., 2013). gel (Jobling, 2004). Bread made from whole waxy wheat
348 Afr. J. Food Sci.
flour has low specific volume, bitter taste and dark brown baked from blends of regular wheat starch (24%
colour (Hung et al., 2007). The additional deterioration in amylose) and vital gluten. Although amylopectin
quality characteristics of bread made from whole waxy recrystallization is a major cause of crumb firming in
wheat flour, in comparison to that made from refined stored bread (Eliasson et al., 2013; Bosmans et al., 2013;
waxy wheat flour, is due to the high fibre and ash Goesaert et al., 2009a; Goesaert et al., 2008; Ribotta and
contents in the whole waxy wheat flour rather than the Le Bail, 2007), partial substitution of wheat flour with
high amylopectin content. Similarly to bread made from waxy flours decreases crumb firmness because the low
refined waxy wheat flour, bread made from whole waxy amylose content in the bread gives it a lower than normal
wheat flour stales at a slower rate than bread made from post-bake crumb firmness (Purna et al., 2011). The
standard wheat flour (Hung et al., 2007). Bread made increased water absorption capacity of waxy flour and
from standard wheat flour contains small amounts of modified water distribution also contribute to increased
resistant starch (Sajilata et al., 2006). The amount of crumb softness of bread containing waxy flour (Eliasson
resistant starch in baked bread can be increased further et al., 2013; Purna et al., 2011; Purhagen et al., 2011;
by adjusting the processing conditions or using Hung et al., 2007).
processing aids such as sour dough acids (Liljeberg et
al., 1996) or by partial substitution of wheat flour with high
amylose starch (Hung et al., 2005; Hoebler et al., 1999; Physically modified starch in bread making
Liljeberg et al., 1996; Eerlingen et al., 1994). On storage,
the resistant starch content in bread increases further Physically modified starches are considered to be natural
due to amylopectin retrogradation (Miyazaki et al., 2005b; materials with high safety because they are produced
Eerlingen et al., 1994). Partial replacement of wheat flour without the use of chemicals or biological agents
with high amylose starch or flour in bread making is of (Ashogbon and Akintayo, 2014; Kaur et al., 2012).
nutritional importance because waxy starch is able to Physically modified starch can be obtained by heat
resist digestion in the intestine and hence decreases the treatment or mechanical shearing and include pre-
glycaemic index of bread (Hoebler et al., 1999). The gelatinized starch, granular cold water soluble starch,
nature of the substitute high amylose flour and the level mechanically sheared starch, annealed starch, heat-
of substitution impart different effects on bread quality. moisture treated starch and dry-heated starch (Kaur et
Miyazaki et al. (2005b) showed that substitution of wheat al., 2012; Huber and Bemiller, 2010). Novel methods that
flour with 10% or 30% high amylose wheat flour does not can be used to synthesize physically modified starch
affect loaf volume or appearance of the bread crumb but include osmotic pressure treatment, deep freezing,
50% substitution decreases loaf volume and gives bread instantaneous controlled pressure drop, pulsed electric
crumb with inferior appearance. By contrast, Eerlingen et field, corona electrical discharges, superheat treatment,
al. (1994) found that substitution of wheat flour with a iterated syneresis, radiation, sonication, photo-oxidation
relatively low amount (20%) of high amylose corn starch and exposure to ultra violet or polarized light (Kaur et al.,
decreased bread volume. 2012; Tharanathan, 2005).
Partial substitution of wheat flour with waxy flours or Partial substitution of wheat flour with extruded wheat
starches from different botanical sources decreases flour (Martínez et al., 2013) or pregelatinized wheat
bread volume (Hung et al., 2007; Bhattacharya et al., starch (Miller et al., 2008) increases the damaged starch
2002; Hibi, 2001) and crumb firmness (Bhattacharya et content of the flour leading to increased water absorption
al., 2002; Purna et al., 2011; Purhagen et al., 2011). The and gas production during fermentation. To ensure that
results obtained with staling rate are less conclusive. adequate bread characteristics are maintained, only
Bhattacharya et al. (2002) and Hayakawa et al. (2004) small amounts (less than 5%) of damaged flour should be
showed that substitution of wheat flour with waxy durum used to replace the wheat flour (Martínez et al., 2013;
wheat flour (10-30%) or waxy wheat flour (less than Miller et al., 2008). Partial substitution of wheat flour with
20%), respectively, decreases the staling rate of bread. heat-moisture treated maize starch (modification
By contrast, Purna et al. (2011) found that substitution of conditions are not clearly defined) decreases the specific
wheat flour with hard waxy wheat flour (15-45%) does not volume and crumb softness of bread (Miyazaki and
decrease the staling rate of bread. High levels of waxy Morita, 2005). The heat-moisture treated starch is unable
wheat flour (more than 20%) damages the crumb texture to improve the quality of bread due to the inability of the
and causes post-bake shrinkage (Purna et al., 2011; modified starch to effectively interact with gluten
Hayakawa et al., 2004). The negative effects of waxy (Miyazaki and Morita, 2005). Bread made from wheat
flours on bread quality can be mitigated by flour that has been partially substituted with high
supplementing wheat flour with vital gluten. Lee et al. pressure-treated oat, millet or sorghum flours has higher
(2001) showed that bread made from wheat flour, waxy crumb firmness, lower crumb cohesiveness and specific
wheat starch (25 or 50%) and vital gluten had a higher volume than bread made from standard wheat flour
volume and softer and porous crumb structure than bread (Angioloni and Collar, 2012).
Onyango 349
Enzymatically modified starch in bread making because of the high density of non-covalent bonds
between the system components. By contrast, pre-
Enzymatic modification of starch during bread making gelatinized or hydrolyzed OSA starch granules possess
takes place in situ. Native wheat flour is rich in β- weakened or destroyed crystalline structures which
amylase, which is largely inactive, and which is create fewer bonds with the system components and thus
susceptible to heat inactivation before starch gelatinizes. decrease dough rigidity (Hadnadev et al., 2013).
By contrast, wheat is low in α-amylase activity although Nonetheless, the differences in dough quality are not
this enzyme is essential for the development of desirable reflected in the bread quality, except for crust color.
bread properties such as high volume, low staling rate Breads treated with non-physically modified OSA starches
and soft crumb texture (Delcour and Hoseney, 2009). or dual-modified OSA starches show increased specific
Thus, wheat flour is normally supplemented with malt or volumes, crumb whiteness and softness as compared to
fungal α-amylase to improve its bread making properties. breads prepared from normal wheat flours (Hadnadev et
α-Amylase improves bread volume by catalyzing the al,. 2014). Crusts of breads treated with dual-modified
breakdown of damaged starch to maltose, which the OSA starches are darker than for those treated with non-
yeast utilizes to produce carbon dioxide. The antistaling physically modified OSA starch (Hadnadev et al., 2014).
action of amylases is due to the formation of dextrins of a
particular size and / or modification of the starch structure
to give it different retrogradation properties (Delcour and CONCLUSION
Hoseney, 2009). There are several other novel kinds of
enzymatically modified starch (Kaur et al., 2012) that Starch is an important source of energy in human
could be useful in bread making. For instance, glycogen- nutrition. The major sources of starch for human nutrition
branching enzymes or cyclomaltodextrinase can be used are cereals, root and tuber crops, and legumes. Wheat is
to synthesize starches with limited retrogradation ability the most widely used cereal for bread making because of
(Kim et al., 2008; Auh et al., 2006), which could be used the chemical nature of its storage protein fraction, which
to decrease the staling rate of bread. form viscoelastic dough when hydrated. After protein,
starch is the second most functionally important fraction
in wheat flour for bread making. Starch contributes to the
Dual-modified starch in bread making formation of optimal dough; is responsible for setting of
the crumb during baking; and contributes to the physical
A single type of modification is usually insufficient to deterioration of bread quality through staling. Attempts
impart all the desired properties to starch intended for a have been made to improve the baking quality of wheat
specific application. Although many commercial starch flour through the addition of chemically, physically,
products are made with more than two types of genetically or enzymatically modified starches. Improve-
modification (Huber and Bemiller, 2010), most of the ment in the quality of bread has been achieved in some
published studies in bread making have investigated the instances and appears to be dependent on the nature of
impact of dual-modified starches (i.e. modified starches the modified starch, botanical origin of the starch, dosage
made with only two types of modification such as used, and presence or absence of dough improving
physical/chemical, chemical/chemical or chemical/ agents such as vital gluten.
enzymatic methods). Hibi (2001) showed that substitution
of wheat flour with retrograded waxy corn starch (5%)
increases specific volume and decreases staling rate, Conflict of interests
whereas Eerlingen et al. (1994) found that extruded
retrograded waxy corn starch (20%) decreases bread The author declares that there is no conflict of interests
volume and crumb firmness and increases resistant regarding the publication of this paper.
starch content in bread. Bread made from wheat flour
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