A Concise Guide To Writing A Thesis or Dissertation - Educational Research and Beyond PDF
A Concise Guide To Writing A Thesis or Dissertation - Educational Research and Beyond PDF
Writing a Thesis or
Dissertation
Halyna M. Kornuta
and Ron W. Germaine
Second edition published 2019
by Routledge
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What others
have said
Over 4000 professors and students have used our book to sup-
port the writing of theses or dissertations. Their responses have
been overwhelmingly positive, and are captured in the following
comments:
Professors
List of illustrationsxiii
Prefacexiv
Part I
The big picture 1
Theses and dissertations defined 2
Topic development 2
Define the problem clearly 3
Choose the methodology 4
Craft a purpose statement 4
Organization5
Chapters One, Two and Three 5
Chapters Four and Five 6
References and Abstract 6
Writing quality 7
Levels of headings 8
Table of Contents 9
Format9
Writing resources 10
Tables and figures 10
Process and product 11
Summary12
x
Contents
Part II
Framework and substance of chapters 13
Introductory pages 14
Title page 15
Additional pages 16
Abstract16
1 Introduction 17
Headings19
Background to the study 21
Purpose of the study 22
Research question 25
Examples of writing research questions 26
Significance of the study 28
Assumptions29
Limitations30
Delimitations31
Definitions31
Summary32
Chapter summary 33
3 Methodology 46
Positivist/Postpositivist paradigm 47
xi
Contents
Constructivist paradigm 48
Pragmatic paradigm 48
Action Research 50
Content of Chapter Three 53
Examples of headings in Chapter Three 54
Introduction – untitled 54
Research design 54
Headings for a qualitative design study 55
Headings for a quantitative design study 59
Headings for an Action Research study 64
Summary64
Chapter summary 67
References85
Appendix A: Rubric for evaluating writing89
Appendix B: APA skill building exercises96
Appendix C: Examples of purpose statements101
Appendix D: Research planning organizer103
Appendix E: Guide for scholarly writing110
Appendix F: Guide for oral presentations114
Index116
Illustrations
Tables
Figures
Topic development
Organization
Writing quality
Levels of headings.
Headings show readers the outline and flow of thought for your
writing. In that sense, headings are like navigation lights mariners
rely on as they traverse a dark channel at night. Without the nav-
igation lights, sailors would quickly become lost or run aground.
Similarly, without correct levels of headings that reflect accurate
formatting, readers will have difficulty following what you are try-
ing to communicate. Therefore, it is essential to use the format
for headings shown in Table I.1 below (APA, 2010b, pp. 62–63).
You may not need all of the levels, but it is essential that you
follow the pattern to the extent necessary for your specific study.
Table I.1
Format for APA levels of headings
Table of Contents.
It is possible to create a Table of Contents by using a formatting
function in Microsoft Word (web search ‘Creating a Table of
Contents in MS Word’). Formatting the headings in this way
will allow you to create a Table of Contents that digitally links
each heading in your study to a page location.
Format.
The APA Publication Manual (APA, 2010b) was written primar-
ily as a guide for writing manuscripts for journals. While most
of the APA formatting requirements apply to research papers,
theses, or dissertations, some differences in style are both per-
missible and encouraged. “The Publication Manual presents
explicit style requirements but acknowledges that alternatives
are sometimes necessary; authors should balance the rules of
the Publication Manual with good judgment” (APA, 2010b,
p. 5). It is also important to check formatting requirements
unique to your own institution. In general, the preference is
for 12-point font with a typeface such as Times New Roman.
Double-space all text lines, and singe-space the text in tables
and figures.
Requirements for margin size may vary. If the final product
is to be bound, be sure to check with your university about the
appropriate margin size. If the final product is not bound, all
10 Part I: The big picture
Writing resources
Table 1
Alignment of Outcomes, Assessments, and Assignments
Summary
Part I of the Guide has presented a big picture view of the con-
tents of a research study, along with the general formatting
requirements. Part II will describe the focus and contents of
each chapter.
PART
Framework and
substance of II
chapters
14 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
Introductory pages
Title Page.
Title
Submitted to
[Instructor’s Name]
By
[Your Name]
[Your University]
[M/D/Y]
16 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
Additional pages.
Dissertations and some theses will need the additional pages
shown below. Be sure to check with your faculty advisor about
the requirements and format at your institution.
Abstract.
The purpose of an Abstract is to provide readers with a concise
and accurate overview of the study in a maximum of 350 words.
The Abstract states the purpose, research questions, methodology,
description of participants (or subjects), as well as how the par-
ticipants were or will be involved in the study. While the Abstract
appears prior to Chapter One, it is written after you have com-
pleted all of the chapters so that an accurate summary is possible.
Assistance for writing an Abstract can be found in the APA
Publication Manual (APA, 2010b), pages 25 to 27. Note that
the word count for the Abstract referred to in the APA Manual
is for journal articles, not theses or dissertations. Another source
for assistance in writing the Abstract is at http://www.writing.
utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/abstract.
The remainder of Part II includes specifics about the struc-
ture and substance of each of the five chapters.
Introduction
CHAPTER
Headings
Table 1.1
Words particular to a methodology
Personal statement.
Including a personal statement is optional. If it is included in
Chapter One, it is a sub-section of the purpose section. It may
be important to write a personal statement if you feel particularly
passionate about the topic you want to research. The research
itself must be conducted without bias and must be seen by oth-
ers to be conducted without bias; however, the reality is that we
each bring our own perspectives to what we observe. It is better
to be upfront with bias rather than to try to hide it. Personal
awareness of bias is an important step in setting bias aside as you
carry out a study and report the results. If a personal statement
is included in Chapter One, it is written in the first person. It is a
brief section about the writer’s interest in the problem and may
begin, “The motivation for this study came from my . . .”
Research question.
The purpose statement is the primary guide for all phases of
the study, from the literature through the methodology, data
analysis, and recommendations. Not surprisingly, the purpose
26 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
Assumptions.
Assumptions must be identified for a study that employs quan-
titative methodologies only. No assumptions are made prior to
starting qualitative studies because such studies begin with a
search for an understanding of the whole, and any assumptions
prior to the start of qualitative studies may distort the findings.
Limitations.
Limitations identify potential weaknesses of the study from
sources that are outside of the control of the researcher. Lim-
itations are restrictions on the extent or type of data that are
available. Limitations may also restrict the generalizability of
findings.
Delimitations.
Delimitations address how the study will be narrowed in scope
by the researcher. Delimitations form boundaries that the
researcher chooses so that the study is more focused or manage-
able. Such boundaries are often needed; however, the researcher
must recognize the implications of the delimitations on the gen-
eralizability of findings of the study. Some examples of delimi-
tations are:
Definitions.
Define words that have special meaning for your study or
words that may be unclear. Consider the audience who may
read your study, and include terminology that will assist in their
32 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
M&M’s®.
M&M’s® are small candy-coated chocolates of various
colors.
M&M’s® Box.
M&M’s® are packaged to contain approximately 50
candies per box.
Summary.
In this final section of Chapter One, provide a succinct summary
of what you have written in the chapter.
To add to the clarity of your writing, say what you are going
to say; say it; then say what you said.
1: Introduction 33
Chapter summary
2 literature
Plot your area of interest and topics that link to it. Use an orga-
nizing structure, such as a fishbone diagram, concept map, or an
outline to organize your thoughts. The fishbone diagram shown
in Figure 2.1 is an example of an organizer used in a Literature
An invalid
concept What it is
A humanistic
perspective
Values and
A psychodynamic What it is not relationship
perspective
Definition
A sociological
perspective
A cognitive-experimental
A behavioral perspective
perspective
Literature
Review
Example 1
Research
findings Types of values
Consensus on
Example 2 values
Choice and will
Self-esteem
Epistemology of Values, virtues,
and gender
values ethics, and
principles
The relationship of Examples of research in
self-esteem to settings where values The nature of
academic achievement have been taught values
Theories of Self-Esteem
Self-esteem as an invalid concept.
Self-esteem from a psychodynamic perspective.
Self-esteem from a sociological perspective.
Self-esteem from a behavior perspective.
Self-Esteem Defined
What self-esteem is.
What self-esteem is not.
Definition.
Self-Esteem and Values
Values and relationships.
The Relationship of Self-Esteem to Academic Achievement
Research findings.
Gender-specific issues.
Examples of Research in Settings Where Values Have
Been Taught
Example 1.
Example 2.
The Nature of Values
Values, virtues, ethics, and principles.
Epistemology of values.
Types of values.
Choice and will.
Consensus on values.
38 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
Professional Development
Adult stages of development.
Generativity vs. stagnation.
Career stages.
Professional development
Adult learning
Adult stages of in practice
♦ Individualization
development ♦ Shared practices
♦ Reflection
♦ Generativity vs. ♦ Continuous development
stagnation ♦ Motivation
♦ Reflection on practice
♦ Career stages
Professional
development
Evaluation vs.
supervision Portfolios and teacher
supervision
♦ Fostering professional
growth ♦ Use in supervision
♦ Performance ♦ Data for assessing
standards Literature growth
Review
Developmental Portfolio
supervision project
Adult learning.
Individualization.
Reflection.
Motivation.
Professional development in practice.
Shared practices.
Continuous development.
Reflection on practice.
Developmental Supervision
Evaluation vs. supervision.
Fostering professional growth.
Performance standards.
Supervision process in context.
Supervision program.
Process.
Product.
Portfolio Project
Portfolios and teacher supervision.
Use in supervision.
Data for assessing growth.
Search for meaning.
Reflective journal.
Developing the inner self.
Portfolio projects.
Process.
Purpose.
Content.
Introduction – untitled
Table 2.1
Verbs/phrases for reporting findings
Described Clarified
Made the point Detailed how the process
worked
Introduced the idea/notion Stated clearly
Believed that Commented
Suggested that Reviewed the findings of
Argued for Found
Another researcher argued Discovered
that
Observed that Perceived
Continued by saying Detailed how the process
worked
Defined Asserted
Reflected on Insisted
Expressed concern Carefully added
Reported Documented
Underscored Pointed out
Summarized Postulated
Current findings
Once the context for the study has been developed, a review
and critique of research studies that have contributed to cur-
rent knowledge will add to an overall understanding. Together,
the context and recent findings will form the backdrop for your
research proposal, and provide the framework that points to
2: Review of the literature 45
the need for your study. Keep your purpose clearly in mind –
as though it were taped to your computer monitor! It is the
guide for what literature you review and which methodology
you choose. Be sure to identify controversies, conflicting views,
and/or differing perspectives on a topic. Include subheadings
where appropriate to help guide the reader. The headings should
reflect the outline for the chapter.
Chapter summary
Positivist/Postpositivist paradigm
Constructivist paradigm
Pragmatic paradigm
Action Research.
One of the variants of the Pragmatic paradigm is Action Research.
Action Research is a solution-oriented process through which
practitioners investigate practical problems for the purpose of
making data driven decisions and improving their own practice.
Action Research is solution-oriented, merging theory and prac-
tice. It is a way for practitioners to systematically observe, gather
and analyze data, and provide evidence of what works rather
than relying on intuition or guessing. Educators who carry out
Action Research are modeling the kind of learning they would
3: Methodology 51
Identify problem
What works?
What doesn’t work?
Action Research
Reflection on practice
Introduction – untitled.
Introduce Chapter Three with an introductory sentence or short
paragraph. This introductory section will not have a heading. It
may begin with: “The purpose of this study is to . . . Chapter
Three will present the (qualitative or quantitative) methodol-
ogy that will be employed to answer the research question(s)
presented in Chapter One: . . .” Chapter Three is written in
the future tense because the gathering of data has not yet been
done. Within the introduction, introduce the topics that you
will present in the chapter.
Research design.
Begin the Research Design section with a statement about the
type of study you will conduct (qualitative, quantitative, or
Action Research), and an explanation of why the method was
chosen. Then use sub-headings to address the needed elements
of your research design.
Qualitative methodology, also known as naturalistic inquiry,
is designed to search for understanding of themes, patterns, or
causal explanations through the lived experience of the study
participants. It presents explanations based on the perspective
of an insider. Qualitative methodology does not use hypotheses
or assumptions, though these may be generated by the findings.
A quantitative study, on the other hand, begins with a theory
or hypothesis to be investigated. Numerical data are gathered
3: Methodology 55
Site selection.
Describe the general location and demographic characteristics
of the site you chose for your study. Do not identify the spe-
cific geographic location or name of the site without permission.
A description such as “a school district in Southern California”
locates where a study was carried out, and is sufficiently general
so that the specific site is not identified. Provide the background
needed that sets the stage for your study to take place.
Participant selection.
Describe how you chose the study participants from a larger
group of possible participants. Note that interviews in qualita-
tive research are likely to produce large amounts of data, and
therefore the number of participants should be limited to keep
Table 3.2
Research planning guide
Title __________________________________________________
Purpose
The purpose of the study is to __________________________
Literature Review/Rationale of study
Context for study in light of existing scholarship
Methodology and data analysis
Research methods
Quantitative
Qualitative Action Research
Data collection/Measuring instrument
Online Survey Paper Survey Existing Data
Test Measures Inventory Interviews
Focus Group
Rationale: _____________________________________________
Data will be confidential (recorded so that data are
not readily identified with the participant, but such a link
is possible through coding or unique identifiers. Coding
provides participants’ identity, but the two are kept
separate).
Data will be anonymous (recorded so that data can
never be linked to specific participants).
Population and sample size
Criteria for Population Selection: _____________________
Population Size: ___________ Sample Size: ___________
Sample Size Calculator: http://www.surveysystem.com/
sscalc.htm#cineeded
Location(s): _________ _________ _________ _________
Data analysis/Variables
For quantitative data: Gender Ethnicity Age
Location Other:
For qualitative data: ___________________________________
3: Methodology 57
Research schedule
Anticipated time for data collection: From
DD/MM/YY _________ To DD/MM/YY _________
Cover letter/Invitation Letter of consent
to participate
Plan for pilot Pilot completed
Approval Faculty Advisor or Committee Chair IRB
Budget
Building dependability.
The dependability of data and findings is enhanced by use of
strategies such as member checks and an audit trail. A member
3: Methodology 59
Data analysis.
Data analysis in qualitative research begins in the field even as
data are being gathered as the researcher listens and observes.
Analysis continues with the major tasks of organizing and cod-
ing information gathered from transcripts of interviews, notes
from the focus group, and other documents. Masses of data
must be distilled into categories that represent themes and pat-
terns. Reading and re-reading of transcript data will be needed
to search for meaning and relationships.
Summary.
A brief, ‘say what you said’ summary should complete the chap-
ter. The summary of Chapter Three should end with a brief
introduction to Chapter Four.
The treatment.
Carefully describe the treatment you or others will administer
to the sample population. The treatment should be described
in sufficient detail to provide guidance for others to replicate
the study. Documents essential to the treatment, such as lesson
plans or reading materials, should be included in an appendix.
you will get the information and the protocol you will follow for
permission to access the data.
For some types of data gathering, you may need to develop
your own questionnaire or survey. A good survey makes three
things very clear for respondents: First, a description of what
is being measured must be clear. For example, the initial infor-
mation might say, “The purpose of this survey is to learn about
respondents’ perceptions of Help Desk Support.”
Second, respondents need to know clearly what it is that you
want to learn about what is being measured. Provide a description
about the items about which you are asking. For example, to learn
about ‘Help Desk Support’, the survey might say, “We want to find
your perceptions of the quality or ease of use of Help Desk service.”
Additional descriptions listed in Table 3.3 provide examples of other
things you might want to learn about the item being measured:
Third, the data gathered will be more useful if we know clearly
the respondents’ level of awareness of specific services, which
services they have used, importance of the service, satisfaction,
Table 3.3
Attributes that might be assessed
Quality Timeliness
Ease of use Instruction
Value Reliability
Accessibility Efficiency
Accuracy Courtesy
Relevance Knowledge
Extent of personal Degree of professionalism
interaction
Understanding of needs Other attributes of interest
62 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
Data analysis.
The data analysis section describes how you will organize and
present data, and describes the statistical procedures you will
64 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
Summary.
A brief, ‘say what you said’ summary of the quantitative design
should complete the chapter. The summary of Chapter Three
should end with a brief introduction to Chapter Four.
Summary.
A brief, ‘say what you said’ summary of the Action Research study
design should complete the chapter. The summary of Chapter
Three should end with a brief introduction to Chapter Four.
Table 3.4
Measures of central tendency and measures of variance
Chapter summary
4 analysis
The first heading in Chapter Four for both qualitative and quan-
titative studies should be Background and Setting. Each chapter
of a research study contributes to the whole, but at the same
time each chapter should stand on its own. Therefore, a brief
description of the background and setting of the study should
also be included in Chapter Four. The following is an example of
how the background and setting of a study might be reported:
Table 4.1
Qualitative and quantitative headings that may be used for
Chapter Four
Choosing participants.
Describe how and why the participants in the study were
selected. For example:
Summary of findings.
Chapter Four begins the formal presentation of the analysis of
data. However, for researchers gathering qualitative data, inter-
pretation and analysis of data begin with the first interview.
Through careful listening, observing, and reflecting, preliminary
patterns may emerge, and these patterns themselves may shape
some of the data gathered. Interview questions are often used as
organizers for analyzing qualitative data. It is important to rep-
resent and communicate fairly what the data revealed. Qualita-
tive data should be presented in detailed descriptions with direct
quotations used to capture the perspectives and experiences of
the participants.
Each qualitative study is unique and therefore the analysis for
each study will be distinctive and depend greatly on the research-
er’s practice, experiences, and analytical style. In qualitative
research, the challenge is to integrate data sources that become
part of the analysis. As integration occurs, significant patterns
within the data sources result in the formation of themes.
Participants in the study should be asked to verify transcripts
of their response to interview questions. This process is called a
member check. It is an important step, which verifies that the
transcript captured what the participant said, and in so doing
4: Findings and analysis 73
Participants.
A summary of the findings should be given for each interview with
each participant. Include direct quotations from the participants in
their exact language. The following is an example of how a direct
quote was used in reporting findings in a qualitative study:
Time.
Chronological order may be used to describe responses over
time if ‘time’ is relevant to organizing the data.
Themes or topics.
From the summary of data, present the patterns that emerge as
themes or topics. Data are grouped according to what is signif-
icant and meaningful, and patterns are sought based on com-
monalities and differences.
Summary.
Use the headings as a guide to outline and summarize what
you have said in Chapter Four. Provide a sentence or two that
bridges Chapter Four to Chapter Five.
For specific methods of analyzing qualitative data, see Ary
et al. (2006); Gall et al. (2006); Mertens (2015).
The setting for the study was a Canadian school district that
had identified a set of values through community consen-
sus. In addition, they had prepared curriculum and lesson
plans, and had instituted a values education program for a
period of four years. Initiative for the program came jointly
from school district leadership, teachers, and parents. Work-
shops were held to introduce the curriculum to teachers, to
encourage them to model the values, and to suggest they
integrate discussion of values throughout other curricula.
(Germaine, 2001, p. 83)
Statistical procedure.
Describe how the data were analyzed. Use tables and figures as
needed to present the results of analysis. Refer to the tables and
figures in the text of writing as the results are explained. Use
sufficient text to point out the most important and interesting
findings (Ary et al., 2006). Do not include detailed mathematical
explanations within the text of Chapter Four. Let the presentation
78 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
Summary.
Use the headings as a guide to summarize what you have said
in Chapter Four. Provide a sentence or two that bridges this
chapter to Chapter Five.
80 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
Chapter summary
5 discussion of
findings and
conclusions,
and recommen
dations
Recommendations.
Recommendations may include suggestions for change in policy
or practice based on the findings of the study, and may include
recommendations for further study. Do not include recommen-
dations that have no direct link to findings. Some insights from
the study may indirectly imply the need for change; however,
discussion of such insights should be within the context of
the need for further study rather than for change in policy or
practice.
Summary.
The summary for Chapter Five should provide a brief review of
the chapter using the headings as a guide to say what you have
said. As mentioned in the summary of other chapters, the intro-
ductory part of each chapter tells what you are going to say; the
84 Part II: Framework and substance of chapters
body of the chapter says what you want to say; and the summary
of the chapter says briefly what you have said.
Chapter summary
A. Your interest.
What general topic related to your practice are you interested in
investigating?
104 Appendix D: Research planning organizer
B. Problem.
In regard to the topic you identified, what is the current situ-
ation? What is the problem, need, or issue that you would like
to address?
The first step to solving a problem is to define it as clearly
and precisely as possible. A clearly defined problem will make
it much easier to write a laser sharp purpose statement that will
guide your study.
Describe a problem you would like to explore and then for-
mulate a question. The information you write in this section can
be used in Chapter One of your study.
C. Background.
What has led up to your choosing your particular study?
After you have written the Literature Review (Chapter Two)
you may add to responses to the preceding questions by briefly
summarizing the main points (in one or two paragraphs). The
information you write in this section can be used in Chapter
One of your study.
Table D.1
Format for APA levels of headings
Research design.
Type of methodology.
Why methodology was chosen.
Site selection.
Setting description.
Population identification.
Participants in the study.
Selection procedures.
Measuring instruments.
Data collection.
Data analysis.
Institutional Research Board approval.
Appendix E
Guide for scholarly writing
Table E.1
Where to find it in the APA Manual