Group 3 TQM
Group 3 TQM
PROCESS IMPROVEMENT
By:
Mitzi Estellero and Melanie Samsona
PROCESS IMPROVEMENT
Process Improvement is used to identify, analyze and improve existing processes
within an organization to meet new goals and objectives. This is an at a glance
review of the top methodologies employed for Process Improvement.
Process improvement is a simple yet powerful idea. It is how businesses identify
the parts of their business processes where they can increase their profit margins,
cut down on expenditures, and speed up their operational timelines.
It’s not a radical or new concept–it was introduced by James Harrington as early
on as 1991–but it’s especially important today.
There are a lot of methods and techniques through which a company identifies
problem areas in their business processes. These process improvement
techniques can analyze not only processes, but also design improvements that
can help scale processes once the business grows larger.
Why You Need Process Improvement
Inefficient processes lead to a waste of precious employees’ time
The time that someone spends doing an unnecessary and redundant task could’ve
been better spent in more valuable areas.
Working standards can drop
Inefficiently built processes often mean that work becomes defective. Reports can
go missing, deadlines can be missed, and employees can drop the ball in so many
areas.
Productivity can take a hit
The bottom line in any business is the finances, and productivity losses first hit this
vital area. If you’re paying a team to do a job that could be easily automated, you’re
literally losing money by the minute.
Besides these reasons, you’ll also want to stay ahead of radical improvements in
technology, industry trends, and how your competition operates.
How Process Improvement Works
Business Process Improvement can work in two ways: it can flow through a structured
path, or take a more informal route. Either way, though, it tends to follow four common
steps.
Process Audits, And Finding Improvement Opportunities
The audit is usually the best place to start process improvement efforts. Here’s
what you should be looking for: opportunities to improve process, and potential risk
areas. This will help you strategize business improvement, especially in regard to
prioritizing specific areas.
At this stage, it’s a good idea to get an understanding of how tweaking a particular
process will impact resources, as well as stakeholders–which may be the
organization itself, teams, individual employees, partner organizations, vendors, or
customers.
Analyze Process That Are Currently in Use
Once you’ve established which area you want to improve, spend time analyzing
the processes that are in place. You can do this through process mapping
(workflows), cause/effect studies, and operational surveys.
Ask the right questions: Check if the process is broken, and where. Which steps
cause delays/bottlenecks, and which ones are costly? Which steps cause quality
losses?
Build Commitment and Support
A commonly skipped step, and often the difference between a token effort and one
that brings real change.
Process improvement isn’t an instant do-over. It requires a dedicated commitment
across the board, and that’s why getting senior management support is crucial.
Managerial support will make the difference when you explain the change in the
status quo, and why it is necessary.
Improving processes takes a lot of time and resources, so make sure you get the
all-important upper management approval and support.
Strategize Your Process Improvement Plan
A good strategy will include the steps you’ve isolated as problem areas, why they
are problem areas, and how you plan to improve them. Make sure that your
process improvement objectives are realistic, measurable, and necessary in the
context of your organization’s strategic long-term and short-term goals.
Techniques of Process Improvement
1. Process mapping
It is the strategic analysis of identifying and creating a visual depiction of the process
flow of various areas of an organization. For example, the supply chain cycle is an
extensive process beginning with vendor selections, moving on to procurement,
manufacturing and quality control and ending with merchandise distribution. Business
process mapping provides benefits to organizations looking to lower costs and
improve efficiency.
Key elements of process mapping include actions, activity steps, decision points,
functions, inputs/outputs, people involved, process measurements and time required.
Basic symbols are used in a process map to describe key process elements. Each
process element is represented by a specific symbol such as an arrow, circle,
diamond, box, oval or rectangle.
Benefits
Visualization of Roles
This should go without saying – every once in a while, you end up in a situation where
no one knows what’s going on with a certain process. Who’s in charge of what? Why is
the new report not ready? Why did the manufacturing line just blow up?
A business process map helps visualize the responsibilities on everyone’s part – it’s
going to be clear who’s in charge of what for each part of a process.
Problem Solving
Spotting the problem is easy – just look at what blew up. Finding the source, however,
tends to be more difficult. A process map visualizes the entire process that led to the
bottleneck, making it a lot easier to spot what, exactly, went wrong.
Risk Management & Compliance
As well as identifying areas that are causing inefficiencies, Business Process Mapping
is a great tool for spotting potential risks caused by processes that leave the company
open to legal or health and safety problems.
If you end up missing a step that’s critical to some governmental regulations, it can be
extremely hazardous to the company – creating danger for the employees or the
environment, which in turn, leads to fines. For the same reasons, process mapping can
be a valuable resource when it comes to supplying evidence for regulatory standards in
terms of compliance.
Establishing Best Practice
Once Business Process Mapping has been introduced to a company and a process has
been mapped and optimized accordingly, the map can be used across the board as
evidence of best practice and an exemplar for the rest of the business processes. This
brings some uniformity to the way processes work within the organization and rewards
those who put in the initial effort, as well as demonstrating the importance of the
mapping.
If on the other hand, a process is underperforming, it’s easier to try out different ways to
carry it out & compare it to the original benchmark.
Showing the Big Picture
In any business larger than a handful of staff, it is inevitable that a silo mentality will
develop over time, and that staff at all levels will lose sight of the big picture of what the
business is attempting to achieve. Even when you drill down to just one process
involved in the organization, Business Process Mapping can help everyone understand
the big picture and get re-engaged with the vision and the steps required to achieve it.
Business Process Mapping allows your employees to get a very good sense of what’s
going on within the business – both on a day-to-day level and on the larger scale.
This, in turn, makes it easier to achieve the bigger goals.
How to Create a Process Map
Step 1: Identify the problem
What is the process that needs to be visualized?
Type its title at the top of the document.
Step 2: Brainstorm activities involved
At this point, sequencing the steps isn’t important, but it may help you to
remember the steps needed for your process.
Decide what level of detail to include.
Determine who does what and when it is done.
Step 3: Figure out boundaries
Where or when does the process start?
Where or when does the process stop?
Step 4: Determine and sequence the steps
It’s helpful to have a verb begin the description.
You can show either the general flow or every detailed action or decision.
Step 5: Draw basic flowchart symbols
Each element in a process map is represented by a specific flowchart symbol. Lucid
chart makes it simple to create and rearrange shapes, add labels and comments and
even use custom styling in your process map.
Ovals show the beginning of a process or the stopping of a process.
Rectangles show an operation or activity that needs to be done.
Arrows represent the flow of direction.
Diamonds show a point where a decision must be made. Arrows coming out of a
diamond are usually labeled yes or no. Only one arrow comes out of an activity
box. If more than is needed, you should probably use a decision diamond.
A parallelogram shows inputs or outputs.
Step 6: Finalize the process flowchart
Review the flowchart with others stakeholders (team member, workers,
supervisors, suppliers, customers, etc.) for consensus.
Make sure you’ve included important chart information like a title and date, which
will make it easy to reference.
Helpful questions to ask:
o Is the process being run how it should?
o Will team members follow the charted process?
o Is everyone in agreement with the process map flow?
o Is anything redundant?
o Are any steps missing?
Types of Process Maps/Mapping
Swimlane Diagram – This one functions almost identically the same as a
generic flowchart. The main difference, however, is that with the swimlane
diagram, each of the steps is divided between different teams or individuals who
are responsible for them. This makes it a very clear system for processes that
need to be mapped out in this manner.
Value stream map – Another alternative to the flowchart, a value stream map is
often used in lean six sigma applications and are much less straightforward to
analyze at a glance. This makes them potentially more useful for a more in-depth
look into a process, but also makes them less commonly used.
SIPOC – This stands for Supplier Inputs Processes Outputs Customer and is a
very simplified process map that strips away 99% of the information to focus on
the essentials of the process and the people involved.
2. Histogram
Histogram makes our task easier to identify different data, the frequency of the
data occurring in the dataset and categories which are difficult to interpret in a
tabular form.
It helps to visualize the distribution of the data.
When we have huge datasets it can be easily visualized using a histogram.
It also helps get an understanding of the skewness of the data.
Benefits
o Histogram makes our task easier to identify different data, the frequency of the
data occurring in the dataset and categories which are difficult to interpret in a
tabular form.
o It helps to visualize the distribution of the data.
o When we have huge datasets it can be easily visualized using a histogram.
o It also helps get an understanding of the skewness of the data.
How to create Histogram
• Step 1 – Minimum Data Points
• Step 2 – Number of Bins
• Step 3 – Determine Bin Width
TECHNIQUES COMMONLY USED IN PROCESS IMPROVEMENT
DRIVE
DRIVE is a commonly used tool and approach in process improvement. This approach
helps us analyze the problem from different angles.
D efine the scope of the process, the criteria to measure success by, and agree
the deliverables.
R eview the current process, identify and collect data.
I dentify improvements or solutions for the problem as well as necessary changes
to gain and sustain the improvements
V erify that the improvements will achieve the goals that were defined, then
prioritize and plan the improvements
E xecute the plan and implement the solutions and improvements, gather feedback
and review
The process can much more easily be executed by a team of problem solvers.
This makes the approach scalable.
Since the process is formally defined it can be continuously improved. Over time
the process can evolve to be so powerful it's your most important asset, as it is for
many of the world's largest companies like Toyota, Intel, and Exxon,
DMAIC
DMAIC is a process improvement cycle developed as part of the Lean Six Sigma
methodologies. It is a five-step process that focuses on improving quality while minimizing
defects in a process.
Define: Define what is currently known about the process, the goals and the
deliverables for the project. This will define the scope for your simulation what
needs to be covered and what is too detailed to add value.
Helpful tools to use during this stage:
Project charter
A document that, while describing the purpose of a project and its
scope, legally authorizes the beginning of the project. It clarifies general
specifications, the purpose of the project, the key stakeholders, and the
possible outcomes.
Workflow diagram
A visual representation of a business process (or workflow), usually done
through a flowchart. It uses standardized symbols to describe the exact steps
needed to complete a process, as well as pointing out individuals responsible
for each step.
Measure: Collect the data; decide what to measure and how to measure it. This
data will be the inputs of your simulation so that you can create an accurate model
of your current process and defects.
Analyze: Analyze the data collected to determine the cause of problems (defects)
in the process. Using simulation at this stage provides the ability to experiment
with the process, test improvements and see how the process responds to
changes.
Improve: Identify and implement solutions to address these defects.
Control : Monitor the improvements to ensure sustained success.
Six Sigma is a set of management techniques that helps companies minimize the
likelihood of errors and improve the customer experience.
If Six Sigma is the methodology, then DMAIC serves as the roadmap for business
to solve problems and improve their processes.
By using DMAIC, businesses can improve the quality of their products and
services, increase their revenue, and decrease their overall costs. However, even
though it is a proven strategy its effectiveness depends mostly on how well it is
implemented and maintained.
The Benefits of DMAIC
Higher revenue
When companies streamline their processes through DMAIC they will have higher levels
of productivity. As they begin to increase their production with fewer defects they will
typically begin to bring in more revenue.
Decreased Cost
Many companies don’t realize how much time and resources they are wasting. DMAIC
helps companies reduce the amount of wasted time and resources which will save them
money in the long run.
Increased productivity
The sole purpose of implementing Six Sigma is to reduce waste. This will increase an
organization’s productivity as they are able to produce more while using fewer resources.
SIMULATION
A simulation is a computer model that mimics the operation of a real or proposed
system, such as the day-to-day operation of a bank, the running of an assembly
line in a factory, or the staff assignment of a hospital or call center.
The simulation is time based, and takes into account all the resources and
constraints involved, as well as the way these things interact with each other as
time passes. Simulation also builds in the randomness you would see in real life.
For example, it doesn't always take exactly 5 minutes for a customer to be served and a
customer doesn't always arrive every 15 minutes. This means that the simulation really
can match reality, so when you make changes to the simulation it will demonstrate exactly
how the system would behave in real life.
With simulation software you can quickly try out your ideas at a fraction of the cost
of trying them in the real organization. And, because you can try ideas quickly, you
can have many more ideas, and gain many insights, into how to run the
organization more effectively.
Simulation offers a powerful, evidence-based approach to decision making - by
using a virtual representation to test the impact of process changes and 'what if'
scenarios, you can find an approach that delivers the best results.
PARETO CHART
A Pareto chart is a ranking of defects, causes, and/or data in a process. They’re
ranked from the most significant to the least significant. This kind of ranking helps in
process improvement analysis, since you can filter out the major factors that need
attention and the details that don’t affect the process much. It is named after the Pareto
principle, which is named for the Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto.
Using this data, you can channel your efforts into focusing on those factors that cause
the greatest impact, while leaving the smaller details for a later time. It contains
both bars and a line graph, where individual values are represented in descending order
by bars, and the cumulative total is represented by the line. It is used to identify the vital
few problems or causes of problems that have the greatest impact.
When to use a Pareto Chart?
When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes in a process.
When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on the most
significant.
When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific components.
When communicating with others about your data.
Pareto Chart Example
Chart 1 shows how many customer
complaints were received in each of
five categories.
What is benchmarking?
Benchmarking is a systematic process for identifying and implementing best or
better practices.
Is a way to go backstage and watch another company’s performance from the
wings, where all stage tricks and hurried realignments are visible.
(Joseph Juran’s, 1964) ”What is that organizations do that gets result so much
better than ours”
The answer to this question opens door to benchmarking, an approach that is
accelerating among many firms that have adopted the total quality management (TQM)
philosophy.
Types of Benchmarking
It is useful to distinguish between the main types of benchmarking: Firstly, there is
Informal Benchmarking. This is the type of benchmarking that most of us do
unconsciously at work and in our home life. Secondly, there is Formal Benchmarking
of which there are two types: Performance Benchmarking and Best Practice
Benchmarking.
Benefits of Benchmarking
There may be many reasons for carrying out benchmarking. Some of
them are set against various objectives in Table 1.1. The links between benchmarking
and TQM are clear – establishing objectives based on industry best practice should
directly contribute to better meeting of the internal and external customer requirements.
The benefits of benchmarking can be numerous but include:
creating a better understanding of the current position
heightening sensitivity to changing customer needs
encouraging innovation
developing realistic stretch goals
establishing realistic action plans.
Table 1.2.
Organisation’s Productivity opportunity
absence level
(%)
Under 3 This level matches an aggressive benchmark that has been achieved
in ‘excellent’ organizations.
3–4 This level may be viewed within the organization as a good
performance – representing a moderate productivity opportunity
improvement.
5–8 This level is tolerated by many organizations but represents a major
improvement opportunity.
9–10 This level indicates that a serious absenteeism problem exists
Over 10 This level of absenteeism is extremely high and requires immediate
senior management attention.
Table 1.3 provides a simple pro forma for this purpose. The score derived gives a crude
guide to the readiness of the organization for benchmarking:
32–48 Ready for benchmarking
16–31 Some further preparation required before the benefits of benchmarking can be
fully derived
0–15 Some help is required to establish the foundations and a suitable platform for
benchmarking
Table 1.3
After studying the statements below tick one box for each to reflect the level to
which the statement is true for the organization.
Most Same Few None
Processes have been documented with measures to
understand performance.
Employees understand the processes that are related to
their own work.
Direct customer interactions, feedback or studies about
customers influence decisions about products and
services
Problems are solved by teams.
Employees demonstrate by words and deeds that they
understand the organization’s mission,vision and
values.
Senior executives sponsor and actively support quality
improvement projects.
The organization demonstrates by words and by deeds
that continuous improvement is part of the culture.
Commitment to change is articulated in the
organization’s strategic plan.
Add the columns:
x6 x4 x2 x0
Multiply by the factor
Obtain the grand total?
The benchmarking process has five main stages which are all focused on trying to
measure comparisons and identify areas for action and change (Figure 1.1).
History
Ishikawa diagrams were proposed by Kaoru Ishikawa in the 1960s, who pioneered
quality management processes in the Kawasaki shipyards, and in the process became
one of the founding fathers of modern management.
It was first used in the 1960s and is considered one of the seven basic tools of quality
control. It is known as a fishbone diagram because of its shape, similar to the side view
of a fish skeleton.
Definition of Cause & Effect Diagram
Fishbone diagrams (Ishikawa diagram, Cause and Effect diagram) are successfully used
in various fields of industries and manufacturing to analyze the set of possible causes
and their effects.
The cause and effect diagram is used to explore all the potential or real causes (or
inputs) that result in a single effect (or output). Causes are arranged according to their
level of importance or detail, resulting in a depiction of relationships and hierarchy of
events. This can help you search for root causes, identify areas where there may be
problems, and compare the relative importance of different causes. Typical categories
commonly present in different nature of
business are: The 4 S’s (used in service
The 4 M’s (used in manufacturing) industry)
understanding of the problem.
• Surroundings
Machine • Suppliers
Method • Systems
Material • Skills
Man Power
The 8 P’s (used in service industry)
Product=Service More M’s
Price
Mother Nature
Place
(Environment)
Promotion Measurement (Inspection)
People Maintenance
Process Money Power
Physical Evidence
Productivity & Quality
When to used it?
• Identify the possible root causes, the basic reasons, for a specific effect, problem
or condition.
• Sort out and relate some of the interactions among the factors affecting a
particular process or effect.
• Analyze existing problems so that corrective action can be taken.
Example of Fishbone Diagram
6 Ms and 8 Ms are globally recognized standards for manufacturing. First you need to
define an effect of the analysis and add it as a head of your diagram, all causes listed
above on this page are added as the bones (without particular order). If necessary, you
can also use on the diagram another terms that better suit for your company.
Step by step process
Steps to solve a problem with a Cause and Effect Diagram:
1. Identify the problem:
Write down the exact problem you face in detail. Where appropriate identify who is
involved, what the problem is, and when and where it occurs. Write the problem in a box
on the left hand side of a large sheet of paper. Draw a line across the paper horizontally
from the box. This arrangement, looking like the head and spine of a fish, gives you
space to develop ideas.
2. Work out the major factors involved:
Next identify the factors that may contribute to the problem. Draw lines off the spine for
each factor, and label it. These may be people involved with the problem, systems,
equipment, materials, external forces, etc. Try to draw out as many possible factors as
possible. If you are trying to solve the problem as part of a group, then this may be a
good time for some brainstorming.
Using the ‘Fish bone’ analogy, the factors you find can be thought of as the bones of the
fish.
3. Identify possible causes:
For each of the factors you considered in stage 2, brainstorm possible causes of the
problem that may be related to the factor. Show these as smaller lines coming off the
‘bones’ of the fish. Where a cause is large or complex, then it may be best to break the
it down into sub-causes. Show these as lines coming off each cause line.
4. Analyze your diagram:
By this stage you should have a diagram showing all the possible causes of your
problem that you can think of. Depending on the complexity and importance of the
problem, you can now investigate the most likely causes further. This may involve
setting up investigations, carrying out surveys, etc. These will be designed to test
whether your assessments are correct.
Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES
Fishbone diagrams permit a thoughtful analysis that avoids overlooking any
possible root causes for a need.
The fishbone technique is easy to implement and creates an easy‐to‐understand
visual representation of the causes, categories of causes, and the need.
By using a fishbone diagram, you are able to focus the group on the ʺbig pictureʺ
as to possible causes or factors influencing the problem/need.
Even after the need has been addressed, the fishbone diagram shows areas of
weakness that ‐ once exposed ‐ can be rectified before causing more sustained
difficulties.
DISADVANTAGE
The simplicity of a fishbone diagram can be both its strength and its weakness.
As a weakness, the simplicity of the fishbone diagram may make it difficult.
MEASUREMENT
By:
Clarice E. Montano and Leovelyn Nebres
QUALITATIVE MEASUREMENT
Performance measurement
In the organization that is to succeed over the long term, performance must be
measured by the improvements seen by the customer.
In the cycle of never ending improvement, measurement plays an important role in:
Measures are used in process control (e.g. control charts) and in performance
improvement (e.g. improvement teams), so they should give information about how well
processes and people are doing and motivate them to perform better in the future.
QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT
The Deming cycle of continuous improvement – Plan, Do, Check, Act – clearly
requires measurement to drive it, and yet it is a useful design aid for the measurement
system itself:
1. Why measure?
2. What to measure?
3. Where to measure?
4. How to measure?
Why measure?
What to measure?
A good start-point for deciding what to measure is to look at what are the key
goals of senior management; what problems need to be solved; what opportunities are
there to be taken advantage of; and what customers perceive to be the key ingredients
that influence their satisfaction.
Where to measure?
If true measures of the effectiveness of TQM are to be obtained, there are three
components that must be examined – the human, technical and business
components.
The human component is clearly of major importance and the key tests are that
wherever measures are used they must be:
How to measure?
Effectiveness
Effectiveness may be defined as the percentage actual output over the expected output:
Actual output
Effectiveness =Expected output– × 100 per cent
Effectiveness then looks at the output side of the process and is about the
implementation of the objectives – doing what you said you would do. Effectiveness
measures should reflect whether the organization, group or process owner(s) are
achieving the desired results, accomplishing the right things.
Efficiency
Efficiency is concerned with the percentage resource actually used over the resources
that were planned to be used:
Clearly, this is a process input issue and measures the performance of the process
system management. It is, of course, possible to use resources ‘efficiently’ while being
ineffective, so performance efficiency improvement must be related to certain output
objectives.
Productivity
Productivity measures should be designed to relate the process outputs to its inputs:
Expected output
Expected productivity =Resources expected to be consumed–
Actual output
Actual productivity=Resources actually consumed–
Quality
The non-quality related measures include the simple counts of defect or error rates
(perhaps in parts per million, numbers per square meter or per thousand dollars spent),
percentage outside specification or Cp/Cpk values, deliveries not on time or, more
generally, as the costs of poor quality. When the positive costs of prevention of poor
quality are included, these provide a balanced measure of the costs of quality.
The quality measures should also indicate positively whether we are doing a good job in
terms of customer satisfaction, implementing the objectives and whether the designs,
systems and solutions to problems are meeting the requirements. These really are
‘voice-of-the-customer’ measures.
Impact measures should lead to key performance indicators for the business or
organization, including monitoring improvement over time. Value-added management
(VAM) requires the identification and elimination of all non-value adding wastes,
including time, often through the use of ‘Lean’ approaches. Value added is simply the
volume of sales (or other measure of ‘turnover’) minus the total input costs, and
provides a good direct measure of the impact of the improvement process on the
performance of the business.
A related ratio, percentage return on value added (ROVA) is another financial indicator
that may be used:
Some of the impact measures may be converted to people productivity ratios, e.g.:
Value added
–
Number of employees (or employee costs)
I. Prevention Costs
- The cost of trying to prevent poor-quality products from reaching the
customer
- Reflects the quality philosophy of “do it right the first time”: the goal of total
quality-management program
- “The cost of doing things right the first time”
Examples:
1. Quality Planning Costs: The costs of developing and implementing quality-
management program
- Plans required to achieve the quality objective: production, supervision,
process control, inspection and other special plans with quality and
reliability.
2. Product-Design Costs: The costs of designing products with quality
characteristics.
- The determination of requirements and the setting of corresponding
specifications (which also takes account of process capability) for
incoming materials, processes, intermediates, finished products and
services
3. Quality Assurance and Inspection: The creation of maintenance of the
quality management systems.
- The design, development and/or purchase of equipment for use in
inspection work
4. Training Costs: The cost of developing and putting on quality training
programs for employees and management
5. Information Costs: The costs of acquiring and maintaining (typically on
computers) data related to quality, and the development and analysis of
reports on quality performance
The H&S Motor Company produces small motors for use in lawnmowers and
garden equipment. The company instituted a quality-management program in
2001 and has recorded the following quality cost data and accounting measures
for four years.
YEAR
2001 2002 2003 2004
QUALITY
COSTS
Prevention 27,000 41,500 74,600 112,300
Appraisal 155,000 122,500 113,400 107,000
Internal Failure 386,400 469,200 347,800 219,100
External
Failure 242,000 196,000 103,500 106,000
Total 810,000 829,200 693,300 544,400
ACCOUNTING
MEASURES
Sales 4,360,000 4,445,000 5,050,000 5,190,000
Manufacturing
Costs 1,760,000 1,810,000 1,880,000 1,890,000
The H&S Company also desired to develop index numbers using quality costs as
a proportion of sales and manufacturing costs, generally two of the more popular
quality indexes. The general formula for these index numbers is:
The quality index numbers for sales and manufacturing cost for the four-year
period are given in the following table:
QUALITY SALES QUALITY
INDEX MANUFACTURING
COST INDEX
Year Sales Index Cost Index
2001 18.58 46.04
2002 18.63 45.18
2003 12.66 34.00
2004 10.49 28.80
These index numbers alone provide little insight into the effectiveness of the
quality-management program; however, as a standard to make comparisons
over time they can be useful. The H&S Company quality index numbers reflect
dramatically improved quality during the four-year period. The index shows a
significant decrease in the next 4 years as the company already implemented the
Total Quality Management.
-
REFERENCES:
Dissertation: How the practices of Total Quality Management (TQM) can be applied as
an effective tool in achieving business excellence? A case- study based on Burger
King, UK
Oakland, J. (2014). Total Quality Management and Operational Excellence: A Text with
cases. Retrieved from file:///D:/Measurement/teeKyuEm/John-S.-Oakland-Total-
Quality-Management-and-Operational-Excellence_-Text-with-Cases-Routledge-
2014.pdf
Martin C. (2015). Total Quality Management Cause and Effect Concept. Retrieved from
httpsw.ukessays.com/essays/engineering/cause-effect-diagram.php