Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jeffrey R. Di Leo - Higher Education Under Late Capitalism - Identity, Conduct, and The Neoliberal Condition
Jeffrey R. Di Leo - Higher Education Under Late Capitalism - Identity, Conduct, and The Neoliberal Condition
HIGHER
EDUCATION
UNDER LATE
CAPITALISM
IDENTITY, CONDUCT, AND
THE NEOLIBERAL CONDITION
JEFFREY R. DI LEO
New Frontiers in Education, Culture, and Politics
Series Editor
Kenneth J. Saltman
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth
University of Massachusetts, Boston
North Dartmouth, Massachusetts, USA
Aim of the Series
New Frontiers in Education, Culture, and Politics focuses on both topi-
cal educational issues and highly original works of educational policy and
theory that are critical, publicly engaged, and interdisciplinary, drawing on
contemporary philosophy and social theory. The books in the series aim
to push the bounds of academic and public educational discourse while
remaining largely accessible to an educated reading public. New Frontiers
aims to contribute to thinking beyond the increasingly unified view of
public education for narrow economic ends (economic mobility for the
individual and global economic competition for the society) and in terms
of efficacious delivery of education as akin to a consumable commodity.
Books in the series provide both innovative and original criticism and offer
visions for imagining educational theory, policy, and practice for radically
different, egalitarian, and just social transformation.
Higher Education
under Late Capitalism
Identity, Conduct, and the Neoliberal Condition
Jeffrey R. Di Leo
School of Arts and Sciences
University of Houston-Victoria
Victoria, Texas, USA
Acknowledgments vii
Introduction ix
2 Unlit Classrooms 23
3 Higher Hedonism 49
4 Homo Habitus 63
5 Google U 77
6 Against Debt 93
7 Punch the Clock 109
v
vi Contents
9 Breaking Bad 139
Coda 165
Bibliography 175
Index187
Acknowledgments
vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A special note of appreciation goes out to Keri Farnsworth for her edi-
torial assistance and to Vikki Fitzpatrick for her administrative support.
And finally, as always, I would like to thank my wife, Nina, for her
unfailing encouragement, support, and patience.
Introduction
ix
x INTRODUCTION
Though we can debate what “better” means, it does not mean less
intelligent, less compassionate, and less critically engaged. When it does,
then we really don’t need universities anymore and can replace them with
training centers. And by many accounts, this is the telos of the corporate
university anyway.2
Higher Education under Late Capitalism focuses on questions concern-
ing personal identity and individual conduct within neoliberal academe. It
assumes that neoliberal academe is normal academe in the new millennium
even if it is at the same time well aware of the contested nature and destruc-
tive capacities of neoliberalism in higher education.3 It asks what type of
academic identity is formed by those who work in the neoliberal academy?
What kind of conduct is expected of them? And at what peril does neoliberal
academe put its participants? Thinking about higher education through key
terms established for it by neoliberalism such as austerity and transparency
is a journey into both its present and its past. My hope is that this process
will contribute to a better future for higher education in America. It is not,
nor should it be considered, however, an exercise in neoliberal apologetics
or “crisis” management. By rejecting apologetics and the rhetoric of crisis,
Higher Education under Late Capitalism approaches the neoliberal condi-
tion of academe in a way at odds with the more common approach, which
is, namely, to call or rely upon in various ways one or the other.
The humanities failed to become what they had hoped they would
become, and thus by dubbing them now in “crisis,” these longtime
humanists are saying that forces beyond their own control brought them
to their current condition. Can you think of one humanities professor who
says, “You know, if I had only taught my courses differently, we might
not be in this situation” or “If we ran our department differently, then we
could have avoided the current state of affairs?” No, it is always everyone
else’s fault that the humanities are failing, never our own.
The rhetoric of crisis is the last refuge for those who wish for an aca-
demic world different from the one in which we currently live. It is the
term that both relieves them from any responsibility for the situation in
which they are in and says to the world that I don’t like things the way
they are—and want them to go back to a former state of affairs. The reality
however is that the world has changed around them—and that they are
not ready to accept it.
I’ve fallen into the crisis trap a few times myself, but now I always try to
reserve the use of it for true turning points versus complaints about our sit-
uation. There is no crisis of neoliberal academe; rather, neoliberal academe
is the condition from which we need to move beyond. We need to try to
actualize academic worlds wherein we are not merely the docile subjects of
neoliberal managerialism. But this will take acts of resistance and visionary
performance. This is why I have suggested that we take up a more combat-
ive rhetoric in these times of education through the looking glass.
Instead of dialogue, I prefer paralogy. As a model for critical exchange
about the university “in a time of crisis,” it encourages views that desta-
bilize and disrupt a system of education that from most accounts is
beyond repair. Paralogy’s agonistic dimension facilitates speech about
the university that is passionate even frenzied. It calls for academics to
become emotionally involved in university dialogue and encourages tough
metaprofessional criticism. It is a rhetoric of “struggle” and “conflict”
against a massive and repressive vision of the university—a guerrilla war
of the marginals.
In short, a dialogical approach to the university that aims at consensus
and stability within the existing system is not going to solve its prob-
lems—or bring about the downfall of the neoliberal university. Reform
and change in higher education moves at a glacial pace—a pace at which
one cannot reasonably hope to solve the educational system’s problems
before the system as a whole collapses. This is why a paralogical approach
is preferable in this time of so-called systemic crisis.6
INTRODUCTION xv
I’m probably in the minority with not being enamored by the rhetoric
of crisis, but whether you agree with my assessment or not, I ask that you
consider that there must be a point where we stop complaining about the
conditions of higher ed, and bemoaning a past that is no longer recuper-
able, and begin to live in the present. I wager than once you stop thinking
about our academic condition as a crisis, you will begin to open up a space
to regard it as one in which transformative and progressive action can
reshape it into one which is more to your liking. Perhaps the solution is
to truly create a crisis—a turning point—rather than to simply point them
out—and paralogy has that power to do this.
A Measure for Measure
To be sure, the corporate university has not been kind to higher edu-
cation. But no area of higher education has been more affected by the
neoliberal condition than the humanities. Word on the street has been
that the humanities are in peril and that neoliberal educational practices
and the growth of the corporate university are pushing them toward
demise. Reductions in financial support, declining numbers of majors, and
a general lack of understanding of the nature and value of the humanities
are opening the door to a more instrumentally determined and vocation-
ally centered vision of higher education.
But, as we’ve established, this is old news. Neoliberal academe is now
normal academe. The notion that educational values are determined by
market share is a commonplace one, and the fact that majors and courses
that cannot be directly connected to marketable skills and job attainment
are at risk of extinction is well known. This situation puts advocates of
the humanities in the dire position of either establishing strategies to slow
down the decline and fall of the humanities at the hands of the corporate
university or finding themselves gradually effaced and marginalized within
the brave new world of higher education.
For many, defending the humanities against neoliberal assault has itself
become a form of the new normal in higher education. Judith Butler,
Maxine Elliot Professor in the Departments of Rhetoric and Comparative
Literature at the University of California, Berkeley, one of the most viru-
lent defenders of the humanities, finds it “quite incredulous” that the neo-
liberal world now makes it necessary for us to defend the public value of a
basic humanities education. For her, the ability to “learn to think, to work
with language and images, and to read, to make sense, to intervene, to
xvi INTRODUCTION
take apart, to formulate evaluative judgments and even to make the world
anew” is “obvious” and that we now need to be able to defend them is
“quite incredulous.”7 But such is the central task of the humanities in the
age of neoliberalism—one that is made even more difficult, says Butler,
when combined with “anti-intellectual conservatism.”8
Butler, while aware of the most common arguments in defense of the
humanities, is critical of most of them. These include “the humanities
have intrinsic value; the humanities are useless, and that is their value;
public intellectuals exemplify the value of the humanities for public life;
the humanities offer certain kinds of skill development that are important
for economic mobility; [and] the humanities offer certain kinds of lit-
eracy that are indispensable to citizenship.”9 However, she has an affinity
for one of the common lines of defense of the humanities, namely, “the
humanities offer a critical perspective on values that can actively engage
the contemporary metrics of value by which the humanities are weakened,
if not destroyed.”10 In other words, the value of the humanities is to be
found in its measure of measure.
“Oddly,” writes Butler,
Butler is less asking us to save the humanities than to protect the path that
allows us to “move forward in new ways, through new idioms.” And “if
obscurity is sometimes the necessary corrective to what has become obvi-
ous, so be it.”12 Her argument in defense of obscurity as a corrective to the
obvious, the ordinary, is also one against the transparency of neoliberal-
ism. “This means,” concludes Butler, “that we exercise critical judgment
in the breach, reentering the obscure into the obvious in order to affirm
what is left between us still to lose, to keep, to keep animated.”13
INTRODUCTION xvii
Neoliberalism and Happiness
and the emergence of the Chicago School of economics in the 1960s. Still
others trace it back to the work of Friedrich Hayek and Lionel Robbins
and the London School of Economics during the 1930s. It is within this
context of “standard” neoliberal economic and political history that the
account provided by William Davies, who teaches at Goldsmiths, London,
stands out and provides an important backdrop to Higher Education
under Late Capitalism.
In a bold and intriguing move, Davies places the foundations of neo-
liberalism in the late eighteenth-century social and political philosophy of
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832). Davies reminds us that the English philos-
opher’s hedonism had strong connections with business, government, and
the market—a point often overlooked in the rush to dismiss Bentham’s
hedonistic utilitarian ethics as merely a philosophically weak precursor to
the more philosophically mature eudaemonistic utilitarianism of his stu-
dent John Stuart Mill. “The business of government,” wrote Bentham
in The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), “is to promote the
happiness of society, by punishing and rewarding.”18 “The free market,
of which Bentham was an unabashed supporter, would largely take care
of the reward part of this ‘business’,” comments Davies, “the state would
take responsibility for the former part.”19
Thus begins Davies’s creative and convincing journey from the hedonic
calculus and surveillance state of Bentham to the contemporary “happi-
ness industry” and neoliberal state. But Davies’s project is much more than
merely parsing out some of the originary moments of neoliberal thought
in the happiness science of Bentham; it is also looking beyond the current
formation of neoliberalism to its next position, the post-neoliberal era.
A position pined for by all who are fed up with the neoliberal condition.
Referring to Hayek’s The Road to Serfdom (1944), Davies notes that
“[o]ne of the foundational arguments in favour of the market was that
it served as a vast sensory device, capturing millions of individual desires,
opinions and values, and converted these into prices.”20 However, for
Davies, we may be “on the cusp of a new post-neoliberal era in which
the market is no longer the primary tool for this capture of mass sen-
timent.”21 “Once happiness monitoring tools flood our everyday lives,”
writes Davies, “other ways of qualifying feelings in real time are emerging
that can extend even further into our lives than markets.”22 Imagining
these monitoring tools extending into the measurement of higher educa-
tion is not a big stretch. However, asking whether we are any better off
with the market as the measure of higher education or digital monitoring
devices is an exercise into competing visions of the academic abyss.
INTRODUCTION xix
“exhibit much that has gone wrong under the neoliberal model of capital-
ism.”34 We can now add the disaffected members of the neoliberal univer-
sity to the exhibit of the casualties of late capitalism.
Davies describes a world where individuals seeking to “escape relentless
self-reliance and self-reflection”35 turn to social media such as Facebook
only to find that it further deepens the malaise brought upon them by
the extreme individualism of neoliberalism. In short, “neoliberal social-
ism” sees the “social” as “an instrument for one’s own medical, emo-
tional or monetary gain”—and in doing so perpetuates the “vicious circle
of self-reflection and self-improvement.”36 “Once social relationships
can be viewed as medical and biological properties of the human body,”
writes Davies, “they can become dragged into the limitless pursuit of self-
optimization that counts for happiness in the age of neoliberalism.”37
Betraying our debt to the sociological and philosophical legacies of
the work of Michel Foucault, Davies argues that the explosion of happi-
ness and wellness data is “an effect of new technologies and practices of
surveillance.”38 The rise of “big data” is different from that of the “data
survey,” as the latter was collected with the intention of analyzing—
whereas with the former this is not the case.39 Davies speculates that the
“dream that pushes ‘data science’ forwards is that we might one day be
able to dispense with separate disciplines of economics, psychology, sociol-
ogy, management and so on,” replacing it instead with a “general science
of choice.”40 For him, “‘the end of theory’ means the end of parallel dis-
ciplines, and a dawning era in which neuroscience and big data analytics
are synthesized into a set of hard laws of decision-making.”41 “Add mass
behavioral surveillance to neuroscience,” continues Davies, “and you have
a cottage industry of decision experts, ready to predict how an individual
will behave under different circumstances.”42 In an ironic twist, the his-
tory of consumerism may even soon be looking at “predictive shopping,”
where our purchasing decisions are made for us based on algorithmic anal-
ysis or smart-home monitoring—and sent directly to our home without
our having to “ask” for them.43 Why not also expect the same from higher
education under late capitalism? Namely, “predictive education” where
our educational decisions are made for us based on educational lacuna
determined through smart technology.
Davies looks for an alternative to the Benthamite and behaviorist tradi-
tions, that is, those “which view psychology as a step towards physiology
and/or economics, precisely so as to shut the door on politics.”44 What
if, in contradistinction to these traditions, we view psychology as a “door
xxii INTRODUCTION
Under Pressure
The work of William Davies on the “happiness industry” does us a great
service by calling to the fore the question of how our happiness is being
used in the service of forwarding neoliberalism in government and indus-
try. However, though higher education too is under the grip of neoliberal-
ism, it would not be accurate to describe it as a “happiness industry.” In
fact, if anything, given the problems facing students and faculty in higher
education today, it might be better described as an “unhappiness indus-
try.” Still, calling to the fore how individual and group happiness is served
by neoliberalism in higher education is an important area of contemporary
concern.
Higher education under late capitalism places incredible pressure on
both individuals and institutions to conform or be left in the dustbin of
economic “progress,” which translates under neoliberalism to “academic”
progress. Whether it is state governments asking for greater transparency
and austerity measures from institutions, accreditation agencies asking
for more accountability and assessment measures, or individual students
INTRODUCTION xxiii
dealing with the prospect of massive debt with limited employment pros-
pects, higher education under late capitalism is a pressure cooker. This is
why we all need to take a deep breath and try to understand better how
the neoliberal condition contributes to our well-being and general happi-
ness as participants in higher education in America.
What is amazing to me is that, if higher education by so many accounts
is broken or in “crisis,” and so many people seem to be unhappy with it,
why does change seem to be so difficult? Why does higher educational
reform move at such a glacial pace in spite of widespread dissatisfaction
with the fundamental economic and managerial conditions of the acad-
emy? In Chap. 4, “Homo Habitus,” an explanation is offered by looking
into the notion of “academic habitus.” Here, it is not the work of Jeremy
Bentham that provides the major explanatory framework but rather the
social and political philosophy of the French sociologist and philosopher
Pierre Bourdieu.
Bourdieu, who provides “useful weapons to all of those who are striv-
ing to resist” neoliberalism in his inspirational book, Acts of Resistance:
Against the New Myths of Our Time (1998), also provides an explanation
much earlier in his career, through his notion of habitus, as to why behav-
ior, even bad behavior such as that currently being exhibited in neoliberal
academe, is so difficult to change.49 Dating back to his early work from the
1970s, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Bourdieu is incredibly prescient as
to the conditions currently holding higher education in neoliberal chains.
Chapter 4 asks him to help us to understanding why the neoliberal condi-
tion is such a hard habit (or habitus) to break.
Chapters 6, 7, and 8 examine specific ways to deal with some of the
negative consequences of neoliberalism in higher education. Chapter 6,
“Against Debt,” explores how debt shapes our identity and conduct in
higher education today. Rather than following some contemporary think-
ing that encourages us to not honor our financial debts in an effort to
bring about an end to capitalism, I argue that honoring our debts is still
an important moral and ethical imperative even in a broken economic
system. Chapter 7, “Punch the Clock,” looks at how issues of class have
fared in higher education under late capitalism, specifically how the notion
of education as a source of class mobility has fared under neoliberalism.
Finally, Chap. 8, “The Dark Side,” examines the role of administration in
providing resistance to the neoliberal university. I argue that without the
support of higher education administration, the fight against neoliberal-
ism in the academy becomes a much less achievable one.
xxiv INTRODUCTION
The last chapter of Higher Education under Late Capitalism turns away
from the lived realities of identity and conduct in neoliberal academe to
examine one powerful critique of the neoliberal man from the world of
television. Breaking Bad, which, originally aired from January 20, 2008,
to September 29, 2013, is one of the most powerful works of serial televi-
sion programming of the new millennium. What is often disregarded in
considerations of the series is that its protagonist, Walter White (played by
Bryan Cranston), is a former graduate student and high school teacher.
Much of the series centers on how the negative consequences of neoliber-
alism in higher education drive him to radically alter his identity and con-
duct. If Davies is right that the neoliberal man is “possessed with egoism,
aggression, and the optimism of Milton Friedman or a Steve Jobs,” then
Walter White pushes the limits of this possession to their neoliberal nadir.
He is the model of what identity and conduct under neoliberalism looks
like when driven to its extremes.
Higher Education under Late Capitalism asks perhaps some of the
most obvious questions that one can ask about the neoliberal university.
Namely, what kind of person does it encourage us to be? What type of
conduct does it favor? What type of identity does it champion? Is this per-
son one that is happy with their life? Or is this a person that is unhappy?
Moreover, if higher education under late capitalism favors measurement,
how do we measure this measurement? How do we measure, for exam-
ple, key measures of neoliberalism such as austerity and transparency? If
change in higher education is slow in spite of all that is wrong today with
it, what can we do as students, faculty, and administrators in light of being
subject to the neoliberal condition?
It is my hope that Higher Education under Late Capitalism will at least
encourage more questions about the fate of our academic identity and
conduct under neoliberalism. After all, as the philosopher said, the unex-
amined life is not worth living. This holds for academics too. If we do
examine our academic life, what we may find under the rock of neoliberal-
ism is something that may not meet our expectations or be worthy of our
time and efforts. The only question then is what will we do?
Notes
1. The notion of the docile subjects of neoliberal academe is established in
some depth in my book, Corporate Humanities in Higher Education:
Moving Beyond the Neoliberal Academy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
Introduction xxv
2013). Two of the major theses of the book are (1) neoliberalism threatens
to turn academics into docile subjects (xvii–xviii) and (2) docile academic
subjects are a bad thing (xviii–xix).
2. For an excellent, albeit controversial, account of the rise of vocationalism
in higher education, see Andrew Hacker and Claudia Dreifus, Higher
Education? How Colleges Are Wasting Our Money and Failing Our Kids—
And What We Can Do About It (New York: Times Books/Henry Holt,
2010).
3. For accounts of the destructive powers of neoliberalism, see Capital at the
Brink: Overcoming the Destructive Legacies of Neoliberalism, eds. Jeffrey
R. Di Leo and Uppinder Mehan (Ann Arbor, MI: Open Humanities Press,
2014) and Jeffrey R. Di Leo, Henry Giroux, Sophia A. McClennen, and
Kenneth J. Saltman, Neoliberalism, Education, and Terrorism: Contemporary
Dialogues (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2013).
4. Same goes for books. A standard sales feature of many books on higher
education today is back cover copy announcing the “crisis.” This goes even
for the most recent titles. The first line of the back cover copy of The Great
Mistake: How We Wrecked Public Universities and How We Can Fix Them
(Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016) by Christopher
Newfield, one of the most thorough critics of the financial model of
American university, is the following: “Higher education in America, still
thought to be the world leader, is in crisis.”
5. Some have even suggested that the birth of humanism is co-extensive with
the birth of versions of the humanities crisis. In his book, The Humanities
in the Italian Renaissance (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
2003), Paul Grendler writes the following in a section entitled “Humanists
Avoid the University, 1370–1425”: “The reasons why humanists did not
become university professors are easy to find. Teaching grammar, rhetoric,
and authors in the university was poorly paid and lacked prestige. A
humanist could earn a higher salary as chancellor to a republic or secretary
to a prince. Most important, the chancellor or secretary was highly visible
and could possibly shape events through his presence at the prince’s
elbow” (208–209).
6. For a defense of paralogy in higher education, see Jeffrey R. Di Leo,
Corporate Humanities in Higher Education, especially 29–31.
7. Judith Butler, “Ordinary, Incredulous,” in The Humanities and Public
Life, ed. Peter Brooks with Hilary Jewett (New York: Fordham University
Press, 2014), 17.
8. Ibid., 20.
9. Ibid., 27.
10. Ibid., 27.
11. Ibid., 33.
xxvi Introduction
48. See, for example, Bruno Latour, “Why Has Critique Run Out of Steam?
From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern,” Critical Inquiry 30 (Winter
2004), and Jeffrey R. Di Leo, “The Ruins of Critique,” Criticism after
Critique: Aesthetics, Literature, and the Political, ed. Jeffrey R. Di Leo
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
49. Pierre Bourdieu, Acts of Resistance: Against the New Myths of Our Time
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998; reprint, 2000), vii.
CHAPTER 1
Austerity and the State
What is austerity? And what does it mean for those whose lives are inextri-
cably linked to its operation? The former question is a lot easier to answer
than the latter. As the story goes, in the decades after the Second World
War there was nothing like the conditions that came about in the 1990s.
Namely, “diminished growth rates, the maturation of welfare states and
an aging population.”2 In many ways, the period after the Second World
War was one marked by the rise and fall of “easy financing”—an era that
reached its apex and end in the 2008 financial collapse.3 For the most part,
in the 1990s, governments were finding that their public expenditures
were exceeding their receipts. While this could have been counterbalanced
by tax increases, “growing international tax competition has rendered it
more difficult to raise taxes on companies and top income earners.”4
It has been said that the United States could have easily solved “its fis-
cal problems by raising its taxes by a few percentage points”; however, not
only did it refuse to raise them, but in point of fact taxes in the United
States declined in the 2000s—something which “warns against analytical
and political volunteerism.”5 This resistance to tax increases “has been
widespread in rich industrialized countries since the 1970s, when the end
of the postwar growth period registered with citizens and ‘bracket creep’
THE TWO AUSTERITIES 3
could no longer be relied upon to provide states with a rising share of their
societies’ economic resources.”6 It was at this point that governmental
debt became the solution to close the gap between revenue and spend-
ing—at least until this practice imploded in 2008.7
Austerity is the response of some governments to these difficult eco-
nomic conditions. Running deficits and accumulating debt may have been
possible in the “age of easy financing,” but in the “age of austerity” it is
no longer an option. When governmental revenue cannot keep up with
governmental spending, and increased taxation or incurring more debt is
not feasible, then reducing public expenditure is touted as an “austerity
measure.” In the United States, these reductions often amount to fewer
repairs to infrastructure, cuts in pensions, selling off of parks and pub-
lic housing, cuts in firefighters and police, privatization of all aspects of
public life including the military and prisons, wage stagnation, and so on.
Allegedly, governmental austerity measures such as those recently enacted
in Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and, most infamously, Greece are short-
term responses to fiscal imbalance between spending and revenue.
However, the phrase “permanent austerity” has come to imply that the
reductions in governmental funding expenditure may be ongoing—even
should governmental revenue somehow come to exceed public spending.8
Still, even though the welfare state is essentially now in a state of “perma-
nent austerity,” this does not “imply that the expected result is a collapse
or radical retrenchment of national welfare states,” writes Paul Pierson,
a political scientist from the University of California, Berkeley. “Major
policy reform is a political process,” continues Pierson, “dependent on
the mobilization of political resources sufficient to overcome organized
opponents and other barriers to change.” For him, those opposed to the
welfare state “have found it very difficult to generate and sustain this kind
of political mobilization.”9
It is the specter of permanent austerity that is the most troubling aspect
of recent responses to the financial meltdown of 2008. While many can
understand, and sympathize with, “austerity measures” as a short-term
and failed response to the debt crisis, few will agree to the necessity of an
“austerity state” rising out of the ashes of the “debt state.”10 This is not
because most are opposed to setting limits on state funding, but rather
because of the fear that an austerity state may weaken democratic govern-
ment. The real trouble here is the level of uncertainty regarding the long-
term effects of austerity on democratic government. There really is no
historical precedent for the flourishing of democratic government under
4 J.R. DI LEO
were the prices governments paid for their inability to prevent the advance
of liberalization, or for their complicity with it. As governments increas-
ingly gave up on democratic intervention in the capitalist economy, and the
economy was extricated from the public duties it was promised it would
perform when capitalist democracy was rebuilt after the war, it was through
what came to be called the ‘democratization of credit’ that citizens were,
temporarily, reconciled with the declining significance of democratic politics
in their lives.13
their views through public opinion, “the markets” speak through the inter-
est rates they charge. There is an expectation that citizens will be loyal to
their country, in contrast to the mere hope that creditors will have “confi-
dence” in its government and the fear that they could withdraw this con-
fidence if they were to become “pessimistic” or to “panic.” Finally, where
citizens are expected to render public service and expect to receive public
services, “markets” want debt service.14
Argue if you will as to whether each and every one of these differences and
tensions are accurate, the more general point regarding the two different
constituencies served by the austerity state is an important one. It gives
the all-powerful and omnipresent market of neoliberalism a set of charac-
teristics that can be clearly viewed as oppositional to and in conflict with
the bearers of democratic culture and society: the people.
While predicting the future of the austerity state may be a difficult
endeavor, predicting the future of its two constituencies is less difficult,
particularly when one agrees to favor one over the other in matters of pub-
lic policy. If the market is favored at the expense of the people, then there
will be a continued decline in social justice and democratic values. One only
needs to look to recent social unrest in Greece and other countries subject
to extreme austerity measures for a sense of democracy’s future within the
austerity state that favors the markets over the people.15 However, if the
people are favored at the expense of the market, then, and only then, is
there hope for a revival of social justice and a renaissance of democratic
values—even within the austerity state. But don’t hold your breath waiting
for the latter to occur. The age of neoliberalism is not and has never been
about “the people.” It is, and will continue to be, about the neo-Darwinian
ascent of the market as the regulator of public value and social justice.
Forms of Austerity
It is this dimension of austerity, namely, the one that views it from the
perspective of economic parsimony, that is the most recognizable aspect
of austerity in higher education. Educational funding cutbacks are often
reported by the press, particularly, reductions in state appropriations to
public institutions of higher education. While these reductions are never
well received by the colleges and universities that are affected by them,
they are a popular and effective political platform for neoliberal politicians
in statehouses across the country. Reducing state appropriations to higher
education for them is an easy political decision, because it passes along
the cost—and debt—of higher education from the state treasury to the
consumer, that is, students and their families. As a result, educational debt
is accrued at a higher rate for those least able to afford it, that is, poor and
middle-class Americans who rely on state-funded higher education as an
affordable option to high-priced private higher education.
The matter is often further complicated by the constraint that not only
is state funding for higher education either frozen or reduced, but so too
is the option of state colleges and universities raising their tuition and fees
to offset reductions in state higher education appropriations. It is at this
moment that the grim reaper of austerity brings a second level of death
into the house of higher education.
Not only are state-funded institutions of higher education receiving
fewer state appropriations as a response to calls for “austerity,” but now by
not having recourse to increasing tuition and fees, academe is also forced
to either increase productivity or decrease costs. Or worse yet, both, that
is, increase productivity and decrease costs. This double death brought
by austerity measures to higher education, that is, death by state cutbacks
and death by internal cutbacks opens the door to the second dimension of
austerity in higher education, that is, a sense of austerity that is less about
economics and more about emotions.
As a financial concept, austerity involves thrift and economy, but as
a non-financial concept, austerity involves gravity, strictness, severity,
seriousness, and solemnity—feelings and emotions that have a long and
special history in higher education. One of the less-commented-upon
aspects of austerity measures in higher education is the intensification of
academe’s predilection toward emotional austerity, specifically the way in
which recent neoliberal austerity measures in higher education intensifies
and affects the emotional condition of academe. This is austerity’s other
dimension in higher education, albeit one that is not often recognized and
even less discussed.17 Let us now take a look at this other side of austerity.
8 J.R. DI LEO
Austere Emotions
Academe’s austere emotional front is well known. Professors who project
an image of solemnity, gravity, and seriousness are more representative of
the goals, values, and self-image of academe than those who do not exhibit
these characteristics. This is of course not to say academics are incapable
of emotions that are more playful, joking, and joyous. Of course they are.
They are human after all and as such are capable of a wide spectrum of
feelings and emotions. It is to say, though, that academe as an institution is
one that privileges and encourages austerity of emotion over its opposite.
Organizations and institutions such as higher education stabilize the
emotion work of their participants. The emotions that are supported by
the organization are called “representative emotions.” Such emotions are
ones that are most supportive of the aims of the organization or institu-
tion. The better organizations and institutions are able to synchronize
the emotion work of their participants in support of their general aims
and goals, the more effectively they will be able to assure achievement of
those desired aims and goals. Still, it should never be forgotten that these
representative emotions are “constructed” ones, meaning that though
they may have roots in or originate from “natural” emotions, they are
different from them. In other words, within the workplace individuals are
expected to express some of their feelings, but not all of them. Finding the
right balance here between feeling and expression is often the difference
between institutional success and organizational failure. Of less concern
though is how these constructed emotions affect individuals—and in this
regard higher education is no different from most other organizations.
It is important for organizations to control the passions of their par-
ticipants because in doing so, they present the organization with the best
chance of not only achieving its goals, but also maintaining the image it
wishes to project. Faculty who laugh and joke in the pursuit of knowledge
and truth are taken less seriously than those who pursue the same ends with
solemnity and gravity. This may not be a problem for individuals who, for
example, work in creative industries such as game design or music produc-
tion, but in an institution such as higher education, higher emotions and
more austere feelings are the norm. The latter are more representative of
the image of higher education than the lower emotions and feelings.
Scholars of organizational behavior tell us that organizations establish
norms regarding the feelings and emotions of their participants, and these
norms are regulated by rules and procedures. Some have even p roposed
THE TWO AUSTERITIES 9
Austerity and Asceticism
The philosophical and religious roots of austerity can be traced back to
ancient Greek philosophy and the late antiquity of early Christianity. Here
were to be found various lines of thought advocating a life of austerity and
THE TWO AUSTERITIES 11
is the man with the staff, the beggar’s pouch, the cloak, the man in sandals
or bare feet, the man with the long beard, the dirty man. He is also the man
who roams, who is not integrated into society, has no household, family,
hearth, or country … and he is also a beggar. We have many accounts which
testify that this kind of life is absolutely at one with Cynic philosophy and
not merely embellishment.30
Cynicism “makes the form of existence a way of making truth itself visible
in one’s acts, one’s body, the way one dresses, and in the way one conducts
oneself and lives.”31 “Cynicism,” concludes Foucault, “makes life, exis-
tence, bios, what could be called an alethurgy, a manifestation of truth.”32
The links between Cynicism and Christianity can be made through
asceticism and monasticism. One of the examples used by Foucault comes
from an oration of Gregory of Nazianzus (fourth century CE) where he
says while he “detests the impiety of the Cynics and their contempt for the
divinity,” still “he has taken from them frugality” and their mode of life.33
Speaking to Maximus, a Christian of Egyptian origin, who later becomes a
heretic and is condemned, Foucault reports that Gregory says,
I liken you to a dog … not because you are impudent, but because of your
frankness (parrhesia); not because you are greedy, but because you live
openly; not because you bark, but because you mount guard over souls for
their salvation….You are the best and most perfect philosopher, the martyr,
the witness to the truth (marturon tes aletheias).34
It involves someone who, in his very life, his dog’s life, from the moment
of embracing asceticism until the present, in his body, his life, his acts, his
frugality, his renunciations, his ascesis, has never ceased being the living
witness of the truth. He has suffered, endured, and deprived himself so that
the truth takes shape in his own life, as it were, in his own existence, in his
own body.35
THE TWO AUSTERITIES 13
will be recognized only in the practice of askesis. The ascesis, exercise, and
practice of all this endurance, which means that one lives unconcealed, non-
dependent, and distinguishing between what is good and what is bad, will
in itself be the sign of the Cynic mission. One is not called to Cynicism, as
Socrates was called by being given a sign by the god of Delphi, or as the
Apostles will be, by receiving the gift of tongues. The Cynic recognizes him-
self in the test of the Cynic life he undergoes, of the Cynic life in its truth,
the unconcealed, non-dependent life which remakes, unravels the division
between good and evil.36
Asceticism Reborn
Academe has become the confluence of two differing, though powerful,
forms of austerity. On the one hand, the moral imperative of higher educa-
tion has long been connected to a form of emotional austerity that implores
academics to favor an austere mode of life in the practice of academic
askesis. This moral imperative favors austere feelings such as solemnity,
seriousness, and gravity over those that are indulgent. It also normalizes a
form of existential austerity that accepts minimal economic conditions as
part of the truth-telling and truth-seeking mode of life. Like the Cynic in
his “dog’s life,” who exercised frugality and ascesis, the academic in the
age of neoliberalism is asked to find comfort in an austere mode of life that
is best exemplified in the beggar’s pouch of ancient asceticism.
On the other hand, the economic imperative of higher education has
more recently been connected to a form of fiscal austerity that implores
academe to not multiply costs beyond necessity—and then reduce them
even more.39 While the moral imperative of higher education has long been
14 J.R. DI LEO
Why not then just admit that the mission of the neoliberal academic,
to quote Foucault on the mission of the Cynic, “will be recognized only
in the practice of askesis”? Why not see in the “endurance” required of
the Cynic philosopher to practice austerity a similarity with today’s aca-
demic who is required to perform a similar task? If the Cynic “recognizes
himself in the test of the Cynic life he undergoes,” then so too does the
neoliberal academic recognize himself or herself in the test of the austere
neoliberal academic life he or she undergoes. Moreover, if the askesis of
antiquity came in different forms such as “training, meditation, tests of
thinking, examination of conscience, control of representations,”44 then
the askesis of academic neoliberalism comes in comparable forms such as
assessment training, standardized tests of thinking, program elimination,
and cost-cutting.45
But the similarities do not end with comparisons. Rather they end with
intensifications. If academic sociologists such as Charlotte Bloch are right,
and the culture of academe is one of “no feeling,” then the austerity of
neoliberal academic practices and policies will only serve to intensify the
emotional vacuum of academe.46 The managerialism of neoliberal aca-
deme functions through and creates “docile” subjects who are emotion-
less to the repressive and destructive policies and practices of neoliberal
academe. When these docile subjects are merged with the ascetic subjects
of academe’s more traditional environment, one can only fear a deepening
of their emotional distance to their academic environment. Or, to draw
upon the work of sociologist Arlie Hochschild, the “emotion work” of
higher education in the age of neoliberalism will be the further “com-
mercialization of feeling,” which in this case will amount to a new, or even
neoliberal, form of asceticism.
Conclusion
Academe under neoliberalism has become a dog’s life. It is also a life filled
with cynicism regarding neoliberal policies and practices such as recent
economic austerity measures from both outside and inside the academy.
Part of the reason for the recent entrenchment of neoliberalism within
the academy is the long-standing belief that as academics we need to leave
our feelings at the door when we enter the academic world. This emo-
tional asceticism has a long-standing and strong tradition within higher
education, and in an unfortunate way plays into the neoliberal agenda of
managerialism and economic austerity. Whereas the ascetic life may have
16 J.R. DI LEO
worked in ancient Greece and Rome for the Cynics, in a world of global
markets and international finance it just intensifies the negative capaci-
ties of academic neoliberalism. Doing without emotions and economic
resources is viewed as a cost of leading a life of truth-telling.
A new asceticism is not the future of academe—even if it describes well
the current state of higher education under late capitalism. While the truth-
telling and frankness (parrhesia) of the Cynics should be part of our future,
the beggar’s pouch, the roaming, the lack of integration into society, house-
hold, family, hearth, and country is not. Neoliberal academe has turned us
into beggars through its austerity measures; has set the majority of college
and university faculty roaming from position to position seeking enough
income to continue their life of truth-telling; has not provided many with
the minimal economic and emotional conditions to care for their families,
households, and self; has brought about policies and practices that do not
forward the ends of critical citizenship and democratic education. The new
asceticism of the neoliberal academy is not a cause for celebration.
Rather, it should be a rallying cry to move beyond the neoliberal acad-
emy and seek a way of life within the academy that is fit for truth-seeking,
committed individuals who care about both family and country; care about
democratic values and social justice, who are not beggars on the fringes
of society, but rather well-integrated and respected members of American
culture and society. Enough with austerity—economic and moral—let’s
establish a new model for higher education. One that supports a more
robust sense of our economic needs and emotional life; one that is less
corporate and more corporeal; one that is built on pleasure rather than
its absence; one that is healthy rather than unhealthy, helpful rather than
harmful. Let’s just say “no” to living like dogs on the short leash of neo-
liberal academe and its austerity measures.
Notes
1. Again, the notion of the docile subjects of neoliberal academe is established
in some depth in my book, Corporate Humanities in Higher Education:
Moving Beyond the Neoliberal Academy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2013). Two other sources on this topic are Bronwyn Davies, Michael
Gottsche, and Peter Bansel, “The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal
University,” European Journal of Education 41.2 (2006) and Joëlle
Fanghanel, Being an Academic (London and New York: Routledge, 2012).
THE TWO AUSTERITIES 17
Spain went into financial crisis. The latter four countries were often referred
to by the acronym “PIGS” during the debt crisis. Mass protest regarding
austerity measures was particularly high in Portugal and Greece. See Mabel
Berezin, “The Normalization of the Right in Post-Security Europe,”
Politics in the Age of Austerity, eds. Armin Schäfer and Wolfgang Streek
(Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2013). For example, the Greek protests were
held from May through July 2011 and were known as the “Indignant
Citizens Movement.” On June 3, 2011, it is estimated that between
300,000 and 500,000 people gathered in front of the Greek Parliament.
Later, Greek police were investigated for use of excessive force to control
the protesters in Athens. See Helena Smith, “Greek Police Face
Investigation After Protest Violence,” The Guardian (1 July 2011).
16. See, for example, Mark Blyth, Austerity: The History of a Dangerous Idea
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2013) and “The Austerity Delusion:
Why a Bad Idea Won Over the West,” Foreign Affairs (May/June 2013),
Paul Krugman, “Myths of Austerity,” The New York Times (1 July 2010)
and “How the Case for Austerity Has Crumbled,” The New York Review of
Books (6 June 2013), Robert Kuttner, Debtors’ Prison: The Politics of
Austerity Versus Possibility (New York: Knopf, 2013), Brad Plumer, “IMF:
Austerity Is Much Worse for the Economy than We Thought,” The
Washington Post (12 October 2012), David Stuckler and Sanjay Basu, The
Body Politic: Why Austerity Kills (New York: Basic Books, 2013) and “How
Austerity Kills,” The New York Times (12 May 2013), and Richard Wolff,
“Austerity: Why and for Whom?” (4 July 2010).
17. The general subject of the politics of emotion in academe is not widely
discussed in the scholarly literature of higher education. However, the
emotional world created within higher education is an important aspect of
academic life. For an introduction to this topic, see Jeffrey R. Di Leo,
“Shame in Academe: On the Politics of Emotion in Academic Culture,”
Academe Degree Zero: Reconsidering the Politics of Higher Education
(Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2011) and “On Academic Terrorism:
Neoliberalism, Higher Education, and the Politics of Emotion,”
Neoliberalism, Education, Terrorism: Contemporary Dialogues, Jeffrey
R. Di Leo, Henry Giroux, Sophia A. McClennen, and Kenneth J. Saltman
(Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2013), and Charlotte Bloch, Passion
and Paranoia: Emotions and the Culture of Emotion in Academia
(Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012).
18. Charlotte Bloch, Passion and Paranoia, 10.
19. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of
Human Feeling, Updated with a New Preface (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 2012) develops these concepts and others regarding emo-
tions in the workplace in more detail.
20. Charlotte Bloch, Passion and Paranoia, 10.
THE TWO AUSTERITIES 19
21. See my review of Bloch’s Passion and Paranoia in The British Journal of
Sociology 65.3 (2014) for a fuller overview of her remarkable and pioneer-
ing study.
22. Charlotte Bloch, Passion and Paranoia, 140.
23. Ibid., 140.
24. Ibid., 141.
25. Michel Foucault, The Courage of Truth: The Government of Self and Others
II, Lectures at the Collège de France, 1983–1984, ed. Frédéric Gros, trans.
Graham Burchell (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 128.
26. Ibid., 128.
27. Ibid., 165.
28. Ibid., 165.
29. Ibid., 166.
30. Ibid., 170.
31. Ibid., 172.
32. Ibid., 172.
33. Ibid., 172.
34. Ibid., 173.
35. Ibid., 173.
36. Ibid., 298.
37. Certainly a vast amount of genealogy would need to be worked out here
to establish the continuities and discontinuities among Cynicism,
Christianity, and neoliberal academe. For example, the Cynics were
strongly resistant to authority, whereas neoliberal academic austerity
involves an acceptance of authority. Nonetheless, by being heirs to a cer-
tain tradition, we have a predisposition to identifying austerity with truth,
and hence academic life with austerity.
38. It should be noted that sexual austerity is a major theme in Foucault’s later
work. For example, in The Use of Pleasure: The History of Sexuality, Volume
Two (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), he proposes a number of themes
regarding sexual austerity (14–24). “From the few similarities I have man-
aged to point out,” comments Foucault, “it should not be concluded that
the Christian morality of sex was somehow ‘pre-formed’ in ancient
thought; one ought to imagine instead that very early in the moral thought
of antiquity, a thematic complex—a ‘quadri-thematics’ of sexual auster-
ity—formed around and apropos of the life of the body, the institution of
marriage, relations between men, and the existence of wisdom. And, cross-
ing through institutions, sets of precepts, extremely diverse theoretical ref-
erences, and in spite of many alterations, this thematics maintained a
certain constancy as time went by: as if, starting in antiquity, there were
four points of problematization on the basis of which—and according to
schemas that were often very different—the concern with sexual austerity
20 J.R. DI LEO
46. It bears mentioning that the Cynics were not about being entirely emo-
tionally numb, nor are they the only historical backdrop against which to
understand emotional austerity in academe. While there is a genealogical
relation between the Cynics and neoliberal academic austerity, not only is
it not without many complications and discontinuities, other, more con-
temporary, relations too can be established. Still, the Stoic ideal of ataraxia
casts a long shadow over both the Cynics and the emotion work of con-
temporary academe.
CHAPTER 2
Unlit Classrooms
Transparency and Opacity
In philosophical circles, transparency can and does function in a number
of different ways, not all of which seem immediately relevant to a discus-
sion of transparency in higher education. For example, there is a major
sense of transparency in philosophy today that concerns the reference of
objects in primarily linguistic contexts. The idea here is that while gener-
ally the truth about a given object is not affected by the manner in which
we refer to it, in some linguistic contexts it is. So, for example, while it
is generally possible to switch without affecting the truth of the given
object (Jean-Jacques Rousseau) between say “Jean-Jacques,” “he,” “the
author of Confessions,” and “the Lambercier’s adopted son,” some lin-
guistic contexts do limit this freedom. For example, “He knows who ____
is” may be true with “that philosopher” in its blank, but false when the
philosopher is referred to as “the owner of the footprint.” Linguistic con-
texts such as this one are described as “referentially opaque” as opposed
to “referentially transparent.”2
Discussions of “transparency” in this and similar contexts have occu-
pied philosophers at least since the third century BCE, when Eubilides
famously dubbed this situation the “masked man fallacy.” Statements like
“You say you know your brother, but that masked man is your brother,
and you did not know him” are notoriously referentially opaque, whereas
normal contexts where if you touched the mask, you thereby touched
your brother, are transparent.3 Problems with the relative transparency
and opacity of reference were not only extensively discussed by medieval
logicians but were then again taken up with great intensity by philoso-
phers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. For example,
the German mathematician-logician, Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) con-
tended that referentially opaque contexts such as those exemplified by
26 J.R. DI LEO
the masked man fallacy refer to something else,4 and the English phi-
losopher, Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) claimed that the expression does
not really refer.5 Such discussions about transparency have carried through
to the current time, with more contemporary philosophers such as W. V.
O. Quine of Harvard University arguing that the expression does more
than refer.6
However, as interesting and important as the discussions over the rela-
tive transparency of language among logicians may be, their significance
to understanding transparency in academe—let alone the rapid increase in
calls for more transparency in government and other facets of the public
sphere—is at best, tangential. Still, there is something to be learned from
these discussions. Namely, by asking the relative degree of “referential
opacity” and “referential transparency” acceptable in responses to public
calls for transparency, one is pulling the debate about transparency out of
the politics of language and into the analytics of language—a space where
considerations of transparency without regard to considerations of logic,
truth, and reference are ultimately empty. If nothing else, such requests
may foreground the fact that most public calls for transparency are not
calls for truth or appeals to reference. Rather, they are something else—
something that is more specifically captured by the social and political side
of the house of philosophy, rather than its linguistic and logical side. And
to this, we will turn in a moment.
Still, there is an eerie feeling that overcomes one when the full powers
of analytic philosophy are turned on transparency: a feeling that consider-
ations of knowledge, let alone self-knowledge, are somehow irrelevant to
contemporary cries for transparency in the academy in particular, and in
governance at large. This is particularly evident when we look to the con-
temporary epistemological dimensions of transparency, rather than their
metaphysical and logical ones.
In contemporary discussions of self-knowledge, there is an epistemo-
logical position today that utilizes transparency as a concept in a very sig-
nificant way. The philosopher Paul Boghossian of New York University,
for example, makes a useful distinction between strongly transparent epis-
temic states and weakly transparent ones.7 For Boghossian, an epistemic
state is weakly transparent to someone if and only if, when they are in the
epistemic state, they can know that they are in it. However, an epistemic
state is strongly transparent to someone if and only if they can know that
they are in it, and when they are not in it, they can know that they are not
in it.8 This means, for example, that pain is a strongly transparent epistemic
state for most people: when we are in pain, we know it, and when we are
not, we also know it.
UNLIT CLASSROOMS 27
A Transparent Heart
Though the analytics of transparency are a philosophically rich area for
many logicians and philosophers of language, this work rings hollow when
applied toward the aim of reaching a greater understanding of the role
and nature of transparency in public discourse about the academy. This is
not to say that there is nothing in the analytics of transparency that may
produce a greater understanding of transparency in academe. Some sug-
gestions have been offered here, and there are surely other opportunities
to tie together an analytic notion of transparency with the sense in which
it is used in neoliberal academic discourse. Rather, it is to say that pursuing
the analytics of academic transparency takes us through the backwoods of
neoliberal academe, when all of the action is occurring elsewhere. What
philosophical sense of transparency then moves us toward the action?
28 J.R. DI LEO
One day I was learning my lessons alone in the room next to the kitchen,
where the servant had left Mlle Lambercier’s combs to dry on the stove top.
Now when she came to take them off, she discovered that the teeth of one
were broken off, all down one side. Who was to be blamed for this? I was
the only person who had been in the room; but I said I had not touched it.
M. and Mlle Lambercier jointly lectured, pressed, and threatened me; but
I stubbornly maintained my denial. Appearances were too strong for me,
however, and all my protests were overruled, although this was the first time
that I had been convicted of a downright lie. They took the matter seri-
ously, as it deserved. The mischief, the untruth, and my persistent denials, all
seemed to deserve a punishment; but this time it was not Mlle Lambercier
who inflicted it. They wrote to my Uncle Bernard, and he came.13
For most children, being punished for a crime that they did not commit
would be an unpleasant experience, but not a particularly traumatic one.
However, for the young Rousseau, the experience was a devastating one.
Writes Rousseau,
There ended the serenity of my childish life. From that moment I never
again enjoyed pure happiness, and even to-day I am conscious that memory
of childhood’s delights stops short at that point.14
All of this, though, is perfectly clear from Rousseau’s text. However, what
is not as apparent is the way in which this early trauma is pivotal in the
formation of his deep and fascinating positions on transparency. And it is
for this reason that Starobinski’s reading is so important.
Starobinski reminds us that Rousseau believes his soul is transparent to
himself and that his aim is to make it transparent to others. At the opening
of The Confessions, Rousseau writes,
I know my own heart and understand my fellow man. But I am unlike any
one I have ever met; I will even venture to say that I am like no one in the
whole world.15
I should like in some way to make my soul transparent to the reader’s eye,
and for that purpose I am trying to present it from all points of view, to show
it in all lights, and to contrive that none of its movements shall escape his
notice, so that he may judge for himself of the principle which has produced
them.16
30 J.R. DI LEO
But all of that came crashing down after the comb incident. Notes Rousseau,
It was the dream of a transparent society, visible in each of its parts, the
dream of there no longer existing any zones of darkness, zones established
by the privileges of royal power or the prerogatives of some corporation,
zones of disorder. It was the dream that each individual, whatever position
he occupied, might be able to see the whole of society, that men’s hearts
should communicate, their vision be unobstructed by obstacles, and that
opinion of all reign over each.25
Some have even gone so far to say that revolutions have failed to the extent
that they failed to achieve sufficient levels of transparency.26 In this context
then, if neoliberal academe were regarded as a revolution in higher educa-
tion, it is not difficult to understand why there is such a strong demand
today for increasing levels of transparency.
But in spite of the romantic dreams of transparency, living up to them
is easier said than done. Even Rousseau, a philosopher who was preoccu-
pied with and longed for transparency as few others, had major difficulties
in balancing transparency against obstruction and opacity. Moreover, we
know that while the romantics of transparency look toward a transparent
society, we have also seen how the prerogatives of the corporate university
under the aegis of neoliberalism have ironically thrust the academy into
darkness through their calls for increasing levels of transparency.
The problem here is not with the desire to know transparently one’s
heart and to communicate it with others or even the dream being able to
read the hearts of others. This is the uncontroversial side of Rousseau’s
romanticism. Rather, the problems arise when one attempts to build this
32 J.R. DI LEO
Their differences, though, can be most clearly seen in their views on the
comrade/overseer relationship. Whereas Bentham uses the phrase “Each
comrade becomes an overseer” in the Panopticon, Foucault contends that
“Rousseau no doubt would have said the reverse: each overseer should
become a comrade.”29
Though it is difficult today for most to find a humanitarian intention
in Bentham’s project,30 Foucault reminds us that this is not the way he
was viewed from the position of the French Revolution.31 Comments
Foucault,
When the Revolution poses the question of a new justice, what does it envis-
age as its principle? Opinion. The new aspect of the problem of justice, for
the Revolution, was not so much to punish wrongdoers as to prevent even
the possibility of wrongdoing, by immersing people in a field of total vis-
ibility where the opinion, observation and discourse of others would restrain
them from harmful acts.32
So the quest for total visibility in Bentham is grounded in a fear that its
opposite, darkness, is the breeding ground of bad governance and injus-
tice. Again, Foucault writes,
A fear haunted the latter half of the eighteenth century: the fear of darkened
spaces, of the pall gloom which prevents the full visibility of things, men
and truths. It sought to break up the patches of darkness that blocked the
light, eliminate the shadowy areas of society, demolish the unlit chambers
where arbitrary political acts, monarchical caprice, religious superstitions,
tyrannical and priestly plots, epidemics and the illusions of ignorance were
fomented.33
Thus, to pull Bentham into the contemporary context of calls for transpar-
ency in neoliberal academe is to rekindle the spirit of fear that haunted the
latter half of the eighteenth century, albeit in a different context.
Neoliberal academe, however, takes the revolutionary calls for transpar-
ency from the late eighteenth century and turns them on their head. That
is to say, for neoliberal academe and its proponents, the system of higher
34 J.R. DI LEO
[c]alumny will lose its force; it collects its venom in the caverns of obscurity,
but it is destroyed by the light of day.44
However, publicity is not the path of least resistance for government. Still,
in the long run, it is better than the path of secrecy:
That a secret policy saves itself from some inconveniences I will not deny;
but I believe, that in the long run it creates more than it avoids; and that of
two governments, one of which should be conducted secretly and the other
openly, the latter would possess a strength, a hardihood, and a reputation
which would render it superior to all the dissimulations of the other.45
[t]he best project prepared in darkness, would excite more alarm than the
worst, undertaken under the auspices of publicity.46
The notion that darkness, mystery, and secrecy are breeding grounds for
calumny, encourage mistrust, and bring about suspicion is the heart of
Bentham’s argument of how publicity protects the reputation of govern-
ment and builds public confidence in its operation. Publicity allows dis-
agreements to be aired and sorted out. One of the positive effects of which
36 J.R. DI LEO
measures online unnecessarily injurious? Why does it feel that the effect of
transparency in the hands of neoliberal government is to inflict severe pun-
ishment on the guilty, that is, higher education? And would we in higher
education all not agree that this punishment is too severe?
Neoliberalism has convinced much of the public that higher education
is an enemy of publicity. On some days, it is painted as the malefactor, who
seeks to escape the notice of the judge of neoliberalism; on other days,
higher education is the tyrant who seeks to stifle public opinion, while he
fears to hear its voice; and other days, higher education is portrayed as the
timid man, who complains of the general incapacity in order to screen his
own. With each cry higher education makes against publicity and trans-
parency, through the lens of Bentham’s logic of transparency and that of
neoliberalism, it is increasingly seen as the enemy.
But what needs to be remembered here is that it is only in the age of
neoliberalism that it is possible to view higher education as the malefactor,
the tyrant, or the timid man. Neoliberalism, through its policies and prac-
tices, created these individuals—and now uses its own logic to marginal-
ize them. Think about it: if docile academic subjects are the creation and
modus operandi of neoliberal academe, how is it at the same time possible
for them to be enemies of higher education through their displeasure with
increasing levels of transparency?
Keep It from the Kids
Bentham’s thoughts on the social and political foundations of transpar-
ency are among the most powerful and extensive in the modern philo-
sophical canon. His early work in An Essay on Political Tactics in 1791, set
the stage for his thoroughgoing incorporation of his principle of public-
ity into Constitutional Code, a work regarded as the culmination of his
long career as an advocate of reform and codification. Begun in 1822
when Bentham was 74 years old and unfinished at the time of his death
in 1832, Constitutional Code is intended “for uses of All Nations and All
Governments professing Liberal Opinions.”50
But Bentham was not the only classical utilitarian to defend the princi-
ple of publicity. One can also find defenses in the work of John Stuart Mill
(1806–1873), Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900), and others.51 What we find
in these works is that while the scales favor publicity over secrecy in most
contexts, there are some noteworthy exceptions. Sidgwick, for example,
claims that “on Utilitarian principles, it may be right to do and privately
38 J.R. DI LEO
them with those outside of our circles of knowledge in ways that provide
them with entry points into these conversations. Once intellectuals lose
confidence in the public, then all really is finally lost, particularly in achiev-
ing public confidence in higher education.
But the path from Bentham to Sidgwick is also one from considerations
of actual publicity to hypothetical publicity. The former deals with things
which are actually said and whether they should be shared with others,
whereas the latter deals with things that hypothetically might be said, and
whether they should be shared with others. In a way, hypothetical public-
ity engages publicity more at the theoretical level, whereas actual publicity,
more at the empirical level. Bentham is writing about how the courts and
government should actually deal with publicity regarding their transac-
tions and operation. The courts try cases with judges and juries, and the
government levies taxes, passes legislation, and looks after the interests of
the citizens and the country. Whether, how, and why their deliberations
are publicized is a matter of ongoing and continuing interest. These are
the matters of actual publicity.
Hypothetical publicity, however, functions on the level of what might
hypothetically be said. This is the level of Sidgwick’s engagement with
publicity. As a development of Bentham’s utilitarianism, Sidgwick on pub-
licity is of great interest. Still, his work leaves much to be desired, especially
the dimensions of it that move toward secrecy regarding not only some
of the more morally controversial consequences of utilitarianism (such as
the moral justification of lying), but also regarding utilitarianism itself.
Covert utilitarianism such as Sidgwick’s, grounded on the notion that its
justification is too complicated for some to understand or that some of its
consequences might be mistaken as general advocacy, is best left in the
nineteenth-century dustbin of ideas. But doing so does not mean that
hypothetical publicity is without merits as a philosophical point of depar-
ture. To see its value, one needs to only turn to the work of Immanuel
Kant (1724–1804) in this area.
Perpetual Publicity
In his late essay, “To Perpetual Peace” (1795), which it is speculated he
wrote on the occasion of the signing of the Treaty of Basel on April 5, 1795,
Kant takes up the topic of the relationship of nations among themselves. For
Kant, while “the single greatest problem humanity faces is forming a just civil
constitution, humanity may be most threatened by the intractability nations
40 J.R. DI LEO
display in the relations among themselves.”55 Kant’s essay thus takes up the
topic of the cosmopolitan state, “that state in which nations co-exist under
the rule of law” as the “only one in which the rights of individuals can be
fully guaranteed.”56 Thus, it is within the context of the relations among
nations that the subject of publicity is broached by Kant.
In the final pages of “To Perpetual Peace,” Kant discusses the agree-
ment between politics and morality under the transcendental concept of
public right. Here he is not concerned with actual publicity, which he
describes as “the different empirically given relations among men in a
nation or among nations,”57 but rather what was introduced in the previ-
ous section through the work of Sidgwick as hypothetical publicity. But
unlike Sidgwick, who worries about the conditions under which publicity
regarding utilitarianism must be restricted, Kant is concerned with “the
form of publicity.”58
With respect to the form of publicity, Kant argues “unless every such
claim has this form there can be no justice [Gerechtigkeit] (that can be
regarded as publicly knowable), thus no right either, since the right can be
conferred only through justice.”59 Consequently, for Kant, considerations
of publicity regarding claims to the rights of other men are determinable
through pure reason.
Every claim of right must have this capacity for publicity, and since one can
easily judge whether or not it is present in a particular case, i.e., whether or
not publicity is compatible with the agent’s principles, it provides us with a
readily applicable criterion that is found a priori in reason; for the purported
claim’s (praetensio iuris) falseness (contrariness to right) is immediately rec-
ognized by an experiment of pure reason.60
All actions that affect the rights of other men are wrong if their maxim is not
consistent with publicity.61
For Kant, this principle is an ethical one (as it belongs to the doctrine of
virtue), a juridical one (as it pertains to the rights of men), and, perhaps
most importantly, a negative one (as it serves only as a means for recogniz-
ing what is not right in regard to others). This last characteristic of Kant’s
transcendental formula of public right is the most important one.
UNLIT CLASSROOMS 41
All maxims that require publicity (in order not to fail of their end) agree with
both politics and morality.64
As such, announcing a revolt of the people against the ruler fails the
transcendental publicity test. In short, as there are no provisions in the
civil constitution for revolt, any effort to publicize a maxim regarding
revolt of the people against a tyrant would need to be done secretly, if it
were to have any chance at being successful. But it is the secrecy regard-
ing the maxim that ultimately determines that it is not in the interests of
justice and the rights of man.
The difference then between Sidgwick and Kant on hypothetical pub-
licity is that the former maintains the necessity of secrecy, whereas the
latter does not. In fact, Kant’s transcendental publicity test is a negative
argument against secrecy. Furthermore, Kant does not build his theory of
publicity upon a segmentation of the population into the “enlightened”
and the unenlightened, rather he asks what would happen if a maxim
were made publicly available to all people. It is for this reason that Kant’s
approach to hypothetical publicity is preferable to Sidgwick’s.
Furthermore, it is possible to view transparency in higher education
today more productively from the perspective of Kant’s transcendental
publicity principle than it is from Sidgwick’s work on hypothetical public-
ity. The Kantian perspective requires us to move away from the empiri-
cal dimensions of transparency (actual publicity) and to rather engage it
at a more universal and a priori level (hypothetical publicity). Whereas
Bentham by examining publicity from every corner of the constitutional,
parliamentary, and judicial code more closely follows Rousseau’s method
of dealing with transparency by “present[ing] it from all points of view,”
Kant’s transcendental approach to publicity encourages us to not get
UNLIT CLASSROOMS 43
All actions that affect the rights of [other] students and faculty are wrong if
their maxim is not consistent with publicity.70
Conclusion
The reputation of transparency as the watchdog of neoliberal academe
is one of the more unfortunate consequences of higher education today.
As we have seen, transparency not only has been central to romanticism
and the function of good government, but also has its greatest role in
the philosophical canon—the maintenance of world peace. It is ultimately
through this latter role established by Kant in his remarkable essay, “To
Perpetual Peace,” that we can begin to re-appropriate transparency as a
noble aspiration in higher education.
Neoliberal academe, however, has done a remarkable job at reducing
transparency down to a mechanism whereby the university can become
a more economically efficient through the effacement of its educational
functions. However, as we work to move beyond the neoliberal academy
and bring the interests of students, faculty, and democratic education back
to the foreground of higher education, it is worth considering what role,
if any, transparency should play in the post-neoliberal academy.
Why not consider regarding its function within the post-neoliberal
academy as one that is more hypothetical rather than actual? That is, why
not use transparency as a means of ensuring that justice regarding the
rights of students and faculty with respect to the knowledge contract is
ensured, rather than viewing its only potential role in the academy as being
the watchdog of neoliberal academe? After all, the neoliberal academy is
widely viewed as the darkest time in the history of education. What better
way to bring it out of the darkness than through the light of transparency?
Notes
1. See Sandrine Baume, “Does Transparency Engender the Confidence of the
Governed? A Contribution to Political Thought,” Economics and Other
Branches—In the Shade of the Oak Tree: Essays in Honour of Pascal Bridel,
eds. Roberto Baranzini and François Allisson (London: Pickering &
Chatto, 2014).
2. See Christopher Kirwan, “Referential Opacity,” The Oxford Companion to
Philosophy, ed. Ted Honderich (New York: Oxford UP, 1995), 752.
3. See Jack MacIntosh, “Masked Man Fallacy,” The Oxford Companion to
Philosophy, ed. Ted Honderich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995),
529.
4. See Gottlob Frege, “On Sense and Reference [Ueber Sinn and Bedeutung,
1892],” Translations from the Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege, sec-
UNLIT CLASSROOMS 45
ond edition, eds. Peter Geach and Max Black, trans. Max Black (Oxford:
Basil Blackwell, 1960).
5. See especially, Bertrand Russell “On Denoting [1905],” Logic and
Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950, ed. R. C. Marsh (London: Allen & Unwin,
1956). For an explanation of Russell’s position, see David Kaplan, “What
is Russell’s Theory of Descriptions,” Bertrand Russell: A Collection of
Critical Essays, ed. David Pears (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1972).
6. See W. V. O. Quine, “Reference and Modality,” From a Logical Point of
View, second rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964).
7. See Paul A. Boghossian, “The Transparency of Mental Content,”
Philosophical Perspectives 8 (1994).
8. More formally: an epistemic state is weakly transparent to a subject S if and
only if when S is in state E, S can know that S is in state E; an epistemic state
E is strongly transparent to a subject S if and only if when S is in state E, S
can know that S is in state E, and when S is not in state E, S can know S is
not in state E.
9. For an account of terror in neoliberal academe, see Jeffrey R. Di Leo, “On
Academic Terrorism: Neoliberalism, Higher Education, and the Politics of
Emotion,” in Jeffrey R. Di Leo, Henry Giroux, Sophia McClennen, and
Ken Saltman, Neoliberalism, Education, Terrorism: Contemporary Dialogues
(Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2013).
10. G. D. H. Cole, “Introduction,” Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social
Contract and Discourses, trans. G. D. H. Cole (London: J. M. Dent, 1990),
xliii.
11. Ibid., xliii.
12. The first part, Books I to VI, were written between 1765 and 1767, and
published in 1782; the second part, Books VII to XII were written between
1769 and 1770, and published in 1789. Rousseau died in 1778, so while
he read from The Confessions during his lifetime, they were not published
until after his death.
13. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans.
with an intro., J. M. Cohen (New York: Penguin, 1953), 29.
14. Ibid., 30.
15. Ibid., 17.
16. Ibid., 169.
17. Margaret Ogrodnick, Instinct and Intimacy: Political Philosophy and
Autobiography in Rousseau (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999),
31–32.
18. Jean Starobinski, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction,
trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1988), 10. First published as Jean-Jacques Rousseau: La transparence et
l’obstacle (1971).
46 J.R. DI LEO
Higher Hedonism
University life has its pleasures. For some, there is pleasure in conversing
and spending time with one’s colleagues or students. Others enjoy the
challenge of pursuing research or solving problems. Others still take
delight in teaching and service to their university. The French semiotician
and critic Roland Barthes even theorized as to the specific kinds of plea-
sure involved in one of the most rudimentary of university acts, namely,
reading texts.
To view academe as bereft of pleasure is to see it without one of its most
appealing dimensions and enduring characteristics. Arguably, the pleasure
of academe is one of the key factors in its continuous persistence since
the formation of academies in the ancient world. It is hard to believe that
without pleasure the academy would have survived—if not thrived—this
long. In addition to all the other things that academe is to and for us, it is
a source of pleasure.
So one might ask, just what are the “pleasures” of academe? And fur-
thermore, are they something we should aim to maximize? What is the
role of “enjoyment” in educational theory and practice? And how should
we organize the academy such that students, faculty, and administrators
can optimize enjoyment? What does it mean to say that we take “delight”
in our teaching or research—or, dare I say—administration? And how can
we ensure that these delightful aims are sought, if not also achieved?
If we share with others what we enjoy about the academy and what
gives us pleasure within it, it will be much easier to work toward reform-
ing the academy so that it is more pleasurable, and thus better, for all. If
we don’t, then don’t be surprised if we are left with an academy fit only
for masochists.2
Textual Pleasure
To pose questions about pleasure and pain in the house of higher educa-
tion is to associate it with an old and long philosophical tradition, namely,
the one which generally contends that pleasure or enjoyment is or ought
to be the end of human life and action—a tradition that dates back at least
as far as one of Socrates’s disciples. It is a tradition whose name when
mentioned immediately raises eyebrows and one widely aimed to be kept
silent: the name of this philosophical tradition is hedonism.
Barthes himself was criticized by many when he turned to it relatively
late in his career—though was well aware of the risk he took in introduc-
ing the subject in The Pleasure of the Text (1975).3 “An old, a very old tra-
dition,” comments Barthes, “hedonism has been repressed by nearly every
philosophy; we find it defended only by marginal figures, Sade, Fourier;
for Nietzsche, hedonism is a pessimism.”4 “Pleasure is continually disap-
pointed, reduced, deflated, in favor of strong, noble values: Truth, Death,
Progress, Struggle, Joy, etc.,” he continues. “Its victorious rival is Desire:
we are always being told about Desire, never about Pleasure; Desire has an
epistemic dignity, Pleasure does not.”5
Barthes’s introduction of textual pleasure aimed to address the fact that
textual pleasure was not yet a concern of academic criticism. It also sought
to unite notions about textual generation then current in literary theory
and psycholinguistics with his own lifelong intuitions.6 In broad terms,
Barthes proposes three distinct kinds of pleasure: the first is the pleasure
and comfort that comes from Readerly textual fulfillment, which he terms
“plaisir”; the second is the rapture and ecstasy that comes from Writerly
textual unsettlement and discomfort, which he terms “jouissance”; and
the third is the textual pleasure that comes from finding ecstatic moments
in Readerly texts.7
Details of Barthes’s hedonism aside, it stands out because it stands
alone in contemporary literary studies. One will search in vain to find
another contemporary literary theorist who explicitly engages the hedonic
tradition; and even if someone is found, it is hard to imagine this person
52 J.R. DI LEO
Living Pleasantly
For the most part, Barthes is right about the marginality of the figures
who historically defended hedonism. Hedonism, stemming from the
Greek “hedone,” can be traced back at least as far as the Cyrenaics, and
their founder, the ancient Greek philosopher, Aristippus (435–356 BCE).8
A student of Socrates, Aristippus was born and lived in Cyrene, which is
in Libya. After the death of Socrates, he opened one of the three major
Socratic schools in his hometown from which the philosophical movement
took its name, Cyrenaicism (the other two movements were Cynicism and
Megarianism). The leaders of this school included: Aristippus’s daughter,
Arete; his grandson, Aristippus the younger; Bio; and Euhemerus.9
Generally speaking, Aristippus contended that good and evil are reduc-
ible to pleasure and pain, and that the end of life is self-gratification.
Aristippus interpreted Socrates’s teaching that happiness (eudiamonia) is
one of the ends of moral action to mean that pleasure is the sole end
of life. While he emphasizes immediate pleasures, he also tempers them
with a measure of rational control. For him, the sole criterion of plea-
sure is intensity, and bodily pleasures are preferred to intellectual plea-
sures. Philosophy, for Aristippus, is the study of the best means of living
pleasantly.10
Cyrenaicism is the first of many chapters in the history of philosophy
that utilizes hedone as its centerpiece.11 For example, there was the school
founded by Epicurus in 306 BCE, which not only put the Cyrenaicists
out of business, but flourished until the fifth century of the common
era through the work of philosophers such as Hermarchus, Polystratus,
Lucretius, Philodemus, Asclepiades, and even to some extent Cicero, all
before the common era, and Diogenes of Oinoanda and Diogenianus in
the second and third centuries of the common era. Much later, in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus established
the so-called Christian Epicureanism, which then influenced the “Utopian
Epicureanism” of Thomas More.12
In addition to Epicureanism and its variations, hedone is at the center
of Thomas Hobbes’s materialism, the naturalism of eighteenth-century
HIGHER HEDONISM 53
Pleasure and Pain
Arguments aside as to the marginality of the aforementioned figures (as
everyone’s margin can be someone’s center), Bentham and Mill at least
are well-known and much studied figures in contemporary philosophical
circles. In fact, their utilitarianism—founded upon hedonism—is still one
of the commonplaces of contemporary philosophical ethics.
Bentham, is the “father” of utilitarianism and the leader of a reform
group based on utilitarian principles called the Philosophical Radicals. He
argues that it is a fact of nature that the goal of individual lives is the pursuit
of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. For Bentham, good is only another
word for “pleasure” and “the absence of pain.”14 In terms of social moral-
ity, what is the right thing to do is whatever produces “the greatest happi-
ness of the greatest number.”15 We should strive in our lives to maximize
pleasure and to minimize pain for as many people as possible. Actions that
produce the greatest amounts of pleasure are to be valued morally over
actions that produce lesser amounts of pleasure. His “hedonic” or utilitar-
ian calculus asks us to consider the quantity of pleasure or pain resulting
from our behavior in a number of respects including its intensity, duration,
and certainty. Bentham believes that this is the most rational way to settle
all moral controversies.16
Mill (1806–1873) follows the broad lines of Bentham’s utilitarianism
but with a couple of major qualifications. Mill, unlike Bentham, distin-
guishes between “higher pleasures,” which are of greater value, and “lower
pleasures,” which are of lesser value. Furthermore, unlike Bentham, Mill
also distinguishes between happiness and mere sensual pleasure. “It is bet-
ter to be human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied,” says Mill, “better
to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.”17 Mill tells us to maximize
the sum of higher pleasure.18 Consequently, Mill’s utilitarianism is some-
times called eudaimonistic utilitarianism (eudaimonia is Greek for “hap-
piness”) to distinguish it from Bentham’s hedonistic utilitarianism.
It is through the utilitarian philosophies of Bentham and Mill that
hedonism makes its most direct philosophical route into contemporary
discussions. Though not a marginal line of contemporary thinking, it is
54 J.R. DI LEO
our individual gains (or pleasures) and minimize our individual costs
(or pain).”26 As such, one does not have to work hard to connect the
foundations of economic Darwinism, or more fashionably, neoliberalism,
to naturalistic hedonism. The eviscerating consequences of the neoliberal
imperatives for corporate managerialism, instrumentalism, and rationaliza-
tion in social policy and higher education practice have already been well
established by myself and others—and are in themselves enough to drive
us away from any form of hedonism.27
Higher Pleasure
My aim here though is to open up a conversation about the role of plea-
sure in higher education rather than to shut it down—something that the
close affiliation of naturalistic hedonism to academic neoliberalism has the
immediate potential to do. My suggestion then is that we back away from
the more general notion of homo economicus with its broad conception of
maximizing individual gains and minimizing individual costs, and focus
instead on specifically increasing pleasure and decreasing pain in higher ed.
In other words, we focus on hedonism without or outside of the context
of a more general theory of exchange.
Doing the aforementioned is easier with the understanding of the cen-
trality of hedonism to the social and behavioral sciences. If hedonistic
explanation were not regarded as mainstream—though perhaps inexplicit
and unexamined in much social and behavioral theory, then one might
need a notion like homo economicus to drive inquiry into pleasure in higher
ed. But as hedonism is a major assumption in much contemporary social,
political, and economic explanation, then higher ed can ride on the coat-
tails of hedonic explanations of crime, drug addiction, warfare, voting,
and marriage. That is to say, if it is commonly utilized in explanations of
crime, drug addiction, warfare, voting, and marriage, why then can’t it
also be used in explanations of higher education?
While the notion that academe is fundamentally hedonistic may disturb
the moral majority or those who wish to think of higher education as
above the pleasure economy (the ascetic majority?),28 situating it within
the context of hedonism will put the study of higher education on the
same explanatory grounding as other dimensions of society studied by the
social sciences. But still, this comes with a major caveat: though hedonistic
explanation may be a given in the social and behavioral sciences, it is not a
given in the moral sciences.
56 J.R. DI LEO
with its own set of pleasures, and what is most pleasing to one individual
may not be so to another. For example, some administrators take plea-
sure in enforcing compliance with university policy—whereas others find
it painful.
None of this however denies the presence of pleasure in higher educa-
tion; nor does it negate the existence of pain in academe. Rather, what it
brings to the fore is that accounting for pleasure in higher ed is probably
not as simple as postulating a tripartite division akin to Barthes’s pleasures
of reading. However, there is a lesson that we can gain from the examples
of Barthes and Mill: from Mill, even a quick application of his theory of
pleasure to higher ed reveals a level of taxonomical necessity that quickly
deflates the feasibility of the theory; from Barthes, in spite of the extreme
idiosyncrasy of his textual pleasures and the simplicity of his account, he is
able to immediately establish a connection between pleasure and the text.
So, what would you rather have? Which direction is the right one?
Conclusion
In my estimation, Mill and Barthes are but two of a number of differ-
ent directions that an account of pleasure in higher education can take.
Whether or not they are feasible, or whether a psychological or an ethical
account is preferable, is not the issue here. What is the issue is that there
are plenty of pathways to examining pleasure in higher education. What
is now needed are individuals with the courage to engage the marginal
discourses of hedonism to explore them.
Perhaps Aristippus and the other Cyrenaics were not entirely wrong
to focus on the connection between happiness and pleasure; to focus on
bodily pleasures over intellectual ones, particularly given the paucity of
intellectual pleasures even in the institution most centered on their gen-
eration, namely, the academy. Hedonism in higher education need not be
a plea for the return of couches to faculty offices; nor need it be an apology
for being a dissatisfied Socrates. Rather, hedonism in higher education can
be about returning enjoyment—and happiness—to the academy. And if
it is the case that the post-Cyrenaic academy has never been an enjoyable
or happy one, then let’s start a conversation about the shape of such an
academy—as I think many today would like to take part in it.
Academic hedonism should not be the scourge of the academy or a
marginal concern. Rather it should be regarded as an opportunity to
inquire into the pleasures of academe—and the ways to achieve them.
58 J.R. DI LEO
Notes
1. Roland Barthes, The Pleasure of the Text, trans. Richard Miller (New York:
Hill and Wang, 1975), 57.
2. Arguably, as we’ve already established, the root cause of the intensification
of pain and suffering in higher education today is the rise of neoliberal
managerialism, which produces a form of emotional austerity in the docile
neoliberal academic subject.
3. Originally published in French as Le Plaisir du texte (Paris: Éditions du
Seuil) in 1973. All quotations refer to the 1975 translation by Richard
Miller.
4. Roland Barthes, The Pleasure of the Text, 57.
5. Ibid., 57.
6. Annette Lavers, Roland Barthes: Structuralism and After (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 205.
7. Barthes’s distinction between “plaisir” and “jouissance” draws on the psy-
choanalytic work of Jacques Lacan, who on March 5, 1958, told his stu-
dents he wanted to show them what was meant by “a notion…that has
always been implied in our reflections on desire but that deserves to be
distinguished from it, and which can only be articulated after one is suffi-
ciently imbued in the complexity that constitutes desire” (Jacques Lacan,
Le Séminaire V. Les Formations de l’inconscient, 1957–8 [Paris: Seuil, 1998],
251). Lacan would spend the next 20 years unraveling and deepening our
understanding of what is meant by the notion “jouissance.” Writes Néstor
Braunstein, in Lacan, “with jouissance we have a double polarity; first in
respect to desire, as advanced in 1958, and then in respect to pleasure,
according to conventional use” (Néstor Braunstein, “Desire and Jouissance
in the Teachings of Lacan,” The Cambridge Companion to Lacan, ed. Jean-
Michel Rabaté [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003], 104).
“Jouissance,” continues Braunstein, “is the dimension discovered by the
analytic experience that confronts desire at its opposite pole. If desire is
fundamentally lack, lack in being, jouissance is positivity, it is a ‘something’
lived by a body when pleasure stops being pleasure. It is a plus, a sensation
that is beyond pleasure” (104).
8. For an overview of Greek hedone, see Justin Gosling and Christopher
Taylor, The Greeks on Pleasure (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982).
9. See “Cyrenaics,” Encyclopedia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, Volume VII
(New York: The Encyclopedia Britannica Company, 1910). See also, Ugo
Zilioli, The Cyrenaics (New York: Routledge, 2014) and Kurt Lampe, The
Birth of Hedonism: The Cyrenaic Philosophers and Pleasure as a Way of Life
(Princeton University Press, 2014).
HIGHER HEDONISM 59
10. For a classical account of the life and philosophy of Aristippus and the
Cyrenaics, see Diogenes Laertius, “Life of Aristippus,” The Lives and
Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Books 1–5, trans. R. D. Hicks, Book Two,
Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925).
11. See, Kurt Lampe, The Birth of Hedonism (2014), and Henry Sidgwick,
Methods of Ethics [1907], Seventh ed. (New York: Dover, 1966), Book II,
Chapters II, III, IV, and VI.
12. For good recent introductions to Epicureanism, see Tim O’Keefe’s
Epicureanism (New York: Routledge, 2014), Gisela Striker, “Epicurean
Hedonism,” Passions and Perceptions: Studies in Hellenistic Philosophy of
Mind, eds. Jacques Brunschwig and Martha Nussbaum (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1993), and James Warren, ed., The Cambridge
Companion to Epicureanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2009). See also, for example, James Hankins, ed., The Cambridge
Companion to Renaissance Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2007), and Peter G. Bietenholz, Encounters with a Radical Erasmus:
Erasmus’ Work as a Source of Radical Thought in Early Modern Europe
(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), for material on Epicureanism
in Lorenzo Valla, Erasmus, and More.
13. See Frederick Vaughan, The Tradition of Political Hedonism: From Hobbes
to J. S. Mill (New York: Fordham University Press, 1982), Erin Frykholm
and Donald Rutherford, “Hedonism and Virtue,” The Oxford Handbook of
British Philosophy in the Seventeenth Century, ed. Peter R. Anstey (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2013), and Henry Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics
[1907], Seventh ed. (New York: Dover, 1966) and Outlines of the History
of Ethics, Fifth Edition (Indianapolis: Hackett Classics, 1988). It might be
noted that while the English utilitarians and the French philosophes of the
late eighteenth century were defending hedonism, the German romantics
of the same period, for example, Schlegel and Novalis were emphatically
rejecting it. See Fred Beiser, “A Romantic Education: The Concept of
Bildung in Early German Romanticism,” Philosophers on Education: New
Historical Perspectives, ed. Amélie Rorty (New York: Routledge, 1998).
14. “By good, understand either pleasure, or the absence—or say, on the
occasion in question, the non-existence—of pain. Pleasure is positive
good; absence of pain—negative good. By evil, understand either pain, or
the absence—or say, on the occasion in question, the non-existence—of
pleasure. Pain is positive evil; absence of pleasure—if arising from loss—
negative evil.” Jeremy Bentham, “Pannomial Fragments,” The Works of
Jeremy Bentham, Published Under the Superintendence of His Executor, John
Bowring, Volume III (Edinburgh: William Tait, 78 Prince’s Street, 1843),
214.
60 J.R. DI LEO
28. I have argued in Chap. 1, “The Two Austerities,” that the confluence of
the austerities in higher education today has brought about a “new asceti-
cism.” That is, the neoliberal mandates to operate higher education under
conditions of economic austerity have intensified the deeply rooted moral,
emotional, and existential austerity of higher education.
CHAPTER 4
Homo Habitus
Academic Studies
The most influential formulation of the concept of “habitus” was developed
in the early 1970s by the French sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu. However,
the influence, particularly with regard to academe, was not immediate.
Before Bourdieu’s landmark study of habitus in Esquisse d’une théorie de
la pratique, précédé de trois études d’ethnologie kabyle (1972),10 that is prior
to 1970, there were just over 10,000 articles and books dealing with the
general topic of “academic habitus”—10,510 to be exact.11 A major topic,
to be sure, but nothing like what was to happen in the coming years.
66 J.R. DI LEO
Over the next ten years, that is, through 1980, about 1500 works were
added to the bibliography; and again, over the next ten, that is, through
1990, about 2500 additional works were added. However, the next ten-
year period, that is 1990–2000, revealed a dramatic increase in research on
this topic, with almost 10,000 works added. In other words, in the 1990s
alone, there was as much scholarship on academic habitus than the entire
period predating 1970. What happened in the 1990s? Why the sudden
burst of interest? Answer: the rise of cultural studies.
In the 1990s, cultural studies exploded onto the academic scene.12
Consequently, the work of sociologists such as Bourdieu provided direc-
tion to the emergent discipline. Many looked to Bourdieu’s work for a
manner in which to pursue the study of cultural phenomena that avoided
absolutism and rigid frameworks. In addition, Bourdieu was particularly
helpful in providing a pathway for the study of culture that rejected method
in favor of practice.13
For many, the rejection of method in favor of practice was indicative of
a shift from theory to studies. From the 1990s, and arguably through the
present, “studies” designates an absence of theory and the rejection of
method in the field of concern—and there are many: postcolonial studies,
border studies, diaspora studies, New American studies, patronage stud-
ies, subaltern studies, working-class studies, debt studies, technoscience
studies, animal studies, food studies, resistance studies, surveillance and
security studies, body studies, cyborg studies, gender studies, disability
studies, age studies, leisure studies, whiteness studies, new Southern stud-
ies, indigenous studies, ethnic studies, women’s studies, queer studies,
masculinity studies, sexuality studies, celebrity studies, fashion studies,
sport studies, gaming studies, sound studies, visual culture studies, TV
studies, film studies, media studies, archive studies, professionalization
studies, canonization studies, labor studies, institutional studies, narrative
studies, affect studies, trauma studies, memory studies, Holocaust studies,
translation studies, Francophone studies, Lusophone studies, and so on.14
Simply put, anything and everything can be “studied” without recourse to
method—and in a non-totalizing manner.
To be sure, the shift from theory to studies has been more than cos-
metic. Studies are produced by critical writing practices, and do not neces-
sarily immediately provide the meaning of a cultural artifact. At their best,
they are self-reflective enterprises that are credited and discredited relative
to historical and social pressures. Each carries with it the imprimatur of
contingency, rather than the sanction of essentialism. And as the list above
HOMO HABITUS 67
illustrates, both the topic of study and what counts as a study can and will
change over time. Whereas today “critical climate studies” is a hot topic,
ten years ago, for example, it was not even on the “studies” radar.15
Theory today has come to be associated with method, whereas studies
are in part distinguished by their absence of method. One of the major
differences, say, between deconstruction and cultural studies is that the
former can be and has been reduced to a method, whereas the latter (sup-
posedly) cannot be totalized in this way. Furthermore, theory does not
continually seek to redefine itself through a process of self-analysis and
self-reflection. Structuralist theory, for example, does not change or rede-
fine itself when its object of study changes. But are these studies really dif-
ferent from theory? My long-held belief is that they are not. Rather, they
are part of an effort to repackage theory into a politically and ideologically
palatable form. But this, of course, is another story.16 Here, however, I
would like to approach studies from another direction, that is, I would like
to present one of the more unfortunate consequences of studies, namely,
their inability to serve as effective agents of resistance and reform, par-
ticularly when directed at an area such as academe. While it may be true
that studies cannot be reduced to method and avoid the alleged absolut-
ism and rigid frameworks of theory, it is also the case that in themselves,
studies are always already weak agents of reform and change. While for
some topics, especially historically distant ones, this may not be a prob-
lem. However, for studies of current cultural phenomena, it presents a
problem, particularly if the culture subject to the study is one that is, for
some, undesirable.
Overall, studies are more voyeuristic than visionary. They are con-
strained to the habitus that they present and struggle to offer value judg-
ments on and afford critical distance from the phenomena they study. My
general contention is that one of the places in which change is thwarted
and reform is resisted is through the application of habitus to the study of
culture. Moreover, one of the best defenses of this contention is an exami-
nation of the relationship of sociological practices to one specific form of
cultural studies, namely, academic studies.
listed as journal articles alone. The vast majority though were done in
the last ten years, with 55,811 entries for the years 2005 through 2015,
with 48,783 of those entries being journal articles. In the past five years
(2010–2015), there are 31,123 entries with 27,424 of them being articles.
And in 2013–2014 alone, there were 9763 entries, with 8724 of them
being articles. All in all, the research database of the Elton B. Stephens
Company (EBSCO), one of the most comprehensive in the world, lists
91,555 entries under the keywords “academic habitus.” If this data does
not indicate a trend in the consideration of academe, then nothing does.
While much of the work on academic habitus is diverse and wide rang-
ing, it does have a locus classicus, namely, it draws on Bourdieu’s work
on the general concept of habitus in his Outline of a Theory of Practice
and his magisterial study of academic habitus Homo Academicus.17 These
two works in particular frame a large part of the discussion of academic
habitus; therefore, understanding them goes a long way toward getting a
handle on this unwieldy and growing body of scholarship.
For Bourdieu, the sociological study of academe is not like the study
of other aspects of society. “It is a comic scenario,” writes Bourdieu, “that
of Don Juan deceived or The Miser robbed, and there are those who,
hoping to feel endangered or to make others feel threatened, prefer to
treat it in tragic terms.”18 Bourdieu, moreover, likens the situation of the
homo academicus seeking to trap homo academicus as akin to the story of
a young man who, “as a result of a quarrel with his girlfriend, writes in
despair to the director of the zoo to offer him a mammal missing from his
collection, that is, himself, so that he is placed in a cage, next to the chim-
panzee, with a notice saying: ‘Homo sapiens. This specimen is the gift of
John Cromantie, Esquire. Visitors are requested not to tease the man with
personal remarks.’”19 However, all joking aside, there is something very
different between the academic study of specific cultural practices and the
academic study of academic practices—and maybe for the same reason we
do not find humans caged in the local zoo. Academics are all too familiar
to academics.
“The sociologist who chooses to study his own world in its nearest
and most familiar aspects should not, as the ethnologist would,” com-
ments Bourdieu in Homo Academicus, “domesticate the exotic, but, if
I may venture the expression, exoticize the domestic, through a break
with his initial relation to intimacy with modes of life and thought which
remain opaque to him because they are too familiar.”20 He then notes that
unlike Durkheim and Lévi-Strauss, where “there is no prospect of subject-
ing to analysis the ‘forms of classification’ employed by the scholar, and
HOMO HABITUS 69
The schemes of the habitus, the primary forms of classification, owe their
specific efficacy to the fact that they function below the level of conscious
and language, beyond the reach of introspective scrutiny or control by the
will.24
However, unlike Kant who believes that they can be objectively deter-
mined by transcendental deduction,25 Bourdieu regards them as “beyond
the reach of introspective scrutiny.” Nonetheless, they are “embodied
structures,” internalized by social agents:
70 J.R. DI LEO
But this is just the tip of the iceberg regarding the level of control
exercised by habitus on agents. In Outline of a Theory of Practice, he writes,
While Bourdieu would be unhappy with the comment that this “modus
operandi” is reducible to a “ repertoire of rules” or that it is a “predeter-
mined set of discourses,” passages like the one above do have this tenor—
one that he rejects in the opening pages of Outline. To be sure, Bourdieu
seeks to establish a theory of practice that avoids seeing agents as merely
having a “‘rôle,’ i.e. a predetermined set of discourses and actions appro-
priate to a particular ‘stage-part.’”32
Nevertheless, the habitus, whether a “repertoire of rules” or not, is
instrumental in the production and reproduction of social agents:
The habitus is the product of the work of inculcation and appropriation nec-
essary in order for those products of collective history, the objective struc-
tures (e.g. of language, economy, etc.) to succeed in reproducing themselves
more or less completely, in the form of durable dispositions, in the organism
(which one can, if one wishes, call individuals) lastingly subjected to the
same conditionings, and hence placed in the same material conditions of
existence.33
Though it is impossible for all members of the same class (or even two of
them) to have had the same experiences, in the same order, it is certain that
each member of the same class is more likely than any member of another
class to have been confronted with the situations most frequent for the
members of that class.35
Conclusion
Louis Menand has said “trying to reform the contemporary university is
like trying to get on the Internet with a typewriter, or like trying to ride
a horse to the mall.”37 Habitus helps us to better understand why this is
so. From the vantage point of academic habitus, resistance and reform are
virtually impossible. At least one will eventually get to the mall on a horse;
HOMO HABITUS 73
Notes
1. Pierre Bourdieu, Homo Academicus, trans. Peter Collier (Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, 1988), 279n2.
2. Ibid., 143.
3. Jeffrey R. Di Leo, Corporate Humanities in Higher Education: Moving
Beyond the Neoliberal Academy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013),
32.
4. Sigmund Freud, “The ‘Uncanny [1919],’” Collected Papers, Volume IV:
Papers on Metapsychology; Papers on Applied Psycho-Analysis, authorized
translation under the supervision of Joan Riviere, Fourth impression
(London: The Hogarth Press, 1948), 391.
5. Sigmund Freud, “Anxiety and Instinctual Life,” New Introductory Lectures
on Psychoanalysis, Lecture XXXII, trans. and ed., James Strachey (New
York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1965), 106.
74 J.R. DI LEO
Google U
Not so long ago data suddenly became “big.” How and why though is
still very much open to debate. While related to increases in the number of
zeros of data collected, stored, and searched, it was also something more.
Not like one day data was small, the next big. But more like at one time
data had no ego, then almost overnight, it appeared.
Along with the phrases big business, big money, and big government,
big data has become a locus of conversation and critique. And much like
business, money, and government, data acquires the adjective as a sign
of fear and opprobrium, not awe and admiration. Not because massive
amounts of data is in itself fear inspiring, but rather because there are those
whose use of it we fear. Nor because this data cannot be used to make the
world a better or safer place, but rather because there are far too many
who choose not to or who use it to the opposite effect. We fear big data
because of what might happen if it were put in the wrong hands. Using it
to protect civil rights and promote democratic values would be wonderful;
however, when utilized by those who disregard these rights and values, the
effects would be horrific. Therefore, big data is often met, along with its
corporate, governmental, and financial peers, with a healthy dose of fear
and trepidation—in spite of its technological wonder.
Like many technological advances, hope can quickly fade to fear when
these technologies are turned against us. Among the harshest examples
of this is when big government uses big data against its own citizens.
The door to this was kicked open when big data became the sword of
national security and the shield against terrorism with the Patriot Act,
which has expanded to include areas other than terrorism such as narcotics
cases and domestic policing. Recently, for example, it has been reported
that the National Security Agency (NSA) will share its information with
the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) without first applying for any
screens for privacy. It has also been known for a couple of years that the
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and Internal Revenue Service
(IRS) were getting data from the NSA. Big data is all warm and fuzzy like
a big bear until it claws you in the pursuit of “domestic policing.”1
Big data is also the handmaiden of neoliberalism. It has become the
tool of choice for neoliberal culture and has contributed greatly to its rise
to power. Without the numbers generated through computers, drones,
bar code scanners, cars, fitness trackers, smartphones, and even televi-
sions, neoliberal culture would have a much less robust grasp of the mar-
ket—and arguably a much less commanding hold over politics and society.
Moreover, advances in cloud technology position data in a way that makes
possible the analysis of larger and larger sets of data. And as the data sets
grow, so too do the hopes that big data will more efficiently advance the
ends of neoliberal culture.
If facilitating the invasion of our privacy and the denial of our civil
rights, and making us the subjects of a surveillance state in addition to
fueling neoliberalism with numbers were not enough reasons to be afraid
of big data, one more item needs to be added to the list, namely, the role
of big data in bringing about the end of theory. While the world of liter-
ary and critical theory has been contending with numerous versions of this
apocalyptic story at least since the early 1990s, the one recently presented
by big data is an entirely new and much more ambitious effort in this
regard. Consequently, the various deaths that theory has suffered over
the past 25 years look small when compared to the death of theory at the
hands of big data.2
The story of the end of theory at the hands of big data is important
not just because it reveals more of our dystopic fears about big data, but
also because of the way it interweaves the rise of neoliberalism with a turn-
ing away from knowledge in favor of the tempting fruits of transactional
data. It is a story that also contributes to the neoliberal crusade in higher
education to reduce the pursuit of knowledge in favor of an increase in
vocational training.3 This story begins though not in the halls of higher
education, but rather in those of Google at the dawn of the so-called
Petabyte Age.
GOOGLE U 79
To get a sense of the amount of data being collected and processed at the
time, consider the following: in June of 2008, you could buy a one-terabyte
hard drive for $200 that could store 260,000 songs. Using that hard drive
as a benchmark, consider that 20 times its capacity was the number of pho-
tos being uploaded on Facebook each month; 120 times its capacity was all
the data and images collected by the Hubble space telescope; 320 times its
capacity was the amount of data produced each week by the large Hadron
Collider; and 460 times its capacity was all the digital weather compiled
by the National Climate Data Center. Now consider that in 2008, all of
the videos on YouTube amounted to 530 times the capacity of that hard
drive. To get a sense of how much data this is, consider that 600 times
the capacity of that $200 terabyte hard drive would be equivalent to the
complete contents of the genealogy database Ancestry.com, one which
includes all US census records from 1790 to 2000.18
But the big data news item of 2008 was really none of these figures.
Rather it was Google’s report that the amount of data being processed by
its servers was 1000 terabytes—every 72 minutes. For some, this was the
dawn of a new age in data storage and processing, the Petabyte Age, named
after the term used for 1000 terabytes.19 Consequently, the evolution of
GOOGLE U 81
the ages of big data was set to proceed as follows: Petabyte will yield to
the Exabyte, which will be followed by the Zettabyte, the Yottabyte, the
Brontobyte, and the Geobyte ages. The argument might also be made
that the dawn of the Petabyte Age is the point where we finally became
“post-human,” because it is also a good point to stop measuring evolu-
tion in terms of human development—and to start measuring it in terms
of computer development. But let’s not stray too much.
The scale of these amounts of data is telling. In terms of stored words,
here is what it comes to: one byte is a character; ten bytes a word; and 100
bytes a sentence. A kilobyte (1000 bytes) is a short paragraph and 100
kilobytes a page. It would take about 100 megabytes (100,000 kilobytes)
to store a couple of volumes of an encyclopedia. A gigabyte (1000 kilo-
bytes) could store ten yards of books and 100 gigabytes an entire library
floor of academic journals. Which now brings us to the capacity of our
two-hundred dollar 2008 hard drive: it could hold 1000 copies of the
Encyclopedia Britannica (though only 300 hours of high-quality video).
Ten terabytes could hold the printed contents of the Library of Congress.20
Why the petabyte captures our attention—and is a good point of entry
into big data—is because it is difficult to imagine what it could hold in
terms of printed text, which is arguably the benchmark of the informa-
tional imaginary. Saying, for example, that it can hold 500 billion pages of
standard printed text is hard to imagine unless you think of it as 100 times
the contents of the Library of Congress. Beyond the petabyte though is
truly unimaginable. Though it has been said that five exabytes (or 5000
petabytes) would be equal to all the words ever spoken by mankind, there
is no way to confirm or deny this estimate. And it only gets worse for
imagining the scale of subsequent ages of data.
Martin Hilbert, a professor from the University of Southern California,
is one of a number of people who have tried to calculate how much
data there is out there. According to Hilbert, if one takes into account
everything that has been produced, communicated, and stored in history
including “not only books, paintings, emails, photographs, music and
video (analog and digital), but video games, phone calls, even car naviga-
tion systems and letters sent through the mail,” then he estimates that in
2007 it amounted to more than 300 exabytes of stored data.21
But, because digital information expands so quickly, doubling a little
more than every three years, Hilbert sets the 2013 grand total at 1200
exabytes. However, it should be noted that less than 2% of the total is
non-digital stored information.22 Compare this with 2007, when Hilbert
82 J.R. DI LEO
set the non-digital total at 7%. Moreover, as recently as 2000, only 25% of
stored information was digital.23 The rest, namely, 75% of stored informa-
tion, was “paper, film, vinyl LP records, magnetic cassette tapes, and the
like.”24 To be sure, non-digitized information is becoming increasingly
rarified, bordering on extinction, in the age of big data.
Though eight years later, the numbers have gone up a bit, the basic
data scenario has not changed: more and more data is produced every
day. Instead of 20 petabytes a day as in 2008, Google now processes 25
petabytes a day. Instead of 20 terabytes a month, Facebook generates
200–400 terabytes a day by users uploading photos and another 130 tera-
bytes in just user log data each day. The Hadron Collider has gone from
producing 320 terabytes of data a week to a petabyte a second. In short,
it has been said that the total amount of data created worldwide in 2011
was about one zetabyte (or 1,000,000 petabytes) and that this figure will
increase by 50%–60% in each subsequent year. If this estimate is accu-
rate, then in 2016 we will worldwide produce about 8.5–10.5 zetabytes
of data.25
While new information technology always increases the amount of
information produced, there is no historical comparison for increases
of doubling every three years let alone 50%–60% increases annually.
Gutenberg’s printing press (1439) resulted in producing more informa-
tion over a 50-year period (1453–1503) than was produced by the scribes
of Europe since the founding of Constantinople over 1200 years earlier.26
However, compared to estimated increases of 60% a year in the Petabyte
Age, the print age is a tortoise to the petabyte’s hare.
But what does this rapid increase of data mean? What should we expect
from the age of big data? Surprisingly, it has been argued that we should
expect something even worse than the federal government using big data
to become a better Big Brother, namely, we should expect the end of
theory—the last firewall between big data and big business, money, gov-
ernment, and brother.
The most radical thesis to come out of the digital optimism of the early
Petabyte Age came from the editor of the magazine Wired. In the summer
of 2008, Chris Anderson boldly asserted the end of theory—and people
listened. For Anderson, the increased data storage capacity of the early
Petabyte Age is significantly different than the increased storage capacities
GOOGLE U 83
of the previous ages of data. Whereas previous ages allowed for us to visu-
alize collected data “in its totality,” data storage in the Petabyte Age does
not. Data stored in the cloud is “not a matter of simple three- and four-
dimensional taxonomy and order,” writes Anderson, “but of dimension-
ally agnostic statistics.” Consequently, for him our inability to visualize
data storage in the cloud “forces us to view data mathematically first and
establish a context for it later.”27
While Anderson and most others who write about big data seldom give
a definition of it, the distinction between our ability and otherwise to visu-
alize data is as good a place as any to start. For some, like Anderson, when
the scale of data collected, organized, or processed resists visualization, the
phrase big data is used to describe it. Big data, on this view, is more about
the limits of the human imagination than the frontiers of technology. The
idea here seems to be that when the human imagination fails to produce
an image of the amount of data stored, but mathematical symbolism can,
the scale of data moves from small to big. On this view, big data has more
in common with mathematical objects than material ones, that is, with the
world of equations than the world of bookshelves and filing cabinets. But
what does this mean?
It means that big data asks us to take a leap of faith to a world where
there is no direct analogy with any of the ways in which information has
been stored and retrieved for almost the entirety of recorded history. All
of this data appears “small” in comparison to data shared across multiple
technological platforms and often collected without a specific purpose.
But for that matter, there is not much precedent either for data “collected
by default, without any intention to analyze it”28 outside of the context of
the brave new informational world of the new millennium.
In opposition to big data, then, small data may also be characterized
as data that is collected with the intention to analyze it. Survey data, for
example, is paradigmatic small data, whereas surveillance data is not—
and, as such, better termed big data. Given then these two potential
characteristics of big data, it is no wonder that many find it significantly
different than previous generations of data and are enthralled with its
potential.
Anderson, though, sticks with the visualization view of big data, and
illustrates his point about the “difference” between visualizable small data
and non-visualizable big data by referring to the example of Google:
Google conquered the advertising world with nothing more than applied
mathematics. It didn’t pretend to know anything about the culture and
84 J.R. DI LEO
But right about what? That transactional data can be utilized by compa-
nies to dominate markets and invade privacy? Or that making decisions
purely on the basis of numbers can be financially rewarding though ethi-
cally dubious?
Though Anderson does not say this, the name of the strategy employed
by Google is commonly referred to as “neoliberalism.” As social and polit-
ical commentator, Henry Giroux has said, “[I]t is an ideology and a politic
buoyed by the spirit of market fundamentalism that subordinates the art
of democratic politics to the rapacious laws of a market economy that
expands its reach to include all aspects of social life within the dictates and
values of a market driven society.”30
In the case of Google, commitment to market fundamentalism is facili-
tated and maximized through the collection of increasing amounts of data
and the development of analytical tools to utilize it to increase corpo-
rate profits. There is no need for any knowledge of the conventions of
advertising, because data analysis provides Google all it needs to know
about consumer behavior. Moreover, there is no need to know anything
about culture, because consumer market behavior is the sole determinant
of value.
For Anderson, the case of Google is one wherein a company learned
how to conquer the advertising world by producing and analyzing more
data on market behavior than its competitors. “Google’s founding phi-
losophy,” comments Anderson, “is that we don’t know why this page is
better than that one: If the statistics of incoming links say it is, that’s
good enough.”31 This, of course, is textbook neoliberal culture, a culture
wherein value—and everything else that we need to know—is solely deter-
mined by the market.
Links that are used more are more valuable, and links that are used less
are less valuable. As Anderson notes, this type of philosophy of value has
no need for “semantic or causal analysis.”32 Value in neoliberalism is not
determined by knowledge of why something is more sought after than
something else. It cares not about meaning or content. It is not even con-
cerned with the causal connections between things. All that it concerns
itself with is numbers—and their maximization in the pursuit of market
domination.
GOOGLE U 85
Or, at least this was the tenor of scientific traditions dating back to Aristotle.
Not only are there different types of causation, for example, Aristotle’s
four-fold analysis of causality distinguishes between efficient, material,
final, and formal causes,38 there are also different ways to link necessity to
causation, such as Hume’s argument that the source of necessity may be
attributed to the causes in the constant conjunction of events.39 However,
the notion of data without a model is not merely noise. Rather, it is akin
to data considered without or outside of philosophy.
“Data,” plural of “datum,” is derived from the Latin dare, “to give.”
The notion that the world is immediately given to our awareness through
data is nothing less than naïve realism. It would mean that all of the quali-
ties we sense in objects are in fact qualities of these objects. So, for exam-
ple, if we sense a particular sound, color, taste or smell, naïve realism says
that the particular sound, color, taste or smell is in the object. No one has
ever argued, for example, that the bad taste of the beer is in the beer or
the tickle in the feather—even though beer can taste bad, and feathers can
tickle us.
Philosophy uses naïve realism as a position to be avoided. In general,
the more critical the philosophy, the less the world will be regarded as
immediately given, that is to say, mere datum. Suffice it to say, there are
plenty of forms of realism, but none that say that data without a model is
just noise. This is part of reason that Anderson’s argument for the end of
theory given the rise of big data is so controversial and wrong-headed. No
one has ever been a naïve realist, though it appears Anderson is vying for
that unenviable position.
“But faced with massive data,” said Anderson, “this approach to sci-
ence—hypothesize, model, test—is becoming obsolete.” “Correlation
supersedes causation, and science can advance even without coherent
models, unified theories, or really any mechanistic explanation at all,” con-
tinues Anderson. “It’s time to ask: What can science learn from Google?”40
Anderson’s “correlation is enough” argument against theory is the
big-data version of the neoliberal dream and the end of philosophy. In
this world, “all generalizable rules about how the world works, how
humans behave, what consumers buy, when parts break, and so on may
become irrelevant as analysis of big data takes over,” writes one com-
mentary.41 “The ‘end of theory,’” it continues, “seems to imply that
while theories have existed in substantive fields like physics or chemistry,
big-data analysis has no need of any conceptual models.”42 Or, more
GOOGLE U 87
simply put, naïve realism, the view that data gives us immediate access to
the world, is the logical consequence of collecting and storing increasing
amounts of data.
If the desire of the big data dream is fulfilled, then “we might one day
be able to dispense with separate disciplines of economics, psychology,
sociology, management and so on,” writes sociologist and political econo-
mist, William Davies. “Instead,” predicts Davies,
But dispensing with some of the disciplines with the aim of creating a single
discipline upon big data is not, strictly speaking, the end of theory. Rather,
it is a repositioning of theory and methodology to more effectively and
efficiently utilize data to meet various needs. In Davies’s analysis, these will
be the needs of government and corporations, who are already spending
“tens of billions of dollars…monitoring, predicting, treating, visualizing,
anticipating the smallest vagaries of our minds, feelings and brains” rather
than spending the same dollars “designing and implementing alternative
forms of political-economic organization.”44
Contained within the dreams and aspirations of big data demagogues
such as Anderson are the seeds of the continued destruction of our
democratic values and critical capacities. To call for the end of theory as
well as the pursuit of causation in science opens the door to scientific fan-
tasies if not also dystopias. Hanging things together through correlation
may be enough for science fiction, but it is not enough for the pursuit
of science. Moreover, it opens the door to the non-philosophy of naïve
realism. If big data really entails more neoliberal culture along with less
privacy, more surveillance, and an increasing disregard for philosophy and
critical inquiry, then the allocation of resources to the implementation and
pursuit of alternative forms of political-economic organization in the near
future seems remote.
88 J.R. DI LEO
Conclusion
After writing the piece, and seeing the understandably unfavorable
responses it elicited, Anderson backtracked a bit. Less than a month
later, in an interview on National Public Radio with Brooke Gladstone,
Anderson said that his use of the word “obsolete” was a “little overstate-
ment for effect.”45 However, while the scientific method may not be obso-
lete, “what we have is a new way to do science which adds an option that
wasn’t available before the ages of massive data.” He continues, though,
with the naïve realism of big data by describing it as “a new scientific tool,
like a microscope or telescope.”46 In other words, big data is a kind of tool
that provides us immediate access to the aspects of the world not visible
to the naked eye.
“We start with the fact that we have data,” says Anderson to Gladstone.
“And then we statistically analyze that data, and out of the data comes
correlations.”47 But is correlation really enough? Is the Google model of
“science” really theory-neutral? Hardly. To deny that observation and data
collection is not at least to some extent theory laden is to ignore some of
the most important work in twentieth-century philosophy of science. Do
you really think that Google knows more about the workings of science
than, for example, Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend?48
Anderson says that “the notion of a data led science as opposed to a
theory led science is the new model.”49 While it is true that there are many
GOOGLE U 89
things in the world that are not known, that science cannot explain, that
elude causal explanation, there is no need to infer from this that a model
that works strictly on statistical correlation is a better one. Adoption of the
Google model asks us to give up on knowledge for belief; causation for
correlation; philosophy for finance.
“The Google model does not know,” comments Anderson, “and the
Google model maybe can’t know.” “But,” continues Anderson in his
interview, “what the Google model might be able to do is to allow us
to act in the absence of knowledge.”50 Excuse me, but isn’t acting in the
absence of knowledge also called acting from ignorance? If this is the con-
tribution of the Google model, that is, to encourage people to act more
from ignorance, then we lose more than theory with the ascent of big
data. We also lose the will to separate knowledge from opinion—and sci-
ence from fiction.
The ramifications of Google’s efforts to conquer the world have been
much more than mere corporate greed. Though Anderson’s claims to the
end of theory may still be hyperbole, they indicate the ways in which neo-
liberal culture has benefitted from the big data revolution. For this reason
alone, the philosophy of Google must be seen as an extension of both the
neoliberal agenda as well as a direct attack on knowledge in favor of igno-
rance. Finally, looking around the world today, it is hard not to conclude
that Google is succeeding.
Notes
1. Radley Balko, “Surprise! NSA Data Will Soon Be Routinely Used for
Domestic Policing That Has Nothing to Do with Terrorism,” The
Washington Post (10 March 2016). See also, Charlie Savage, “Obama
Administration Set to Expand Sharing of Data That N.S.A. Intercepts,”
The New York Times (25 February 2016).
2. For an account of the deaths of theory, see Jeffrey R. Di Leo, ed., Dead
Theory: Derrida, Death, and the Afterlife of Theory (London and New York:
Bloomsbury, 2016).
3. On the neoliberal crusade in higher education to reduce the pursuit of
knowledge in favor of an increase in vocational training, see Jeffrey R. Di
Leo, Corporate Humanities in Higher Education: Moving Beyond the
Neoliberal Academy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
4. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York:
Penguin Press, 2009), 262.
5. Ibid., 225.
90 J.R. DI LEO
6. Ibid., 251.
7. Ibid., 252.
8. Ibid., 252.
9. Ibid., 252.
10. Ibid., 252.
11. Ibid., 252.
12. Ibid., 152.
13. Ibid., 264.
14. Ibid., 264.
15. Ibid., 264.
16. Ibid., 264.
17. Randal E. Bryant, Randy H. Katz, and Edward D. Lazowska, “Big-Data
Computing: Creating Revolutionary Breakthroughs in Commerce,
Science, and Society (Version 8),” 22 December 2008. www.cra.org/ccc
18. “The Petabyte Age: Because More Isn’t Just More—More Is Different.”
Wired Magazine (23 June 2008). http://www.wired.com/2008/06/
pb-intro/
19. Ibid.
20. “What’s a Byte? Megabytes, Gigabytes, Terabytes? What are They?”
http://www.whatsabyte.com/
21. Victor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data: A Revolution
that Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think (Boston and New York:
Mariner Books, 2014), 8. See Martin Hilbert and Pricilla López, “The
World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute
Information,” Science 1 (April 2011). and “How to Measure the World’s
Technological Capacity to Communicate, Store and Compute
Information?,” International Journal of Communication (2012).
22. Victor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data, 9.
23. Victor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data, 8–9.
24. Ibid., 9.
25. “Big Data.” http://www.in4ins.com/solutions/big-data.html
26. Victor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data, 10. See also,
Elizabeth L. Einstein, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe
(Canto/Cambridge University Press, 1993), 13–14.
27. Chris Anderson, “The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the
Scientific Method Obsolete,” Wired (23 June 2008). http://www.wired.
com/2008/06/pb-theory/
28. William Davies, The Happiness Industry: How the Government and Big
Business Sold Us Well-Being (New York: Verso, 2015), 233.
29. Chris Anderson, “The End of Theory,” n.p.
30. Henry Giroux, The Terror of Neoliberalism: Authoritarianism and the
Eclipse of Democracy (Boulder: Paradigm, 2004), xxii.
GOOGLE U 91
Against Debt
a working-class family to accomplish the same feat with the average total
cost for tuition, fees, room, and board at $19,339. Even adjusting for
inflation, the constant dollar increase per year is about $11,000.2 For
most working-class Americans, the current cost of higher education places
unreasonable and severe financial pressure on them—so much so that it
is not affordable without one or more loans. Now, more than ever, those
without the capital get the punishment, which in this case is debtors’
prison without bars.
Nevertheless, it is still possible to save students and their families from a
future chained to debt; a future where a significant portion of their income
is robbed from them; a future where they could even go to their grave
without having paid off their student debt. The first step is recognizing
that student debt is a serious problem today—and not one just for stu-
dents; the second is finding a way to overcome it; the third is achieving it.
A democracy where the cost of higher education threatens the future well-
being of individuals is unconscionable. Not only is democratic education
threatened by effectively pricing working-class and low-income people out
of the halls of higher education, but so too is democracy and civil society
by excluding on the basis of class major sectors of the population from fair
and equitable access to education.
Still, change regarding the student debt debacle is not going to just
happen on its own. It is going to take revisionary thinking and collective
action to turn around this sad state of affairs. Things will not just get bet-
ter regarding student debt simply because they are bad and getting worse.
Complicating matters is the fact that the student debt situation today is
simply unprecedented. At no point in the history of American higher edu-
cation has the cost of education to students been higher, or have more
students been in debt. In short, there is no looking back in order to look
forward when it comes to the amount of student debt amassed to date.
Higher education in America today fattens itself on student debt—and
has little motivation for slimming down. As long as the loans keep being
offered to students, it is business as usual in higher ed. After all, what uni-
versity or college in America would go so far as to protect its students from
debtors’ prison without bars by prohibiting them from leveraging their
financial future? They want their money now—no matter how painful it
will be in the long run for the debtor.
AGAINST DEBT 95
In this chapter, I would like to offer a way out of the prison house of
student debt—albeit a somewhat unorthodox one. My audience here is
not the families or people in the upper quintile of the household income
chart. They can afford higher education in the sense that, for them, the
choice is more between competing luxury items than one of handing over
their financial soul to the banks. Rather, my audience here is working-class
and low-income Americans who not only struggle every day to make ends
meet, but also believe that higher education increases their chances to
make their lives better or easier in the long run. For them, the decision
to increase their educational attainment level has also become one about
living in debt. It is one where the road to economic stability and personal
fulfillment will most likely take a long detour through student debt—and
for some, this detour will occupy them for the rest of their lives—or at
least a major portion of it.
Moreover, this chapter is predicated on the assumption that America
is indeed, to borrow Andrew Ross’s fitting term, a “creditocracy,” that is,
a society wherein “the goal is to keep debtors on the hook for as long as
possible, wrapping debt around every possible asset and income stream to
generate profit.” Like Ross, I too believe that “creditocracy” is destroy-
ing American society and think that “[f]iguring out which debts we can
legitimately refuse may turn out to be the only way of salvaging popular
democracy.”3
However, I’d like to go one step further and suggest that we not only
encourage debt amnesty and pursue “clean slates” but that we also take
both senses of the phrase “debt refusal” very seriously. That is, I suggest we
take seriously both the proposal of refusing to pay student debts that were
the consequence of predatory lending practices such as those of unscru-
pulous for-profit institutions such as the Corinthian network, and also of
refusing to take on student debt in the first place. I will suggest that we
should consider adopting a more critical position on personal debt in gen-
eral, and educational debt in particular, namely, one that encourages stu-
dents and others to not take on financial responsibility that has the potential
to negatively impact their future. And then, and only then, we should ask
whether the punishments of debt outweigh the rewards of avoiding it. To
do so is to push back against the powers of “creditocracy.” Call it a case for
the return of “responsible living” or “living within one’s means,” or simply
call it an argument against debt.4
96 J.R. DI LEO
So, no matter how you cut it, higher education in America is expensive.
The analogy with new cars is an easy one to visualize, so I think appropri-
ate: just as few Americans can afford to purchase a new car every year,
and fewer still can afford to buy a new car four years in a row, and even
fewer still can afford to purchase multiple new cars each year let alone over
several years, so too with purchasing higher education. That the average
annual cost of higher education is comparable to the purchase of a new
car, the most expensive single item most people will purchase in their
lifetime aside from their home, illustrates well the fiscal strain put on the
average family to put one, if not several, children through college.
But unlike a car purchase, which can often be put off without signifi-
cant consequences to one’s quality of life, education does not offer the
same option. Choosing not to pursue higher education because you can-
not afford it means putting in significant detriment your future quality of
life. Choosing not to buy a new car, however, does not have such serious
ramifications: it means either continuing to drive around in your current
car until it no longer moves (which can become “a death drive” if your car
gets old enough) or something like taking public transportation (which
can become “a hard drive” if you live in a public transportation-challenged
state like Texas). While neither a new car or advancing your educational
attainment level entails a better life, most would agree that the chances of
improving your quality of life over the long run are better attained through
one of these rather than the other. Perhaps this is why academics usually
drive such crappy cars.
For most working-class Americans, providing a college education for
their children means providing them with the best chance that their earn-
ing potential and quality of life will be better than their own. In other
words, it gives them the best chance at achieving the “American Dream.”
Consequently, unlike the decision to forego the purchase of a new car (or
even a better-used one), there is not a lot of choice in the matter as to
whether one supports the educational future of one’s children. Rather,
given the enormous financial commitment necessary to participate in
higher education in America, the choice becomes one as to whether—and
how much—one will go into debt in order to support it.
Few Americans, even those with generous scholarships and grants, can
afford to attend an institution of higher education in the United States
without also sacrificing a chunk of their future earnings to cover what they
have borrowed in pursuit of higher education. This is especially true of
families in the lower economic quintiles—and the 45-plus million people
AGAINST DEBT 99
living in poverty. And remember, student debt often affects both students
and their parents as the latter often are co-signatories on student loans.
So, how many people in the United States do you think have at least one
outstanding student loan?
Many are surprised to learn that today 40 million Americans have at
least one outstanding student loan. If all of the Americans with student
debt were a state, they would be the largest state in the country, exceeding
the population of California by one million;10 if they were a country, they
would be the 33rd most populous country in the world, displacing Algeria
for the honor, and exceeding the total population of countries such as
Poland and Canada.11 Overall, in a country of 320 million, one person in
eight has student debt—12.5% of our population.
But there is more. The average student borrower in 2014 is carrying
four student loans. This is an increase from 2008, the year of the eco-
nomic collapse, when the average student borrower carried less than three
loans. In addition, the average student loan balance has increased from
$23,000 in 2008 to $29,000 in 2014.12
Overall, it is estimated that the nationwide total student debt is $1.2
trillion. This is an 84% increase since 2008—and the highest sum total in
American economic history.13 As a point of comparison, car loans too in
the United States are at a record high, but still only totaled $839 billion
in mid-2014—$361 billion less than student loans.14 So how did we get
to the point where there are more people in student debt in the United
States than there are residents of Canada?
now has become what is the difference between a state university that
relies minimally on the state for its funding and a private university that
receives no state funding? The answer seems to be, “Not much.”
The most obvious differences right now are the increasing levels of
accountability and restrictions that states are placing upon state universi-
ties for their decreasing levels of state funding support. The phrase that
best captures the neoliberal extremes of these public educational policies is
“performance-based funding.” Whether it is teaching to the test or main-
taining particular levels of persistence, retention, time-to-degree, or grad-
uation rates, state universities have been subjected to increasing degrees
of oversight and performance measurement in order to receive a slimmer
and slimmer slice of their overall operating budget. In other words, deal
with the devil or else.
But or else what? Unless you are Dante, hell is hell.
The terms “accountability” and “transparency” have become the Scylla
and Charybidis of neoliberal academe. Accountability asks of state institu-
tions that they continuously demonstrate the value of what they do—and
transparency makes sure that nothing “wasteful” is being hidden from
public view. Performance-based funding, accountability, and transparency
all present a negative image of the value of the state university, namely, one
of an institution that must be kept under continuous surveillance for fear
of it becoming a house of fiscal sloth.
The hidden agenda of much performance-based funding and account-
ability measurement is to turn all state-supported higher education includ-
ing research universities into vocational training centers. If you have any
doubt about this just consider Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker’s recent
effort to change the mission statement of the University of Wisconsin
System in the state code. In a draft budget proposal that cuts the univer-
sity system budget by $300 million—a state that is estimated to hit zero
in 2040—Walker eliminated the phrases “search for truth” and “improve
the human condition” replacing them with “meet the state’s workforce
needs.” Though pushback from educators and others in the state con-
vinced him that this was “a drafting error,” it reveals the hidden agenda
of neoliberal public policy makers to radically reconfigure—if not also
destroy—the academic mission of the university.17
While it is argued that neoliberal state managerialism and surveillance is
in the interest of the public good, those who work under such conditions
will argue quite the opposite. The docile subjects of neoliberal academe
learn that to succeed at the state-sponsored university, one must comply
102 J.R. DI LEO
Take for example the case of public higher education in California—a state
where tuition is maximally affordable, which is to say, free.
The Golden State has always sold itself as the promised land for afford-
able education. Residents of the state who are admitted to any of the
state’s public colleges and universities do not have to pay tuition. Only
non-California residents are required to pay tuition—even today.18 Sounds
good, right? Pack your bags kids and leave today! But hold on—all is not
how it appears.
While it is still true that residents of the state of California do not
pay tuition, they are required to pay “fees”—which unsurprisingly have
greatly increased over the years. In 2009, the last time the California
Postsecondary Education Commission conducted a comparative study
of fees, both the UC and California State University (CSU) had lower
fees than nearly all of their national comparator universities. This all still
sounds good until you learn that “lower fees” is far from “free”: CSU fees
were $4890 and UC fees were $9310. To get a sense of the fee differences
with comparable institutions, Rutgers Newark charged $11,890 for fees—
over twice as much as CSU; and University of Illinois charged $12,510
for fees, nearly 30% more than UC. California also brags that their com-
munity college fees are the lowest in the nation.
But the report also indicated that fees are only one-third of the cost
of attending CSU or UC. Room and board was 47% of the total cost to
attend UC, books 6%, and other costs 13% totaling $27,120. For a CSU
student living at home, food was 21%, books 12%, and other costs 30%
totaling $12,980. It also indicated that higher living costs make the overall
cost of attending UC higher than at most major public research universi-
ties. So for example, while the fees at the University of Michigan and the
University of Virginia are higher than those at UC, the costs are lower
than those of attending UC. Furthermore, it indicated that the median
family income in California is $67,600—significantly higher than the
national average.19
Conclusion: free tuition is not free higher education in California. Not
even close.
It is important to recall the case of California as one considers the high-
est profile and most extreme response to the student debt crisis, namely,
the campaign most visibly advocated by Adolph Reed—and now many
others.
As Reed and others point out, the total cost for tuition and fees for
all students enrolled in public colleges and universities only amounts to a
104 J.R. DI LEO
The power however to move this argument forward into public policy
may not be with higher education students of the future—but rather with
indebted students of the present. Why?
For one thing, there are a lot of them—40 million to be exact. As a col-
lective body, they represent a potentially massive bargaining unit. Efforts
such as Andrew Ross’s to organize them into a Debt Collective, a pilot for
his “debtor’s union project,” has the potential to not only deal with mas-
sive individual and collective student debt, but also to place pressure on
state and federal governments to at the very least bring down the present
and future costs of higher education, particularly, to those most unpre-
pared to handle them—but also to think ahead as to how we might eradi-
cate future student debt entirely.
Conclusion
The student debt situation and the rising cost of higher education, particu-
larly for working-class and low-income families, need to be turned around
now. While it would be wonderful if a magic wand simply eliminated all
existing student debt, the chances of a complete debt jubilee are slim to
none. Still, the work being done to buy out the student debt resulting
from some of the most egregious predatory student lending practices is a
step in the right direction—and must be supported by everyone who cares
about the future of higher education in America and believes that educa-
tion is a public good.
Also, the movement to make all future higher education free is a
noble one. States like California who were once the leaders in areas such
as affordable education might again be the places where such collective
action takes shape. But again, the road to free higher education is more
idealistic than realistic. Perhaps President Obama was correct though in at
least localizing the discussion to the most obvious (and affordable) sector
of the higher education system, the community colleges, as a place to pilot
the free higher education project.
My own belief is that we are still in the first stages of a long process of
saving students and their families from a future chained to debt; namely, in
spite of there being 40 million people in America who have student debt,
many people still do not recognize this as a problem—let alone a seri-
ous one. This, of course, is the power of a “creditocracy,” namely that it
normalizes the desire to be in debt. We need to get more people to under-
stand that being in debt is not the best path toward a better life either in
106 J.R. DI LEO
the short run or the long run. Debt destroys lives—and often begets a
vicious cycle of deeper and deeper levels of debt.
As educators, we need to advocate for not only free higher education
in the future, but also for current students to live responsibly and to not
live beyond their means even when it comes to higher education. We need
to encourage them to at least think twice before signing off on a student
loan—and to stop thinking that they need to get into the workplace as
quickly as possible by taking out as many student loans as is necessary to
do this—something that they are told time and again by those who only
see instrumental value in higher education. But rather to think about slow-
ing down the race to get out of higher education and to apply themselves
more directly to the subject matter of higher education—and not its end.
In a way, encouraging students to take out fewer student loans and to
slow down the race toward a diploma pushes back on neoliberal academe’s
empty infatuation with efficiency and its henchman, “time-to-degree.” It
also provides pushback to the financial institutions that tell us that debt is
the only pathway to a higher education.
While it is important for us to share our horror stories of lives strapped
by student debt, it is also vital that we share stories of working-class and
low-income students succeeding in higher education without debt—or
at least significant debt. My own story, for example, while really not that
remarkable, is perhaps the kind of story though that needs to be shared
with more people.
I worked while attending the university at both the undergraduate and
graduate levels. From painting houses during the semester and full-time
summer jobs to the graveyard shift at the library and at the particle accel-
erator where I was a “warm body,” I labored both in and out of the class-
room for the duration of my higher education. And don’t even get me
started about my various teaching and grading duties in graduate school.
All these funds, however, went back into supporting my education.
If my life pursuing higher education were to be placed on the national
household income chart, I would be in the lowest quintile every year
until I left graduate school and got my first full-time academic job. In
other words, as a student I lived in economic poverty. But so too do most
students.
My second year of graduate school was the only one wherein I took
out a loan—a couple thousand bucks for a new Zenith “microcomputer”
that I felt was necessary to get the faculty and my peers off my back about
using an IBM Selectric typewriter to write and submit my graduate papers.
AGAINST DEBT 107
And though I could have paid off the loan much more quickly, I waited
until I received my graduate degree—and then paid it off in a month or
two with no interest charge.
No magic here—just patience, hard work, and a desire to learn and to
live within my means.
Neoliberal academe and its bully, student debt, tells us that higher edu-
cation needs us to sell our future to get our degree now. But this is a vicious
lie. The truth is that if one chooses to make education a part of their life,
rather than a means to an end, there are many roads to a degree that do
not involve student debt. To be sure, many of them are not flashy—and
finding the right balance between work and education is never easy and
not one-size-fits-all. Additionally, most of these roads will slow down the
educational process rather than speed it up. But what’s wrong with that?
In the end, it’s better than getting an education in order to spend the rest
of your life paying it off.
In short, this is why I’m against debt.
Notes
1. Andrew Ross, “Payback’s a Bitch,” Chronicle of Higher Education (12
December 2014), B5.
2. Average total tuition, fees, room and board rates charged for full-time
undergraduate students for all institutions in constant dollars was $8438 in
1981–1982 and $19,339 in 2011–2012. U.S. Department of Education,
National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). Digest of Education
Statistics, 2012 (NCES 2014–2015), Chapter 3. http://nces.ed.gov/fast-
facts/display.asp?id=76
3. Andrew Ross, “Payback’s a Bitch.”
4. An excellent overview of “creditocracy” and arguments for debt refusal is
Andrew Ross’s Creditocracy: And the Case for Debt Refusal (New York and
London: OR Books, 2013).
5. The income and poverty estimates shown in the US Census report are
“based solely on money income before taxes and do not include the value
of noncash benefits, such as those provided by the Supplemental Nutrition
Assistance Program (SNAP), Medicare, Medicaid, public housing, or
employer-provided fringe benefits.” http://www.census.gov/content/
dam/Census/library/publications/2014/demo/p60-249.pdf
6. Carmen DeNavas-Walt and Bernadette D. Proctor. “Appendix B. Estimates
of Poverty.” In “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2013.”
U.S. Census Bureau (September 2014). http://www.census.gov/con-
tent/dam/Census/library/publications/2014/demo/p60-249.pdf
108 J.R. DI LEO
Punch the Clock
the creative writers; the phenomenologists with the feminists; and so on.
Through the lens of party lines and academic affiliations, discussions about
everything from curricular matters and new positions to tenure decisions
and teaching assignments can get complicated and ugly very fast, particu-
larly when university resources are limited—and coveted.1
Add to this mix majority and minority interests between and among
students, departments, schools, colleges, administrators, and trustees—
and you have a political world that makes our red-blue governmental
politics seem simplistic. In the black and blue world of academic politics,
there is no hiding behind or taking cover under a pre-established two-
party system. But even if this were the case, what would those parties be?
Democratic and Republican? Conservative and progressive? Humanist and
post-humanist? State university and private university? Liberal and neo-
liberal? Union and non-union? “Yes” people and “No” people? Working
class and bourgeois?
From the vantage point of the differences that constitute academe’s
polis, the notion of academe without politics seems impossible to even
imagine. Disagreement is the fuel of university politics—and democratic
education. Take it away and you kill the spirit of higher education. We
argue with each other and form factions around positions so that differing
visions of the good and the right—the just and the true—may compete
against each other for institutional dominancy and practice.2 At the very
heart of the notion of faculty governance, there is the assumption that
there is no “right” or “wrong” way to run a university; rather there are
competing visions that create difference and variation from department to
department—and university to university.
The warp and woof of academe is politics—and professors are political
animals. The better able one is to navigate the political waters of academe,
the better chance one has for success—and happiness—in academic life.
Over the past 25 years or so, academics have done a remarkable job in
not just engaging in academic politics, but making it an academic genre
of its own. Arguably, more books, articles, and conference presentations
concerning the politics of higher education have appeared in the past 25
years than in any other similar period in the history of higher education.3
Nevertheless, I would like to propose that, on the way to making aca-
demic politics more transparent and demystifying some of its mystery, we
inadvertently short-circuited academe’s political agency such that the acad-
emy of the present is effectively one without politics—or at least politics in
any significant sense, namely, politics that both determines how we run the
PUNCH THE CLOCK 111
Academic Work
We have been so focused on laying bare the conditions of power, the
effects of prestige, the nature of academic identity, and the limits of aca-
deme itself that we failed to realize that someone might actually be listen-
ing to us—and use these things against us.
Take for example the long battle to get the public to understand the
notion of academic “labor” or “work”; to view the academy as a “work-
place” where working conditions are often felt to be unfair; to recognize
that some academics, particularly, adjunct faculty, are “exploited”; to see
that many people who work in the academy are “contingent”; or even to
recognize that some regard academe merely as a “business.”6
To their credit, many of those who introduced politics to the academy
in the 1990s and beyond were very effective. By taking discussions of the
political dimensions of the academy from the faculty lounge all the way
to the statehouse, we accomplished our goal of getting the public, that is,
those who do not earn their living directly through higher education, to
not just hear our story—but to accept it.
Academe is a workplace; professors do work; many faculty do more
work for less pay than others; some professors are guaranteed a job for life,
112 J.R. DI LEO
whereas others can barely have a life with their job; and so on. Moreover,
we have convinced them that the work conditions of academe are—by and
large—dismal.
Find me a student or a parent or a legislator that has not heard about
the dismal state of the academic condition today—and I will show you
someone who more than likely either has zero interest in education of
any form or lives in a cave—or both. From the abysmal salaries of public
secondary school teachers and the horrors of “teaching to the test” to the
rising cost of higher education and its perceived lower value, we live in a
media world saturated by vignettes from the politics of academe—many
of them negative.
If the challenge of the past 25 years was to make people more fully
aware of the political dimensions of academe in the hopes of creating a
more just, fair, and equitable academic workplace, then we have met the
challenge (political awareness), but have not achieved the end (justice,
fairness, and equity). In fact, if anything, political understanding of the
academy has only coincided with a less just, more unfair, and decreasingly
equitable workplace.
The best term for the academy that arose amidst the nascent political
efforts of the 1990s is the “neoliberal academy.”7 Its politics are allegedly
not red or blue; conservative or liberal; working class or bourgeois; but
rather engaged at a level “without politics.” In the academy of the pres-
ent, politics has been usurped by economics. Decision-making is based
on getting the maximum amount of “labor” from the academic working
class—with the lowest level of cost and risk. Teaching has truly become
labor—and its going rate is whatever the market will bear. The pursuit of
knowledge means depositing in the workforce of the future the requisite
skills to be productive workers. There are no competing visions of the
university from the vantage point of neoliberalism—only better ways to
capture the education market and train workers.
The politics of race, class, gender, and sexuality in the neoliberal university
matter only if they become impediments to the maximization of the financial
capital of the university. In other words, if students—who are regarded as
“consumers” in the neoliberal university—desire to buy the products of race,
class, gender, and sexuality studies, then the neoliberal university will provide
them. But the market for these products is diminished by conservative voices
from the statehouse who are fixated on the notion that higher education in
its most productive form is about “workforce” training—and standardized
testing to ensure that academe is adequately training its workers. In this
PUNCH THE CLOCK 113
c ontext, the politics of race, class, gender, and sexuality are only relevant if
they become impediments to market maximization—or public approval, the
left hand of market maximization.
In a way, I cannot help but think that we are victims of our own success
at uncovering the political economy of the university. It is now common-
place to regard faculty as a form of labor that fundamentally works to serve
the interests of students—and the general economy. We have been success-
ful in making others see what we do as “work” and regarding the general
outlines of it as “workload,” but it has not resulted in a greater apprecia-
tion of the “work” we do, nor has it brought about a general reduction in
“workload.” In fact, it has brought about quite the opposite.
Now that many within academe and outside of it regard us as “educa-
tion workers,” we no longer are protected by or enshrouded within the
mystical distinction between academe and the workplace. As members of
the “ivory tower,” terms like “professor” and “student” betrayed a quali-
tative difference between the kind of things that were done within the
university tower—and the kinds of things that were done in the factory
“workplace.” In the pre-neoliberal university, professors taught students,
pursued their scholarly passions, and shared in the stewardship of the uni-
versity albeit with a low level of cognizance or care of the time and effort
spent on each task.
However, when we introduced the notion of “academic work” and
reimagined the university as a “workplace,” we also introduced to it the
“time clock.” You know, the thing Fred Flinstone punches when the whis-
tle blows at the end of his day in the stone quarry—the kind of thing that is
an anathema to those seeking respite from the working-class life. Through
our own efforts to make others value more what we do in the university,
we inadvertently destroyed the very thing that made it valuable: namely,
the timelessness of our activities and their almost mystical economy.
On the idealistic side, it meant that professors did whatever they needed
to meet the educational ends that they set for their students. The clock had
two zones: one attuned to that of undergraduate and graduate studies,
and the other attuned to a life of the mind. Tenure meant that we had
demonstrated that we were committed to serving the educational needs of
our students, our scholarly passions, and the university at which we were
tenured. Seven years, though a random number, was one that those in
the academy had come to feel was a long enough period of time to make
a fair judgment as to whether a professor should be granted a “timeless”
appointment (viz., tenure) or not.
114 J.R. DI LEO
Numbers Painting
Like most, my view of university politics is distinctively tempered by my
own personal history. While there is no need to go very deep into it, the
topic at hand warrants at least an account of its broad outlines.
Be that as it may, I recognize and would like to emphasize though
at the outset that the path that has brought me to the place where I am
now in higher education is not open to everyone. The system we live in
presents far more barriers to class and educational ascendency than paths
upward. There are not only racial barriers, which today often seem no
less difficult to overcome than before the Civil Rights movement, but
also many others including, but not limited to, those presented through
gender, ethnicity, disability, sexuality, and poverty. Moreover, the problem
of barriers is exacerbated under neoliberalism as capital is always vying for
more areas to turn to profit.
Until paths to class and educational ascendency are opened to all peo-
ple in this country, the hard work of opening up more paths to achieve-
ment must be one of our priorities. While there probably will always be
restrictions to access, more roads to access can be established by broader
distributions of capital, establishment of a living wage, and making sure
social needs are met. As educators, we are particularly well positioned to
help others fulfill their personal dreams. However, if there is a “dream”
in America, it comes with a condition. Its condition is that it must be one
that is open to everyone. And right now it is not.
Those of us who have been afforded opportunities have an obligation
to pay it forward by helping open pathways for others, especially those
whose barriers to achievement seem insurmountable. So: now to my story.
My father worked in the same factory most of his life; when the product he
produced was no longer needed, neither was he. Neither of my parents—or
their parents—went to college. Growing up, I was always told that college
was a way out of the kind of work my father did—and for me, it has been true.
I spent time as a grossly underpaid graduate assistant instructor and a
contingent faculty member for many years, but I never regretted the path
I took. Compared with the various non-academic jobs I held during my
116 J.R. DI LEO
life, college was not “work”—it was (and still is) more akin to pleasure—
even now as I complete over a decade as a dean and over two decades as an
editor. Academic days are long and the tasks endless—but there is always
time to do something one enjoys.
I have participated through editing, presentation, and publication in
the politicization of higher ed since the early 1990s. And though my
material conditions have changed greatly over the years as has my position
in the academy, I still believe that what we do in higher ed is much differ-
ent than the “work” my father—and his father—did.
One of the many sad consequences of the neoliberal university is that
it has stripped higher ed of the need for politics with its overemphasis
on the market as the determinant of academic value and the shape of the
university. It encourages “paint-by-number” administration where each
color is determined by market studies of consumer behavior. As such, the
painting is always the same—even if color variation presents the illusion
of difference.
Within the neoliberal university, there is little or no place for alternate
visions or narratives of the academy; docile academic subjects are privi-
leged—and political ones cast out. Stripping higher ed of its politics and
turning its aspirations to understand more completely its conditions of
possibility against it is reprehensible.
My feeling is that one of the ways out of the neoliberal condition of
higher ed is to support educational leaders—if not to be one yourself—
who don’t merely paint by neoliberal numbers; who can appreciate both
the economics and the politics of higher education without letting one get
the better of the other. Perhaps under such conditions it would be healthy
to be considered an “academic worker”—but anything short of this is a
recipe for misery—and more academic factory work.
University politics with a small “p” goes on whether the university is run
by faculty or Ford. However, university politics with a big “P” is a much
different beast from the standpoint of neoliberalism than it was when the
university was a much less clearly and substantially understood institution.
There may be no going back to the naiveté and myth of the “ivory tower,”
but neither can we endure much longer neoliberalism’s “academe without
politics.” One of our major tasks today is to find university people who
are willing to help higher ed rid itself of neoliberalism’s paint-by-numbers
approach—and bring some balance and vision to higher ed today. But,
even so, this will not solve the social problem presented by the neoliberal
university to those who self-identify as or with the working class. Namely,
PUNCH THE CLOCK 117
the problem that a university degree is not an automatic ticket out of the
working class. In fact, a college degree has arguably become nothing more
or less than a ticket into the working class. So what now?
Tickets to Paradise
The relationship of the working class to education changed greatly over
the course of the twentieth century—and probably made another major
change with the advent of the new millennium. When my grandparents
were growing up, education was regarded by the working class of America
as a luxury for the bourgeoisie. Completing high school for their genera-
tion was a major accomplishment—and they vigorously made sure that
their children accomplished this educational feat.
Both of my grandmothers worked in sewing factories when I was
young, and I can still remember visiting them at work. There was no sense
in my family that this was “sweatshop” work, rather quite the contrary. As
women who could sew well, they were using their skill to earn money to
help provide for their family—and they were proud of their work. And, as
an added bonus, whenever there was a rip or tear in our clothing, there
was never thought of throwing it away with two grandmothers adroit at
cross-stitching.
My grandfathers, on the other hand, were much more entrepreneurial
than my grandmothers. Though both had worked for others earlier in
their lives, they both aspired to be self-employed, and both accomplished
this. One who had worked earlier in his life in the shipyards came to run
his own poultry farm. He literally was “the eggman.” By the time I was
young, the chickens were gone, replaced by a cornucopia of produce that
fed our entire family. He grew everything from tomatoes and potatoes
to peanuts and pumpkins. I can’t remember my mother ever buying a
vegetable at the supermarket and swear that growing up we had sweet
potatoes with every meal.
My other grandfather held many jobs working for others and himself
over the course of his life. For others, among other things, he drove a bus
and worked as a watch repairman in a department store, but it was for
himself that he strove to work—and with this he achieved varying degrees
of success. He was a taxidermist, bred and sold tropical fish, and, finally,
ran his own watch and jewelry repair shop all out of his small house.
All of this work done by my grandparents was accomplished with very little
formal education. We never asked them about their educational background
118 J.R. DI LEO
nor did they volunteer it very often. Rather, their goal in life was to put
food on the table, have a roof over their head, and see that their children
graduated from high school. And at this, they were quite successful. My
parents both graduated from high school and both took up jobs imme-
diately thereafter. My mother worked for a while as a secretary, and then
became a stay-at-home mom. After I received my undergraduate degree,
she went back to work. Today, with my father retired, she works twice as
much as back then, with two jobs, one in a bank and one in a department
store.
Aside from a few short-lived jobs, my father worked his entire career
in the same factory. While I knew many of his co-workers as they were
the folks with which our family primarily socialized, I never set foot in
his place of employment. It was enough for him to tell me that it was hot
and dangerous work, and that there was really nothing to see. My parents’
goal in life was much like the goal of their parents, but with one major
difference: in addition to putting food on the table, having a roof over
their head, and seeing that their son graduated from high school, they also
wanted him to go to college. And at this, they too were quite successful.
My takeaway from my working-class background and my experience
with higher education is that my upbringing, while unique, is far from
atypical. There are many first-generation college students whose family
educational values are similar to mine. For my parents’ generation, a high
school education was a ticket to a better life than their parents’ generation.
While that life would always involve work, it would be steady work and
enough eventually to provide, in turn, a better educational path for their
children. In other words, if the educational attainment of their parents for
their children was high school, then theirs was and would be college.
But the key difference between my parents’ parents and my parents was
that the expectation of educational attainment of my parents was not entry
into the working class for their son, but rather entry into the “middle
class.” What this was and how it worked was and is still fuzzy to them,
but it definitely did not involve “factory work” (academic or otherwise)
nor did it involve merely putting food on the table and a roof over one’s
head.8 The knowledge that many of those who have college degrees today
struggle to put food on the table and maintain a roof over their heads
because of poor-paying employment, unemployment, and/or massive
debt, educational or otherwise, is simply incomprehensible to my parents’
generation. Moreover, that many of us who work at universities feel that
they are like factories seems to our parents more like paradise lost—than
paradise found.
PUNCH THE CLOCK 119
Conclusion
As a working-class student who has gone through most of the various
levels of academic training and employment to become a working-class
academic in the age of neoliberalism, it is disappointing to see both the
erasure of politics in neoliberal academe and the disappearance of the ivory
tower. As a first-generation working-class student, I found the pursuit of
knowledge for its own sake afforded to me by the pre-neoliberal univer-
sity a privilege and an opportunity. The notion that academe was an ivory
tower of sorts set apart from the world of work offered me the pros-
pect that there was a future way of life for me, if I studied hard enough
and applied myself, that would be significantly different from my parents’
working-class life.
For my part, this belief lasted both through undergraduate and
graduate school. It was only when I entered professional academic life
that I began to realize that though things might appear different in aca-
deme, they were for many quite the same as working-class life. As such,
PUNCH THE CLOCK 121
Notes
1. For a comprehensive introduction to the politics of affiliation in academe,
see Jeffrey R. Di Leo, ed., Affiliations: Identity in Academic Culture
(Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2003).
2. For a defense of the notion that argument and disagreement is central to the
healthy university and democratic education, see Jeffrey Di Leo, Corporate
Humanities in Higher Education: Moving Beyond the Neoliberal Academy
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 27–44.
3. My term for this type of scholarship is “meta-professional studies.” For an
account of their rise, see, Jeffrey R. Di Leo, Academe Degree Zero:
Reconsidering the Politics of Higher Education (Boulder: Paradigm, 2012).
However, the work that Jeffrey J. Williams has recently coined “critical uni-
versity studies,” also covers much of the work in this area. See Jeffrey
J. Williams, “Deconstructing Academe: The Birth of Critical University
Studies,” Chronicle of Higher Education (19 February 2012). http://
chronicle.com/article/An-Emerging-Field-Deconstructs/130791/
4. Again, for an excellent, albeit controversial, account of the rise of vocational-
ism in higher education, see Andrew Hacker and Claudia Dreifus, Higher
Education? How Colleges Are Wasting Our Money and Failing Our Kids—And
What We Can Do About It (New York: Times Books/Henry Holt, 2010).
122 J.R. DI LEO
5. The notion of the working class as those without a college degree is a popular
notion. See, for example, its use in Thomas B. Edsall’s recent article for The
New York Times, “Canaries in the Coal Mine” (17 June 2012) in relation to
voter demographics.http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/17/
canaries-in-the-coal-mine/
6. The best account to date of the university as a workplace is Marc Bousquet,
How the University Works: Higher Education and the Low-Wage Nation
(New York: New York University Press, 2008). For an excellent overview of
the history of the university with regard to its business interests, see Frank
Donohue, The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the Fate of the
Humanities (New York: Fordham University Press, 2008).
7. The best general account of neoliberalism is still David Harvey’s A Brief
History of Neoliberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). For
recent accounts of the neoliberal university, see Henry A. Giroux,
Neoliberalism’s War on Higher Education (Chicago: Haymarket Books,
2014) and Jeffrey R. Di Leo, Corporate Humanities in Higher Education:
Moving Beyond the Neoliberal Academy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2013).
8. The difference here between the “working class” and the “middle class” is
one of greater economic and educational resources. One way to distinguish
one from the other is that the former live paycheck to paycheck whereas the
latter have greater disposable or discretionary income. However, where and
how to draw these lines is fuzzy and debatable, and not relevant for our
purposes.
CHAPTER 8
These are dark times for higher education in America. Most institutions
of higher education in the United States are caught up in the pursuit of
prestige and status, rather than knowledge and democratic values. Their
missions are driven by economic concerns, not educational ones.
Maybe you are one of the fortunate few that works for an institution
of higher education whose mission is educationally driven, rather than
economically driven. If so, you may be at a university that is immune to
the neoliberal condition afflicting academe today. But the chances of this
are slim.
Most of us work for institutions of higher education with some type
of economically driven mission. The subjects that maximally serve eco-
nomically driven university missions are docile ones. This is because docile
subjects provide little resistance to this mission, and the greatest chance
of its success and persistence. Neoliberalism is the best way to describe
the most extreme versions of these economically driven missions. It is
a discourse that views the social and economic world as structured by
equations. When applied to the university, it seeks to replace “education”
with “equations” in every corner of the academic world.
But, as Pierre Bourdieu has warned, neoliberalism is not like most other
discourses. In fact, it is more like psychiatric discourse because of the
power relations that bolster it. For Bourdieu, because economic choices
eral academe. Faculty activism alone will not be enough to turn the tide
of economic Darwinism.
The central argument of this chapter is that without the enlistment
and support of progressive and activist administrators, there is little hope
that the university can be redirected toward educational goals rather than
merely economic ones. While faculty can and will voice their displeasure
with neoliberal academe, doing so within a system that is built through
the construction of docile subjectivities aimed toward eliminating dissent
of this type places the livelihood of these faculty at risk. Though the same
can be said of administration that do not play by the rules of neoliberalism,
that is, they too stand to be eliminated from the system, it is still vital that
there be an engaged administrative core within academe that recognizes
the challenges raised by economically driven university missions and works
with faculty in a deliberate and diplomatic manner to both mitigate the
harm done by them and to redirect the world of education back to its true
mission, namely, education.
The problem though for administration in the age of neoliberalism is
that it is far too often viewed as merely the home of economic hatchet men
and myopic managers who only act in the best interests of job survival
and careerism. Furthermore, the easiest way to protect one’s managerial
position in neoliberal academe is to simply internalize the ground rules of
economic expediency and to consistently act upon them. To do so is, in
effect, to close one’s eyes to the ways in which such decision-making can
often be destructive to the educational and democratic ends of academe.
Enter the dark side: a world where administration is expected to blind
itself to the negative effects of neoliberalism in academe in order to main-
tain its administrative status.
Consequently, if administration continues to be perceived as always
already co-opted by neoliberal concerns, then it will be increasingly dif-
ficult to recruit progressive and activist individuals to administrative posi-
tions, that is, individuals who will administrate with their eyes wide open
to the negative effects of managerialism and are committed to pulling
academe out of the neoliberal abyss. Without the support and solidarity
of activist administrators who work in consort with faculty to overcome
neoliberalism’s destructive academic legacies, there is little hope that edu-
cation’s future will be any different than its recent past.
126 J.R. DI LEO
Dark Administration
Administration is the dark side of academe.4 Few sayings in higher educa-
tion are more commonly known, if not also believed and beloved, than
this one. As soon as one mentions to others that they are considering tak-
ing on an administrative position such as a directorship or chairmanship,
some version of the saying is tossed their way in the same manner that
“bless you” and “gesundheit” is the response to a sneeze.
“So, you’re entering the dark side,” a colleague will say to your
announcement of a pending administrative role. And just as the secular per-
son does not usually take umbrage at being “blessed” in response to their
sneeze and says “thank you,” most nascent administrators do not challenge
a “dark side” response. It is widely understood that to enter administration
is to enter the dark side—even if one has no intention of committing any
acts of darkness. But why is a “dark side” comment such a common reac-
tion to the announcement of a pending or existing administrative role? And
when did we start reacting this way to administrative roles in academe?5
To answer the latter question is probably akin to answering the ques-
tion when did “bless you” or “gesundheit” begin to be a response to
sneezing—and probably just as productive. No one knows for certain the
origins of either sneezing response, though some speculate that a sneeze
is “letting the demons in,” and that “bless you” is meant to guard the
sneezer and the responder from these demons. Similar with “gesund-
heit” as the sneeze was viewed as a prelude to an illness and the German
roughly translates in English to a wish for “health” or “good health” for
the sneezer. The analogy among common responses to sneezing to those
regarding administrative roles in academe is instructive.
Just as “gesundheit” in response to a sneeze implies a wish for good
health in light of the possible onset of illness, “dark side” comments in
response to administrative roles imply the onset of a form of illness. This
illness is brought upon one in the transition from the “healthy” side of
academe (non-administrative roles) to the “unhealthy” side of academe
(administrative roles). “Dark side” administrative responses thus reveal a
basic distinction between faculty and administration, namely, that faculty
is by function the healthy side of academe, and that administration is its
unhealthy side. Furthermore, the analogy with “bless you” decidedly car-
ries this distinction well beyond that of mere health concerns, and into the
realm of morality. Namely, to be on the dark side of administration is to be
on the side of demons, evil, and immorality, whereas to be on the side of
faculty is to be on the side of saints, goodness, and morality.6
THE DARK SIDE 127
The examples and stories here could be multiplied many times with
the help of our colleagues across academe. The dark side quickly becomes
nothing more than an expectation for administration that is often (and
fortunately) not fulfilled just as the “sweetness and light” of faculty life
can be challenged without much effort. So, it is not true that on one side
of the academic role fault line lies “goodness” and “health” and on the
other “sickness” and “evil.” Rather it is true that the general perception
in academe is that faculty is on the side of “goodness” and “health”—and
administration on the side of “sickness” and “evil.” Nevertheless, this is a
perception that it is time to move beyond.
If one goes with a more robust definition of neoliberalism, namely,
one that marks its start at the beginning of the Reagan era, then all of my
experiences in higher education have come within the age of neoliberal-
ism. Consequently, the level of distrust of administration by faculty should
be no surprise, nor should the dysfunction and distrust among the ranks
of faculty. The competitiveness and individualism encouraged by neolib-
eralism brings about this type of behavior among those who participate in
its institutions and organizations. Still, after the economic crisis of 2008,
neoliberalism has brought about new heights of fear and terror within
academe. If administration before this period at least held out the hope of
respecting the interests of students, faculty, and society, then post-2008, if
not post-9/11, these hopes were to be completely dashed.8
In the increasingly economically driven world of higher education,
administration rules with a calculator and a red pen. Good educational
decisions are distinguished from bad ones based on financial dollars, not
educational sense. In the twentieth century, there was still at least a chance
for administration to steer clear of the dark side—the side where academic
decisions are made on the basis of economics, not education. However,
the twenty-first century seems to have all but closed off that opportunity.
Administrators in neoliberal academe are expected to view all consid-
erations of self-knowledge, social import, and political advocacy as sub-
species of economic impact. If what one is doing as an administrator is
not maintaining or improving the economic welfare of the university,
then within the world of neoliberalism one is doing the wrong thing. It
is within this context, namely, one of the mission of the university to be
economically driven, that for all intents and purposes administration is and
only is a dark side enterprise. This gives us all the more reason to strive
to move beyond neoliberalism as doing so will give us a better chance of
ridding academic administration of its sickness.
THE DARK SIDE 129
Beyond the Darkness
If it were just a matter of the money wasted, that would be bad enough.
But the bloating of college administrations over the past decades has made
administrative performance worse than better. It has bogged us down in
reels of time-consuming and despair-creating red tape. It has fostered delu-
sions of grandeur among some of the administrative higher-ups, whose egos
have grown along with the size of the staffs under their supervision.11
If the red tape was bad in the early 1990s, it was only a prequel to the
intensification of despair the new millennium has wrought in this area.
Neoliberal academe validates itself through increasing levels of assess-
ment and accountability, which ironically are called for in the name of
continuous academic program improvement. For most faculty today, the
only thing that the culture of assessment and accountability improve are
the time and number of people devoted to these tasks. Making matters
worse is that as the red tape continues to grow, so too do the egos of
those who call for it—especially for those whose titles are prefaced with
the words “assistant,” “associate,” and “vice.” The common belief among
these second-tier administrators seems to be that the amount of red tape
generated is directly proportional to their chances of being promoted to
even higher heights of managerial status—status that is indicated by a
change in, if not the complete loss of, their subtitle.
All of these conditions understandably have brought about a higher
degree of skepticism toward administration and its ends. The recent AAUP
report concludes a section entitled “Do We Need More Administrators?”
with the following observation:
THE DARK SIDE 131
One must believe that all administrators are not alike. The difference
between one administrator and another in the age of neoliberal academe
is their ability to mitigate the harm done to faculty and students by neo-
liberalism. It is the difference between the administrator who “blindly”
and continuously calls for cost reductions and the one who considers them
only in light of their effect on faculty excellence and student achievement.
An algorithm written for a computer program can continuously reduce
costs without consideration of their impact on education. However, only a
person with the ability to calculate the educational intangibles of this cost
reduction can do it properly. Perhaps then we need to apply the Turing
test to administration? If we cannot tell the difference between administra-
tive actions and those of a computer, then perhaps those administrators
have failed the test—and us.13
The question of what makes one administrator better than another
should be as important to us as the question of what makes one faculty
member better than another or one student more successful than another.
While there is no set formula here, nor should there be, there is still a way
to pursue this question. It involves calibrating the educational interests of
faculty and students with the external conditions that prohibit their achieve-
ment. Once this is determined, the role of the administrator needs to be one
of maximizing conditions for achievement—for both students and faculty.
Administrating with a cookie cutter may work in good economic times,
but it surely does not work in bad economic times. Rather, bad economic
times require higher levels of flexibility, diplomacy, and courage from
administration than good times. One should administrate differently with
a blank check before them than with massive debt. Just as one should
not blame bad weather on the captain, so too should one not assume
that all administrators are in favor of high student debt, contingent labor,
and salary compression. However, administration should be judged on
the way in which they deal with these unfortunate conditions and the
ways in which they work in consort with faculty and students to allevi-
ate them. Progressive administration works to mitigate the pain of oth-
ers and to increase the attainment of those whom they serve; neoliberal
administration does not care about the pain of others or their attainment,
and works only to increase their individual attainment. Or, to put it more
directly, neoliberal administration furthers the ends of neoliberalism; pro-
gressive administration works to overcome neoliberalism. To be sure, if
administration has a dark side, it is its evil neoliberal variation. Few should
disagree that progressive administration is better than neoliberal adminis-
tration. The only question though is how to achieve it.
134 J.R. DI LEO
Conclusion
The dark times facing higher education in America are an opportunity
for us to forge a new beginning for the academy. Our fight against the
neoliberal condition is an effort to move beyond it, not to go back to the
future in higher education. Those who say that the neoliberal condition
is the “end” of higher education in America have given up on saving the
academy. It will only be the end or the fall of higher education if each of us
gives up our individual efforts to forge this new beginning. These efforts
begin with things within our control such as the way we teach our classes,
converse with our colleagues, and present our scholarship to the world.14
This new beginning is also only going to happen through the support and
solidarity of progressive, visionary university administrators who under-
stand the damaging force of neoliberalism in academe—and are willing to
work in consort with students and faculty to overcome it.
As a first-generation, working-class student, I advanced from the posi-
tion of graduate student and contingent faculty member to full professor
and dean during the first decade of this century. And every day for the past
12 years, I have faced the challenges of academic administration in dark
times in solidarity with the faculty of our school. These and other char-
acteristics provide a unique angle on the workings of the university and
academic activism. From this angle, there are reasons to be excited about
the future of the academy, and to be hopeful that we can effect change in
higher education. Still, I am well aware of the ways in which the neoliberal
condition in higher education has negatively impacted many lives, and has
led many to lose hope that we can effect progressive change in academe.
My aim in this chapter is to offer hope for the return of education-based
university missions and to help plot a path out of the dark woods of neo-
liberal academe.
My belief is that faculty must be in solidarity with administration if we
are to have any chance of defeating the neoliberal beast. The conditioned
belief that administration is the dark side of academe discourages pro-
gressive faculty from becoming progressive administrators. It also belittles
the efforts of administrators who fight every day to end the tyranny of
neoliberal academe. Academe needs students, faculty, and administrators
to be in solidarity in dark times. An open dialogue of hope and resistance
against the stormy waters of economic Darwinism gives us perhaps our
best chance of opening a new chapter for higher education in the twenty-
first century.
THE DARK SIDE 135
Over the years, I have seen and learned from many examples of posi-
tive and negative alliances among students, faculty, and administration.
Negative alliances many times stem from differences of vision as to the
direction of the department or university. One of the more memorable
negative ones was a dean who in response to a department that did not
like his/her choice for their next chair, yelled at them and told them they
did not know what they needed—and went forward with the hire in spite
of a lack of faculty support. His/her style was not to hold a dialogue with
faculty about their interests and vision for their university, but rather to
ram his/her own peculiar and particular vision down their throats. This
resulted in low faculty morale and much anger about the lack of respect and
hope afforded to faculty. Fortunately for all concerned, s/he only served
one term as dean, left the university, and has since then not been a univer-
sity administrator. Academic behavior like this only further weakens faculty
faith in administration and makes the road to solidarity more arduous.
However, I’ve also witnessed the opposite: namely, when many stu-
dents and some faculty approached a dean about the suitability of a chair
who was appointed by him/her during a break when few faculty members
were present to weigh in on the decision. When students and faculty ques-
tioned the decision, the dean listened to them, and replaced the chair with
a more suitable person. The openness to critical dialogue with students
and faculty regarding their education and needs rewarded the dean with a
long and successful tenure.
But all negative and positive alliances begin with individual relation-
ships between faculty and administration. The more open both parties are
to nurturing these relationships, the better the chances of more positive
alliances than negative ones. I have been fortunate as a faculty member to
work for many chairs that listened to my needs as a faculty member and
worked with me to meet them.
One of the positive results of these alliances is the journal symplokē,
which I founded as a graduate student and maintained as a faculty mem-
ber at several institutions under several different chairs. That it has con-
tinuously served the profession by publishing critical theory for nearly
25 years is a testament to numerous positive faculty/administration alli-
ances. Conversely, I was so surprised when a fellow journal editor told
me some years back that his top-25 university cut back support that was
promised to him for his similarly prestigious journal. While this may not
be everyone’s prime example of a negative alliance between faculty and
administration, for me it is, especially when he stepped down as editor
136 J.R. DI LEO
and found a new home for the journal.15 Great journal editors are in short
supply. When one is lost because of a negative alliance, we all lose, namely,
everyone who looks to journals as an outlet for their research and a source
of information for work in their area of concern.
The shape of higher education to come is yet to be determined. Perhaps
seeing closer solidarity among faculty and administration, for example, in
areas such as leadership decisions and journal support in good and bad
economic times, is a preview of the shape of higher education to come.
Though these are just a small sample of the different ways faculty and
administration can benefit from stronger alliances, it is important to have
at least a few success stories to keep hopes alive. Moreover, the strength of
alliances need not only be gauged by their positive outcomes: just forging
the alliances, successful outcome or not, is half the battle.
When progressive administrations take up arms in the fight against the
beast of neoliberal academe, they provide “top cover” for the progressive
faculty also involved in the fight. For as we know, to fight against neolib-
eral academe is not to exhibit the docile subjectivity that it privileges, but
it is a fight that puts its faculty combatants at risk of elimination from the
system.
“Top cover” should be regarded as a form of administrative activ-
ism that will help bring about the end of neoliberal academe, but it will
only be possible if we relegate to the dark side only those whose actions
earn them entry. To continue the commonplace response that to enter
administration is to enter the dark side only discourages progressive fac-
ulty from joining the administrative ranks. It also plays into the hands of
neoliberal academe, which expects administration to be the dark side. Let’s
now think of the dark side academic characterization as an unfortunate
designation fitting for both administration and faculty who work in con-
sort with the ends of neoliberal academe—and not use it to discourage
progressive faculty from entering the ranks of administration.
Notes
1. Pierre Bourdieu, Acts of Resistance: Against the New Myths of Our Time
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998; reprint, 2000), 95.
2. See Jeffrey R. Di Leo, Corporate Humanities in Higher Education: Moving
Beyond the Neoliberal Academy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013),
27–43, for an account of paralogy as an approach to academic dialogue in
the neoliberal academy. See also, Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern
THE DARK SIDE 137
interrogator cannot tell which is the person and which is the machine, the
machine will have passed the Turing test. In my example here, the com-
puter only considers cost reduction and does not consider impact on edu-
cation. If, under these circumstances, which are really quite constrained,
one cannot determine the difference between a computer response to an
administrative question and the response of a person, then indeed this is a
bad omen for administration—and decidedly a good one for computers as
potential replacements for administration. This is why I say that the admin-
istrator failed the Turing test rather than the computer passed it. The
Turing test was suggested by Alan Turing in his paper, “Computing
Machinery and Intelligence” in 1950 and is also called “the imitation
game.”
14. I present my case for this in Corporate Humanities in Higher Education.
15. See, Jeffrey J. Williams, “My Life as Editor,” in How to Be an Intellectual:
Essays on Criticism, Culture, & the University (New York: Fordham
University Press, 2014), 205.
CHAPTER 9
Breaking Bad
Breaking Bad. The fact that its central protagonist, the notorious Walter
White, starts as a teacher—and was before that a graduate student—makes
it all the more appropriate for our purposes.
In this chapter, Walter White’s story will be presented as the story of
the neoliberal man in general. I would also like to offer it, particularly
because of his role as an educator, as a parable of the fate of the neoliberal
academic. While dedicated viewers of the series know the story of Walter
White very well, there are others who have no idea who he is. Therefore,
there will be some plot summary in this chapter aimed more at those unfa-
miliar with Breaking Bad than its dedicated legion of fans. Also, because
it was a very long series, running for 62 episodes over the course of five
seasons, this chapter will focus on one particular episode, rather than try-
ing to deal with the series as a whole.
The central argument of this chapter, therefore, is that the “Fly” epi-
sode of Breaking Bad is its philosophical center. It is an episode that is a
self-reflective one not only for its major character, Walter White, but also
for the series itself—and arguably is its most self-reflexive moment. “Fly”
reveals both some of the historically Nietzschean strains of Breaking Bad
as well as its contemporary neoliberal dimensions. It also illuminates a
semiotic system that provides a wholly non-verbal dimension that beauti-
fully complements the verbal dialogue of the series.
The “Fly” episode of Breaking Bad is a major work of art and philoso-
phy, and arguably the most philosophically powerful episode in the series,
if not also among its kindred series, The Sopranos, Mad Men, and The
Wire. Moreover, it exemplifies well the neoliberal magical realism of the
series that arguably has lifted Breaking Bad from a mere criminal drama to
a window into the devastating effects of the neoliberal condition on our
identity and conduct.
This chapter will begin with an overview of the series followed by an
introduction to the “Fly” episode. It will then proceed with a discussion
of its direct connection with the philosophical tradition, most notably
the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, and then show how this episode
also reveals major aspects of Breaking Bad’s critique of neoliberalism. The
chapter will conclude that the power of the “Fly” episode comes from its
ability to both look backward to the philosophical tradition and forward
into the negative dimensions of contemporary neoliberal social behavior
and political thought in a way not often exemplified in contemporary
visual media.
BREAKING BAD 141
course of a few months, or at the very most, less than a year. The magical
realism of the series is grounded in our suspension of disbelief that this is
possible. Or, more progressively, the underlying neoliberal vision of this
series (what might be termed neoliberal magical realism) is that anyone
strapped with debt can become an entrepreneur in the free market if they
are willing to ignore their moral and social conscience by engaging in vio-
lent criminal activity that destroys lives and society. Walt lives the American
neoliberal dream—a dream where self-interest and market forces beget
violence and financial reward. In the neoliberal world of Walter White,
crime pays, and pays well. Or does it?
Though Walt has amassed a fortune, perhaps enough money to provide
financial security for his family for many generations, he has in the pro-
cess lost them—and himself. By the end of the series, his son hates him
and refuses to take his money; his wife is broke and barely evading prison
for aiding Walt in his criminal enterprise, and his brother-in-law has been
murdered while trying to bring Walt to justice. In a last-ditch effort to get
money to his family after his death, he threatens to have his former grad-
school colleague, Elliott Schwartz (Adam Godley), and Elliott’s wife (and
Walt’s former lover), Gretchen (Jessica Hecht), murdered after his death
if they do not “donate” the remainder of his meth fortune to his family.
Over the course of the series, Walt transforms from a mild-mannered,
high school chemistry teacher into a lying, murdering, violent drug king-
pin, who is known and feared by the name “Heisenberg.” Interestingly,
his cancer is in remission when he is “cooking,” but acts up when he stops.
Walt tries to lead a dual life by hiding his Heisenberg persona from his
family including his brother- and sister-in-law. However, by the end of the
series, his criminal persona is known not just by his family, but the world
over. As public enemy number one, he hides out in a shack in the woods of
New Hampshire, trying to evade capture, but decides to return when his
son refuses to take his money, and he is renounced by Elliott and Gretchen
on television as having had no role in the founding of their highly suc-
cessful business. No one wants to associate with Walt including his former
partner, Jesse, who now wants Walt dead.
As we shall see, if Walter White is pop culture’s neoliberal everyman, then
his alter ego, Heisenberg, is neoliberalism’s superman. The dialectics between
“everyman Walter” and “superman Heisenberg” is a master narrative of
neoliberalism for our time. Following the path of a failed graduate student
whose conduct quickly runs out of control, and whose character becomes
more and more despicable, is also a parable of the destructive forces of
BREAKING BAD 143
cannot be said of the recent generation of series. For example, while there
are episodes that stand out as more philosophically rich than others, a
series like The Sopranos has more in common with a novel than an indi-
vidual television episode. The unconscious of Tony Soprano and its role in
the sociopathic violence in which he participates is the driving force of the
series. Much the same could be said of Mad Men, though for Don Draper
it is sociopathic lust rather than violence.
In fact, just as David Simon, who created The Wire, pitched it as a “60-
hour long ‘visual novel,’” so too should we regard Breaking Bad.2 Or,
more specifically, Breaking Bad is more like the serialization of a Dickens
or a Dostoevsky novel, than Star Trek, where each episode is more like a
short story rather than a chapter of a novel.3 These long-form series are
one of the more amazing developments of the Golden Age of television—
and are in fact a development that has brought a lot of “thinking” people
and socio-political critique back to weekly network and cable program-
ming. Star Trek is here used as a foil to Breaking Bad not to belittle it on
the occasion of its 50th anniversary, but rather to distinguish it as one of
the two major forms of non-cinematic philosophical visual narrative: epi-
sodic versus novelistic visual narrative.
In episodic visual narrative, a philosophical problem can be established,
pursued, and resolved in 30 to 60 minutes. In novelistic visual narrative,
one or more major philosophical problems is established, pursued, and
resolved in 60 hours or more. Argument and counter-argument can be
developed in novelistic visual narratives such as Breaking Bad in ways
impossible in episodic—or even cinematic narrative. The Sopranos, Mad
Men, and The Wire, are series that are more philosophically rich considered
as a whole as compared to individual episodes. Star Trek, however, is just
the opposite. As a complete series its philosophical message is less power-
ful than the distinct philosophical messages of individual episodes, some
of which are philosophically stronger and more intriguing than others. In
this light, cinematic narrative, which usually varies between 90 minutes
and three hours, has more in common with episodic narrative than nov-
elistic narrative.
However, Breaking Bad eclipses its kindred series by offering an episodic
moment that is arguably the philosophical center of the series. In a way, the
episode functions similarly to “The Grand Inquisitor” section of Dostoevsky’s
The Brothers Karamazov or “The Battle Royale” section of Ralph Ellison’s
Invisible Man. In other words, just as “The Grand Inquisitor” and “The
Battle Royale” sections of these respective novels are their philosophical
BREAKING BAD 145
shots are indistinct and fuzzy, but soon one can recognize the detail of
a wing and then there is a clear, full-screen close-up of the two red eyes
of a fly. The lullaby and surreal fly shots go on for about 30 seconds and
then the intro sequence cuts to the Breaking Bad theme music and title
sequence. After the theme music is played and titles are shown, the episode
opens with a full-screen shot of a blinking red light. The circumference of
the light’s base touches the top and bottom of the screen. It blinks a few
times. The camera then pulls back to reveal that the source of the light is
the blinking red light of a smoke detector set against vertical shadows that
look like prison bars.
It soon becomes apparent that Walt is awake in his bed staring at a
flashing smoke detector light on his ceiling. The clock next to his bed
reads 2:00 a.m. amidst a dark room. The next shot is of his hand turning
off his alarm at 6:00 a.m. in a fully lit room. He rises from his bed and sits
on the side to put on his glasses. He is tired and just over his shoulder the
blinking red light of the smoke alarm is seen flashing.
So, why, one might ask, does the episode open with a full-screen shot
of a blinking red light? What does it mean? On an iconic level, the red of
the light mirrors the red eye of the fly viewed earlier. On a symbolic level,
the red stands for the red phosphorus that is used in the production of
methamphetamine. Walt’s whole life is consumed by the production and
distribution of methamphetamine, and red phosphorus is one of the key
elements in its production. In fact, in one of the earlier episodes of the
series, Walt sees a stranger buying materials to set up a clandestine meth
lab. The stranger however has the wrong matches in his cart. So, Walt,
ever the “teacher,” says to the stranger,
Those matches, they’re the wrong kind. Red phosphorus is found in the
striker strips, not the matches themselves. You need to get the big 200-
count case of individual matchbooks. More striker strips, you understand?
Those only have the one.
In Walt’s world, the flashing red light associated with red phosphorus
holds a metonymic relationship with the elements of meth production, if
not meth production itself. Using it in the opening shots of the episode
sets the stage for the intense psychological drama concerning meth produc-
tion that occupies the remainder of the episode. Revealing the ominous
blinking red light of the smoke detector set against vertical shadows that
look like prison bars reminds the viewer of the dangers of meth p
roduction
BREAKING BAD 147
and distribution, namely, prison. But more directly, the blinking red light
of the smoke detector set against vertical shadows symbolizes the “prison
house of meth” that now dangerously occupies and controls the life and
world of Walter White.
The scene now shifts from the inside of Walt’s bedroom to the outside
of the laundry that houses Walt’s meth lab. The “prison house” imagery is
continued in this scene as it opens with rolling vertical images of the fence
bars that surround the laundry/meth lab. The vertical fence bars mir-
ror the vertical shadows from the smoke detector shot—and again recall
prison bars. They are seen from the perspective of Jesse, who is arriving at
the plant dock where Walt and he cook. Walt has already arrived though
he is sitting in his car a bit dazed and out of it when Jesse pulls his car next
to him. Atmospheric music à la Brian Eno plays while Jesse gets out of his
car and walks over to Walt’s driver-side window. He raps on the window
loudly and breaks Walt out of his stupor. So too ends the atmospheric
music.
Up to this point of the episode, there has been no dialogue. There has
just been a fly, red light, and prison bar imagery. Nevertheless, a lot has
been communicated in the prelude to “Fly.” Most notably, Walt is losing
sleep with worry about the meth “prison house” that now controls his
life and in which he is now incarcerated. Or, more directly, he is losing
sleep about the consequences of his conduct and life as an exemplar of the
neoliberal man.
By working for Gus in his lab, Walt and Jesse now are laborers in a
factory-type atmosphere. They are required to produce 200 lbs. of meth
a week, an obligation that Walt, after the near-fatal shooting of Hank on
Gus’s order, now worries about. He knows that if the meth is not pro-
duced on schedule or if they steal some of the meth that they are produc-
ing, then their lives could be in serious danger as Gus will stop providing
them with protection. As they walk into the laundry and pass Gus’s work-
ers punching the time clock, Jesse says to Walt, “I’m surprised he doesn’t
make us do that!” These are the first words of the episode—ones indica-
tive of their level of resentment toward Gus and the level of control he has
over their lives. Jesse’s words also have echoes in the halls of higher educa-
tion today, where, as we saw earlier, the only thing lacking in university life
under neoliberalism is a literal time clock.5
This line of comment continues by Jesse, when he and Walt get down
into the lab and commence cleaning the equipment. Jesse tells Walt about
a television show about hyenas that he saw:
148 J.R. DI LEO
The hyenas have a pecking order. The head hyena, he’s the man. All of the
other ones have to like kiss his ass. I mean literally it is so gross. They have
to lick his junk. I can’t even believe they showed it on TV.
Jesse, perhaps even more than Walt, resents that they have to cook for
Gus, rather than themselves. He had hoped to cook for himself before
Walt convinced him to be his partner in fulfilling Gus’s “million-dollar”
meth order. The hyena story as well as the time-clock comment show Jesse
to be not “worried” about what he is doing in the lab and its implications
for his life and the life of others, but rather annoyed about the lack of
entrepreneurial freedom that cooking for Gus affords him. Working for
Gus in this way is “working for the man,” rather than being an “entrepre-
neurial man.” Or, more crudely put, working for Gus is akin to having to
“lick his junk;” that is, it is degrading. The ignominy of cleaning the meth
lab only amplifies his frustration with Gus and the new business situation
he shares with Walt. “If this is supposed to be all major league and all,”
comments Jesse, “we should have equipment maintainer guys and water
boys, you know?!”
Up to now, Jesse has been more or less talking to himself. It is a major
moment of self-reflectiveness for him in the episode—and one that reveals
a lot about his view on things. What has been clearly established is that he
is unhappy. However, compared to Walt, he is relatively unworried about
his role in the prison house of meth. His main gripe is that he wants to be
more like the warden of the prison or even the owner of the prison, rather
than just one of the prison house cooks and a prisoner himself. His self-
reflection ends when he asks Walt if it is OK to start cooking.
Walt, however, seems to be lost in some heavy calculations. “I don’t
understand,” says Walt. “These numbers, they just don’t add up.”
According to him, they should be producing 0.14% more meth than they
have; that is, he and Jesse are about a quarter to half of a pound shy.
Though Jesse wants Walt to pass off the discrepancy to spillage, evapora-
tion, or vestiges (gunk left in the tanks), Walt refuses to explain away the
calculational difference in this way and keeps on trying to make the num-
bers work. Jesse though knows that the numbers don’t add up because he
has been skimming meth off of their output in amounts roughly equiva-
lent to the amounts found in Walt’s calculations. He wants Walt to write
off the difference to spillage, evaporation, or vestiges—and put the whole
thing behind him. But he won’t. Jesse asks Walt if he is OK to which Walt
replies, “Why?”
BREAKING BAD 149
Jesse goes home now thinking that Walt is going to do the same after
he wraps up his calculations. But Walt continues to ponder why the num-
bers are not working out. Soon a fly is heard. It briefly breaks Walt’s con-
centration. It then lands on his calculation sheet. He tries to grab it with
his hand but misses.
We are now only six minutes into the entire episode. The majority of
the remaining time will involve Walt and Jessie trying to capture a fly.
Most of the remaining dialogue is from Walt, for whom the episode pro-
vides a major outlet for self-examination. Aside from the unknown work-
ers lining up at the time clock both earlier and later in the episode, Jesse
and Walt are the only two characters we see or hear in the entire episode.
In a way, the episode is a sort of dark and absurd two-character play.
After the fly lands on Walt’s calculation sheet, he becomes obsessed with
killing it. At first he chases it around the lab with his calculation sheet
rolled up into a fly swatter, but when the fly goes to the ceiling, he throws
his shoe at it and breaks a bulb. When he goes to retrieve his shoe from
the light fixture, he ends up falling from the upper-level lab to the lower
level in an effort to swat the fly with a broom. Lying on his back after the
fall, the fly then lands on his eyeglasses. The episode then cuts to the next
morning with the workers punching in.
When Jesse arrives at the lab the next morning, Walt says that the lab is
contaminated. Their absurd and comic dialogue goes like this:
This fly or any fly cannot be in our lab. It’s a problem. It’s a contamination.
And that is in no way a misuse of the word. Ok? So in terms of keeping our
cook clean and our product unadulterated we need to take this very seriously.
Do you understand?…I know this seems unusual for you, a layman. A fly it
150 J.R. DI LEO
Jesse wants to start cooking, but Walt will have nothing of it. The lab has
been contaminated, and until it is decontaminated, viz., the fly is dead,
there will be no cooking. In some of the best lines in the episode, Jesse
says to Walt,
We make poison for people who do not care. We probably have the most
unpicky customers in the world.
As a former meth head and dealer, Jesse knows the market firsthand.
However, remember that the meth they are producing is not just any old
home-cooked meth. Rather, it is a blue meth so pure that it has come to
dominate the Southwest meth market and landed the two of them a million-
dollar corporate production gig. But nevertheless, even in the world of cor-
porate, government-sanctioned, production of brand-name trademarked
products, there is some room for contamination. After all, says Jesse,
Even the government does not care that much about quality. Know what
it is ok to put in hot dogs? Pig lips and assholes. But I say have at it bitches
because I love hot dogs.
The political critique here set up by Jesse is outstanding. Whereas the gov-
ernment sanctions the production of contaminated legal goods, Walt (a
government outlaw) refuses to sanction the production of contaminated
illegal ones—even if it is poison (viz., meth).
For Jesse, the notion of contaminated poison is simply absurd as even
the government always already sanctions at some level the production of
contamination; for Walt, who sets himself and his world outside the con-
trol and sphere of the government, and who is governed only by the laws
of chemistry and the market that his product dominates, contamination—
even if it is only in the poison that he is producing—is unacceptable. This
is a hard jab at the state from two individuals who spend the entire series
on the run from the government and the state.
So, what about the pesky fly that Walt is so adamant about killing,
because it has contaminated his lab? What then does it represent? The
next sequence of events suggests the fly represents Jesse. Convinced that
Walt is losing it, Jesse decides to start cooking without Walt, who is lost in
BREAKING BAD 151
pursuing the fly anyway. In preparation for cooking, Jesse dons a ventila-
tion mask on top of his head. The vents on the mask are red so that when
the mask is worn on the top of his head, Jesse looks like a fly. The iconic
relationship of the two red vents with the two red eyes of the fly that filled
the screen in the opening sequence to the episode is unmistakable and
brilliant. If there were any doubt that Jesse is the fly, it is put to rest when
he tries to put sodium hydroxide into the vat and Walt swats him with his
homemade human-fly-sized swatter.
But if Jesse is the fly that is contaminating the lab and is driving Walt
to sleeplessness and distraction, how does Walt hope to resolve the situa-
tion? Remember Jesse only comes to work in Walt’s corporate lab under
extreme circumstances. He was nearly beaten to death by Hank though
at the time he was no longer in partnership with Walt. He is only brought
back into partnership in an attempt to keep him from exposing Walt’s true
identity to the authorities. Before Jesse drugs him in an effort to get him
to cease his manic pursuit of “the fly,” Walt says,
This fly is a major problem for us. It will ruin our batch. Now we need
to destroy it and every trace of it so we can cook. Failing that we’re dead.
There is no more room for error. Not with these people.
“These people” are Gus and the cartel that will not take kindly to find-
ing out that Jesse has been stealing some of their meth and dealing it on
the side. On one level, this is the “contamination” that Walt is obsessing
about. He refuses to confront Jesse about it directly earlier in the episode,
but near the end of the episode, when they finally leave the lab and are
about to go home, he does. When Jesse then denies skimming meth from
the lab, Walt says that he won’t be able to protect him from harm if he is
skimming it. Responds Jesse, “Who’s asking you to?”
In a way, Jesse’s response to being the “major problem” and a “con-
taminant” sets the stage for the rest of the series. Jesse will be Walt’s ruin.
He was already told this by Gus when he warned him against going into
partnership with a junkie. But Walt didn’t listen to him and now is wor-
rying about the consequences of “the Jesse contamination.” Says Walt to
Jessie, “If you are not going to help me, then stay out of my way.”
Much of Walt’s worry, tinged with guilt, is revealed in this episode, par-
ticularly after he is drugged by Jesse, who spikes his coffee with s leeping
pills in order to stop his fly swat mania. As the sleeping pills begin to
conquer Walt’s wakefulness, he starts to get deeply philosophical about
his life to date:
152 J.R. DI LEO
I missed it. There was some perfect moment that passed me right by. I had
to have enough to leave. That was the whole point. None of this makes
any sense if I did not have enough. But it had to be before she found out,
Skylar….
I’m saying I’ve lived too long. You want them to actually miss you. You
want their memories of you to be … but she just won’t understand. No mat-
ter how well I explain it. These days she just has this… no I truly believe that
there exists some combination of words. There must exist certain words in
a certain specific order that explain all of this but with her I can’t just ever
seem to find them….
I was thinking just before the fugue state I didn’t have enough money
so not then. And plus my daughter was not born yet. Holly was not born
yet. Definitely before the surgery. Ah Christ! Damn second cell phone! How
could I possibly? I know the moment. It was the night Jane died. I was at
home and we needed diapers so I said I would go but it was just an excuse.
Actually it was the night I brought you your money, remember?
Walt goes on to tell Jesse about his chance encounter with Jane Margolis’s
father, Donald, in a bar the night after he (Walt) watched her die of a
heroin overdose as she lay by Jesse’s side in their bed. Only after the plane
crash did he realize that the guy in the bar was the father of Jesse’s girl-
friend: the father, that is, of the girl he allowed to die. By not attempting
to save her, Walt as good as murdered her. All he needed to do was to
push her to the side so that she would not suffocate from her vomiting.
But he didn’t, and she died. While Walt comes close to telling Jesse that he
allowed her to die, he doesn’t. All he says to Jesse is that he is sorry about
Jane. Her death too is part of the contamination that Walt is battling.
Murder weighs on his subconscious along with all of the other evil actions
he has committed to keep his meth business in operation.
Nonetheless, in Walt’s mind it all comes down to numbers and calcu-
lations. The numbers and calculations that predict the odds of meeting
Donald in the bar that night; the odds of finding Jane dying on the bed
that night; of the two planes colliding over Albuquerque; of having ter-
minal lung cancer—and as a result cooking meth to purchase a future for
your family. Walt says to Jesse just before he falls to sleep,
Think of the odds. Once I tried to calculate them but they are astronomical.
Think of the odds of me going in sitting down that night in that bar next
to that man.
BREAKING BAD 153
Meanwhile the fly is still flying around and is staring down at them. Walt
says that the fly is not going to come down and will stay up there forever.
As he finally dozes off—and Jesse finally kills the fly—he tells Jesse that it’s
time to cook and that everything is contaminated.
The next morning, Walt is in bed, and the sound of a fly is heard. He
looks up and sees a flashing red light. There is then a cut to a close-up of
the flashing red light similar to the one from the opening sequence. The
shot of a flashing red light again fills the screen and then, for less than a
second, there is a shot of the red light with a fly on it. The camera then
focuses on Walt’s face—fearfully looking up at the fly sitting directly on
the flashing red light.6
At the close of this episode, we too, as educators, fearfully look at Walt
when we realize that he is a teacher who regards his former student and
business partner as a “contamination” that needs to be eliminated. We
may even wonder about our own breaking point under the strain of the
neoliberal academic condition. To be sure, there are no happy endings
for higher education under neoliberalism—only more pain and suffering.
Still, it takes a character such as Walter White to push the potential for this
unhappiness to its existential limit.
154 J.R. DI LEO
Flies in the Marketplace
I teach you the Superman. Man is something that should be overcome. What
have you done to overcome him?
All creatures hitherto have created something beyond themselves; and do
you want to be the ebb of this great tide, and return to the animals rather
than overcome man?
….
The Superman is the meaning of the earth. Let your will say: The
Superman shall be the meaning of the earth!
I entreat you, my brothers, remain true to the earth, and do not believe
those who speak to you of superterrestrial hopes! They are the poisoners,
whether they know it or not.
….
In truth, man is a polluted river. One must be a sea, to receive a polluted
river and not be defiled.
Behold, I teach you the Superman: he is this sea, in him your great con-
tempt can go under.7
To draw Walt into dialogue with Nietzsche’s Übermensch thus takes very
few steps: (1) The Superman is the meaning of the earth; (2) Chemistry
is the science of the fundamental elements of the earth and as such, more
than any other science approaches the meaning of the earth; (3) Walt as
a chemist deals with the meaning of the earth; (4) Therefore, Walt is the
Superman. The work he does in his lab to purify and perfect his meth
thus is the work of the Superman. The moment he becomes Heisenberg
is the self-same moment that comparisons with the Superman begin.
Remember, he dubbed himself Heisenberg in the presence of Tuco and
then used fulminated mercury to destroy his stash house. The only thing
that would have made this moment more explicitly Nietzschean is if he
had quoted this line from Zarathustra to Tuco before he did his chemical
explosion magic: “Behold, I am a prophet of the lightning and a heavy
drop from the cloud: but this lightning is called Superman.”8
Consequently, there is a very good textual basis upon which to draw
comparisons between Walter White and the philosophy of Nietzsche.
BREAKING BAD 155
The earth has become small, and upon it hops the Ultimate Man, who
makes everything so small. His race is as inexterminable as the flea; the
Ultimate Man lives longest.
“We have discovered happiness,” say the Ultimate Men and blink.
They have left places where living was hard; for one needs warmth. One
still loves one’s neighbour and rubs oneself against him: for one needs
warmth.
Sickness and mistrust count as sins with them: one should go about
warily. He is a fool who still stumbles over stones or over men!
A little poison now and then: that produces pleasant dreams. And a lot of
poison at last, for a pleasant death.10
Isn’t Walt after all the man who makes the “poison”?
Regardless of the direction one takes in bringing about a dialogue
between the philosophy of Nietzsche and the series, there is an important,
and suggestive, connection between the two. And nowhere is this more
apparent than the “Fly” episode of Breaking Bad.
One of the “Discourses” of Nietzsche’s Zarathustra is entitled “Of the
Flies in the Market-place.” It opens as follows:
Flee, my friend, into your solitude! I see you deafened by the uproar of the
great men and pricked by the stings of the small ones.
Forest and rock know well to be silent with you. Be like the tree again,
the wide-branching tree that you love: calmly and attentively it leans out
over the sea.
Where solitude ceases, the market-place begins; and where the market-
place begins, there begins the uproar of the great actors and the buzzing of
poisonous flies.11
The connections between this “Discourse” and the “Fly” episode are
uncanny and richly suggestive. The “solitude” that Walt flees into is his
meth lab. It is precisely the place where the voices from the marketplace
156 J.R. DI LEO
have no place and are not welcome. The lab is Walt’s sanctuary of solitude
where he is safe from the “buzzing of poisonous flies.” But somehow, one
manages to get in. What then to do?
Nietzsche’s response is clear and emphatic:
No longer list your arm against them! They are innumerable and it is not
your fate to be a fly-swat.
Innumerable are these small and pitiable men; and raindrops and weeds
have already brought about the destruction of many a proud building.
You are no stone, but already these many drops have made you hollow.
You will yet break and burst apart through these many drops.
I see you wearied by poisonous flies, I see you bloodily torn in a hundred
places; and your pride refuses even to be angry.12
But Walt, of course, has not taken Nietzsche’s advice about the “flies of
the marketplace.”
Rather than not listing his arm against them, he tries to swat them—
and kill them all.
Yes, my friend, you are a bad conscience to your neighbours: for they are
unworthy of you. Thus they hate you and would dearly like to suck your
blood.
Your neighbours will always be poisonous flies: that about you which is
great, that itself must make them more poisonous and ever more fly-like.
Flee, my friend, into your solitude and to where the raw rough breeze
blows! It is not your fate to be a fly-swat.13
So, to call Jesse “the fly” is not quite accurate in light of Nietzsche’s dis-
course. While he is representative of the poisonous voices of the market-
place, he is not the only one.
In his commentary on Nietzsche’s Zarathustra, C. G. Jung comments
that “swarms of flies are poison in the air, so it [the flies] might mean the
thoughts that are flying about, the rumors, the newspapers, or a slogan of
the day.”14 In spite of the children’s saying that “sticks and stone will break
my bones but words will never hurt me,” Nietzsche seems to be saying
that words do hurt. Jung goes so far as to say that “it is an almost mortal
danger to expose oneself to the flies of the marketplace.”15 Arguably, this
is precisely Walt’s fate.
In the final episodes of the series, Walt is holed up in solitude and seclu-
sion in the woods of New Hampshire. He is told that he cannot go into
BREAKING BAD 157
the neighboring town for his identity could be revealed. After some time
in total solitude, he goes to town anyway to mail a box of cash to his son
though he finds out in a phone call that his son does not want his money.
Sitting at the bar licking his wounds from the hatred his son now has for
him, Walt sees Elliott and Gretchen Schwartz on television spreading false
rumors about him. This seems to be the tipping point that takes him out
of his solitude—and leads him to his death by gunshot a short while later.
A Neoliberal Man
The parallels between the “Fly” episode and Zarathustra’s discourse on
“Of the Flies in the Market-place” help draw the series into a rich his-
torical conversation with one of the most important philosophers of the
nineteenth century. Arguably, the fly Walt is chasing in this episode is all of
those voices in the marketplace that are distracting him from his solitude
and his chemistry. Walt’s struggle to free his mind from the rumors and
thoughts of others is a key dimension of his ability to think and act on a
different level, specifically, the level of “Heisenberg”—and the Superman.
Nietzsche’s “Flies” gives us a historical context in which to situate this
somewhat unusual episode of Breaking Bad. If followed further into phil-
osophical history, the episode might also be connected with Jean-Paul
Sartre’s play The Flies (Les Mouches; 1943) which both draws on Nietzsche
as well as the Electra myth of the ancient Greek playwrights Aeschylus,
Euripides, and Sophocles. Another, though somewhat distant philosophi-
cal reading, could also take it into a Wittgensteinian direction, after all, the
aim of philosophy for Ludwig Wittgenstein is “to shew the fly the way out
of the fly-bottle.”16 Also, Walt’s admission
I truly believe that there exists some combination of words. There must
exist certain words in a certain specific order that explain all of this but with
her I can’t just ever seem to find them
Couple this with Walt’s healthcare woes, his underemployment and low
pay as a high school chemistry teacher, and his approach to his family’s
financial future, and it is easier to see Breaking Bad as a series more about
finance, rather than flies—more about neoliberalism than Nietzsche.
Though the concern of this book are the changes to identity and con-
duct in higher education wrought by neoliberalism, it must not be forgot-
ten that neoliberalism is recalibrating more than just academic identity.
It is also recalibrating American identity in general and Breaking Bad is
arguably a commentary on the changes it has brought to our way of life.
Again, the story of the decline and fall of Walter White at the hands of
neoliberalism might be viewed as the story of the neoliberal man in gen-
eral, or a parable of the fate of the neoliberal academic. There is room for
both in a series tempered by magical neoliberal realism.
The promise (or illusion) of neoliberalism was that it would allow
everyone the opportunity to be a shareholder, an owner, and an entrepre-
neur.17 The rise of the information and knowledge society over the past 40
years afforded the United States an unprecedented vantage point within
this new economy. As knowledge production and information dissemina-
tion is an integral part of education, it emerged as a major stakeholder in
this new economy.
As a graduate student in chemistry who was responsible for knowl-
edge production with Elliott and Gretchen Schwartz, Walt participated
in the promise of neoliberalism. However, when Gretchen chose to be
with Elliott over Walt, and Walt abandoned being a shareholder in their
knowledge production, the promise of neoliberalism was lost for Walt.
But in this way, Walt’s fate within the world view of neoliberalism was not
unusual because for many in America this new economy quickly faded
away and was replaced by a much more vicious one: the debt economy.
Like its predecessor, the knowledge economy, the debt economy is a
derivation of neoliberal policies. The “indebted man”18 that emerges out
of the intensification of neoliberalism is a docile subject. Think Walter
White strapped with lung cancer and no way to pay for its treatment—let
alone provide for the financial future of his family. But the power of the
neoliberal vision of Breaking Bad is that it provides a commentary on both
the fortunes of the “indebted man” (Walter White) and the “entrepre-
neurial man” (Heisenberg).
Walt is able to break out of the world of neoliberalism’s indebted man
by becoming again an entrepreneurial one. However, as the knowledge
economy is long gone, and the world is strapped with the debt of an
BREAKING BAD 159
a good state college, adjusting for inflation, say $45,000 a year, say two kids,
four years of college, $360,000. The remaining mortgage on the home,
$107,000, home equity line $30,000, that’s $137,000. Cost of living, food,
clothing, utilities, say two grand a month—I mean that should put a dent in
it anyway. 24k a year, provide for, say, ten years, that’s $240,000, plus 360
plus 137. 737. Seven hundred and thirty thousand dollars, that’s what I
need. You and I both clear about seventy grand a week. That’s only ten and
a half more weeks. Call it 11. Eleven more drug deals and always in a public
space from now on. It’s doable. Definitely doable.
At this moment, with this line of contemplation, Walt exemplifies the epit-
ome of neoliberalism’s entrepreneurial man. He has calculated the precise
amount of money he needs to fulfill his neoliberal fantasies. Moreover, he
will use this calculation to justify the lying and violence required to acquire
the requisite monies.
What is beautiful about this passage is not just the neoliberal effort to
place a financial number on his family’s future happiness and welfare, but
the comment that their drug deals are “always in a public space from now
on.” This is the public space of Nietzsche’s “market-place”—the space
of blood-sucking poisonous flies. It is also the lifeblood of neoliberalism:
there is no neoliberalism outside of the marketplace.
160 J.R. DI LEO
Conclusion
Neoliberalism only brings despair. Breaking Bad does a fine job of reveal-
ing this not only for its indebted man, but also for its entrepreneurial man.
Heisenberg as neoliberalism’s entrepreneurial man ruthlessly pursues the
meth marketplace without regard to the lives he is destroying through the
“poison” he distributes or the consequences to the people he allegedly
loves and cares about, namely, his family.
The “Fly” episode in dialogue with Nietzsche (and perhaps Sartre too)
allows us to both give a philosophical context for its somewhat puzzling
scenario (Walt chasing a fly) and to draw it into its more contemporary
context: neoliberalism. In many ways, the neoliberal man is the return of
the existential man who was both responsible for his freedom and—in
turn—guilty for his fate. And Nietzsche of course is widely attributed as
being one the first proponents of existentialism.19 However, unlike the
existential man whose “hell” was other people, for example, the flies of the
marketplace, the indebted man’s hell are his creditors, or more precisely,
his debt—and the entrepreneurial man’s hell is located in the depths he
will go to pursue the wealth of the market. While the entrepreneurial man’s
entire social existence is defined by economic and/or social exchange,
the indebted man’s social existence is demarcated by debt, or, alternately,
credit. For neoliberalism’s entrepreneurial man, equality of exchange was
the groundwork of his identity. Economic and symbolic exchange for him
was predicated on some notion of equality. Such, however, is not the case
for the indebted man—a type of existence wherein equality (and sym-
metry) of exchange has given way to the inequalities (and asymmetries)
of the debt/credit relationship. Whereas neoliberalism’s entrepreneurial
man held out the promise of profit, Breaking Bad does an excellent job at
asking “Yes, but at what cost?” In view of this, the perils of debt suffered
by the “indebted man” are but only one-half of the human damage of
neoliberalism.
Perhaps though, given the role of economics and the marketplace in
Breaking Bad, it would be better to pursue the series not through the
lens of Zarathustra, but through that of Nietzsche’s economic thought.
Though not a topic where he made major contributions, Nietzsche did
have “deep insights into why and how man can be a homo oeconomicus.”20
In particular, in On the Genealogy of Morals, where he connected man’s
ability to keep promises with economic progress. One commentator sum-
marizes his economic work in Genealogy as follows:
BREAKING BAD 161
Man is defined as that animal which can make and keep promises. He sees
this as the basic and most important moral achievement attained by man-
kind, an achievement that is even more surprising in that man also has a
strong tendency to forget. This insight is at the heart of the concept of
cognitive dissonance. By being able to make believable promises, man is
creating a link between the present and the future through a process of the
division of labour. The promise entails an exchange which is not constrained
to take place simultaneously and at the same time; this form of barter we can
also observe in animal societies. Instead, the promise allows for an exchange
of goods or services in the present in return for equivalent goods or ser-
vices in the future. This is the basis for such economic activities as saving,
investment, credit and bequest. If any one of these institutions is lacking,
economic progress can hardly take place.21
Walt too makes a promise that creates a link between the present and the
future when he makes the decision to exchange goods and services now
(meth production and distribution) for equivalent goods and services in
the future (his family’s financial future after his death). After all, he is
adamant for most of the series that he is cooking meth only to provide a
future for his family. It is only when they all reject this form of economic
progress that he admits that all of his actions were about him—not his
family’s future. Perhaps the reason he fails to make economic progress
in the series (viz., exchange goods or services in the present in return for
equivalent goods or services in the future) is that flies of the marketplace
become his undoing.
What then will be the undoing of the neoliberal man and woman of
higher education today? Have we decided to exchange goods and services
(education production and distribution) for equivalent goods and services
in the future? If so, what are those equivalent future goods and services?
Are they similar to Walt’s? Are they related to a financial future for our-
selves or others? To compare cooking meth to the cooking classes of the
vocational school telos of the corporate university is brutal. It is even more
brutal though to imagine cooking as a substitute for various other corpo-
rate education endeavors.
As the university itself and the individuals within it seem to be no better
off financially under neoliberalism than under its former models of man-
agement, when will we conclude like Walt that we have failed to live up
to the dreams of neoliberalism in academe? When will we conclude that
under neoliberalism we have failed to make both economic progress and
educational progress—and that it is time to move beyond the neoliberal
162 J.R. DI LEO
Notes
1. For a fuller account of the uses of visual media, particularly film, in philoso-
phy, see my From Socrates to Cinema: An Introduction to Philosophy (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2007).
2. Reported by Michelle Kuo and Albert Wu in their article, “In Hell, ‘We Shall
Be Free’: On ‘Breaking Bad,’” Los Angeles Review of Books (12 July 2012).
http://lareviewofbooks.org/essay/in-hell-we-shall-be-free-on-
breaking-bad#
3. Fyodor Dostoevky’s The Brothers Karamazov, for example, was published
in 16 installments in The Russian Herald over a period of almost two years,
January 1879 to November 1880. The similarities (and differences) of the
poetics of novel print serialization and the poetics of television/cable seri-
alization, particularly for philosophically rich series like Mad Men or The
Sopranos, are great topics for further inquiry though is well beyond the
scope of this chapter. For a good introduction to the serial publication and
its poetics, see William Mills Todd’s “The Brothers Karamozov and the
Poetics of Serial Publication,” Dostoevsky Studies 7 (1986). http://www.
utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/07/087.shtml
4. Season 3, Episode 10. Overall, “Fly” is the 30th episode of 62 in the series.
5. See Chapter 7, “Punch the Clock.”
6. By a wonderful coincidence, almost a decade earlier, Bryan Cranston acted
in a similar episode of another series, Malcolm in the Middle. In Season 7,
Episode 5 (2005), Hal (played by Cranston) battles an angry bee that is
attacking him for destroying a beehive. The episode ends with Hal and the
bee engaged in a car chase where Hal is trying to run the bee off the road
with his car and the bee is attacking the car causing it to swerve. Hal, see-
ing the bee land on a concrete wall, then smashes his car into the wall in
order to kill the bee. This particular episode was the 134th of the long-
running, highly successful, series.
7. Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book For Everyone and No
One, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Penguin Books, 1969), Prologue,
Section 3; 41.
8. Ibid., Prologue, Section 4; 45.
BREAKING BAD 163
to move beyond neoliberal academe, which is, after all, our ultimate goal.
Therefore, we need to stop calling the neoliberal condition in academe a
“crisis”—and get down to the hard work of critique and reform.
One way to critique the neoliberal condition is to use its own measures
against it. Another is to take measure of its own measures. Or, following
Judith Butler, to call for a “measure for measure.”1 To ask, for instance,
how do we measure two of the main measures of neoliberalism, austerity
and transparency, is one of the more effective ways to critique the neolib-
eral condition. To do so involves examining both the way these measures
currently function in the academy and how they functioned in the past.
By carrying out this measure of measure, we can better separate what is
pernicious and painful in these measures from what, if anything, is produc-
tive and progressive. But measuring these measures is not always an easy
endeavor or straightforward process.
For example, taking measure of the neoliberal mainstay, austerity, is not
as simple as just rejecting it. Austerity has a long history with and connec-
tion to the academy. Well before the neoliberal academy adopted it as the
measure of responsible academic conduct, austerity shaped the conduct of
academics through its role as an emotional and moral imperative. Thus,
for some, austerity is nothing more or less than a long-standing feature
of academic identity and conduct. However, for others, particularly those
who directly associate austerity with the neoliberal condition, its use as a
measure of higher education run well is highly problematic. For critics of
austerity, the moral and emotional effects of it under neoliberalism have
been amplified to the point where the consequence is an unhealthy aca-
demic environment. Under neoliberalism, economic austerity joins forces
with emotional austerity. The result is that higher education’s emotional
needs are sacrificed in the pursuit of its new economic demands.
When the neoliberal condition in higher education is viewed from both
the perspective of the confluence of emotional and economic austerity,
and its failure to promote critical citizenship and democratic education,
arguments in favor of its rejection are only bolstered and the need to work
toward an alternative educational praxis is heightened. In other words, by
measuring one of the key measures of neoliberal academe—austerity—we
have turned it into a powerful force to be used against neoliberal academe
rather than for it. This is part of the critical magic of measuring the mea-
sures of neoliberal academe, namely, that by measuring them we can often
find ways of turning neoliberal academe against itself.
CODA 167
identity and conduct. Ironically, it may not be the more discussed and
criticized instrumental or vocational ends of neoliberal academe that bring
it down, but rather the less examined misery it brings to its participants.
Not only do we need to demand a role for pleasure in higher educa-
tion, but we also need to hold the academy responsible for its production.
We need to ask how should we organize the academy such that students,
faculty, and administrators can optimize enjoyment, rather than merely
pursue operational models such as neoliberalism that strip pleasure from it
or ignore its vital role. The pursuit of academic hedonism may seem like
an extreme proposal until one realizes how antithetical it is to the ends of
neoliberal academe. Why then not pursue it as a way to move beyond the
neoliberal academy?
Change in academe can occur only if there are individuals or groups
that have the courage and vision to think differently about it, while it
is preferable that change in the academy is driven by its own members,
that is, those that know it best and have the closest relationship with it.
Nonetheless, it may have to be driven by those outside of the academy,
particularly if individuals and groups within the academy are fearful or
anxious about upsetting the system of academe. The fearfulness or anx-
iousness of those within academe is not so much a character flaw as it
is the fact that they share an academic habitus, which is something that
strongly works against the impetus for change. Drawing on the work of
Pierre Bourdieu, widely held social dispositions and cognitive structures
that generate perceptions, appreciations, and actions in academe, or aca-
demic habitus, work to normalize academic life—not to change or critique
it.3 This is part of the reason why academic change is much easier to talk
about than accomplish.
One of the common characteristics of most who survive, if not also
thrive, in academy is that over the long run they share a habitus. Again,
as Louis Menand has rightly said, “Professors tend increasingly to think
alike, because the profession is increasingly self-selecting.”4 To test this
proposition, just imagine one of your colleagues advocating “academic
hedonism” from within the parameters of the neoliberal condition. How
long do you think they would be around?
“The university may not explicitly require conformity on more than
scholarly matters,” writes Menand, “but the existing system implicitly
demands and constructs it.”5 To be sure, the easiest path to a short career
in higher education is to think and act against the grain of academic habi-
tus. Conversely, adapting to the habitus of academe provides one with
CODA 169
a greater chance of not being selected from the group. Not a guarantee
for survival, but much greater odds than those who refuse to accept aca-
deme’s habitus.
Habitus helps us to understand why academic change is so slow; it also
gives us a clue as to how to effect change. One of the most effective ways
to bring about change in the academy comes from having the courage
of conviction to act and think differently even though one knows that
to do so puts their academic career at risk, that is, puts them at risk of
elimination from the system. This is important to recognize because the
neoliberal condition is not going to just go away. Change requires acts of
resistance from determined and committed agents who refuse to be the
docile subjects favored by the neoliberal academy.
But agent-centered resistance may be for naught if data-centered edu-
cation has its way within the academy. As the handmaiden of neoliberal-
ism, big data has become the tool of choice for neoliberal culture and has
contributed greatly to its rise to power. Neoliberal culture benefits directly
from the numbers generated through digital devices such as smartphones,
bar code scanners, drones, computers, and even fitness trackers. The data
generated from these and other devices allows neoliberal culture to have a
more commanding sense of the market and firmer hold over politics and
society—and now education.
The growth of data sets has led to increasing confidence that this data
can be more effectively and efficiently deployed to advance the aims of the
neoliberal academy. If the prophets of big data have their way, then the
university will become an anachronism replaced by big data educational
centers. Imagine, if you will, cloud-based educational centers complete
with Google libraries, Google books, and Google scholars. In the eyes of
big data, Google U is not a dystopian dream—it is our educational future.
Lost in the operational logic of the neoliberal academic machine are not
only the interests of faculty, but also those of students. The most obvious
place where character and identity are being affected by the neoliberal
condition is with regard to student debt. Though there has been support
for debt amnesty and “clean slates” for students, debt refusal has another
sense that is less popular among progressive critics. This involves encour-
aging students to not take on debt in any form, especially educational
debt.
While students, for example, who have been subject to predatory lend-
ing practices by unscrupulous for-profit institutions must be cared for, so
too must students who have not yet descended into the downward spiral
170 CODA
of debt. Debt refusal includes both refusing to take on debt in the first
place and pursuing amnesty programs for students that have been sub-
ject to predatory practices. Encouraging students to not take on financial
responsibility that has the potential to negatively impact their future is to
ask them to adopt a more critical position to debt in general and educa-
tional debt in particular.
For students from the working class, while higher education has always
involved some financial burdens, they were never as extreme as they are
today. The compensating value for debt accumulation and financial bur-
den for the working-class student used to be that the world of higher
education was supposed to be everything that the world of the working
class was not. The university, for the working-class student, was an “ivory
tower” that held the potential of freedom from working-class life. But all
of this has changed.
One of the unintended consequences of laying bare the conditions of
academic life and demystifying the university was ending the working-class
dream of college as a way out of the working-class way of life. Parents of
working-class students and their parents saw higher education as a way to
avoid their own way of life in favor of a better one. Today, however, in spite
of graduating from college and thus fulfilling one of the allegedly sufficient
conditions for exit from the working class, many working-class college
graduates are still part of the working class. Massive debt is the other major
difference between today’s working-class college graduates and those from
past generations. For today’s working-class students, the prospect of a lack
of class ascendency and the burden of debt makes the pursuit of higher
education sadly feel more and more like a discouraging proposition than
an encouraging one. Or, for that matter, makes the prospect of the pursuit
of higher education more of a disempowering one than an empowering one.
Resistance to neoliberal academe must come from all quarters of higher
education. As such, while it is important for students and faculty to pro-
vide push-back, it is just as important to enlist administration in the resis-
tance. But this will not happen if the perception persists that university
administration in the age of neoliberalism is always already co-opted by its
protocols and is prohibited from acting in violation of them. Why? Because
individuals that have a progressive vision of higher education and activist
tendencies will refuse to be recruited into positions where they cannot
work to rectify the negative effects of the neoliberal condition. Faculty and
students may be able to pull academe out of the neoliberal abyss, but it
will be a whole lot easier with the backing of activist administration.
CODA 171
Notes
1. Judith Butler, et al., “Concluding Discussion,” The Humanities and Public
Life, ed. Peter Brooks with Hilary Jewett (New York: Fordham University
Press, 2014), 147.
2. Immanuel Kant, “To Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch,” Perpetual
Peace and Other Essays, trans. Ted Humphrey (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett
Publishing Company, 1988).
3. For development of this position, see Pierre Bourdieu, Homo Academicus
(Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit, 1984).
4. Louis Menand, The Marketplace of Ideas: Reform and Resistance in the
American University (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010), 155.
5. Ibid., 155.
6. I also present my case against neoliberal academe in Corporate Humanities
in Higher Education: Moving Beyond the Neoliberal Academy (New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) and along with Henry Giroux, Sophia
A. McClennen, and Kenneth J. Saltman in our co-authored Neoliberalism,
Education, and Terrorism: Contemporary Dialogues (Boulder, CO:
Paradigm Publishers, 2013).
About the Author
Jeffrey R. Di Leo is the Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences and a
Professor of English and Philosophy at the University of Houston-Victoria.
He is the editor and founder of the critical theory journal symplokē, the edi-
tor and publisher of the American Book Review, and the Executive Director
of the Society for Critical Exchange. His books include Morality Matters:
Race, Class and Gender in Applied Ethics (2002), Affiliations: Identity in
Academic Culture (2003), On Anthologies: Politics and Pedagogy (2004),
If Classrooms Matter: Progressive Visions of Educational Environments
(2004, with W. Jacobs), From Socrates to Cinema: An Introduction to
Philosophy (2007), Fiction’s Present: Situating Contemporary Narrative
Innovation (2008, with R. M. Berry), Federman’s Fictions: Innovation,
Theory, and the Holocaust (2010), Academe Degree Zero: Reconsidering
the Politics of Higher Education (2012), Neoliberalism, Education, and
Terrorism: Contemporary Dialogues (2013, with H. Giroux, K. Saltman,
and S. McClennen), Corporate Humanities in Higher Education: Moving
Beyond the Neoliberal Academy (2013), Turning the Page: Book Culture
in the Digital Age (2014), Criticism after Critique: Aesthetics, Literature,
and the Political (2014), The New Public Intellectual: Politics, Theory, and
the Public Sphere (2016, with P. Hitchcock), and Dead Theory: Derrida,
Death, and the Afterlife of Theory (2016).
“Adolph Reed speaks about Free Higher Education.” Press release for the
University of Massachusetts Amherst. 15 October 2007.
Anderson, Chris. “The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific
Method Obsolete.” Wired (23 June 2008). http://www.wired.com/2008/06/
pb-theory/
_____. “Search and Destroy.” Interview with Brook Gladstone. National Public
Radio. 18 July 2008. http://www.onthemedia.org/story/1130967-search-
and-destroy/transcript/
Aristotle. The Basic Works of Aristotle. Ed. Richard McKeon. New York: Random
House, 1941.
Auletta, Ken. Googled: The End of the World as We Know It. New York: Penguin
Press, 2009.
Backhaus, Jürgen G. “The Word of Honour.” In Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900):
Economy and Society. Eds. Jürgen G. Backhaus and Wolfgang Drechsler.
New York: Springer, 2006. 87–110.
Balko, Radley. “Surprise! NSA Data Will Soon Be Routinely Used for Domestic
Policing that Has Nothing to Do with Terrorism.” The Washington Post (10
March 2016).
Barthes, Roland. The Pleasure of the Text. Trans. Richard Miller. With a Note on
the Text by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 1975.
_____. Le Plaisir du texte. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1973.
Baume, Sandrine. “Does Transparency Engender the Confidence of the Governed?
A Contribution to Political Thought.” Economics and Other Branches—In the
Shade of the Oak Tree: Essays in Honour of Pascal Bridel. Eds. Roberto Baranzini
and François Allisson. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2014. 425–434.
Curtis, John W. and Saranna Thornton. “Losing Focus: The Annual Report on
the Economic Status of the Profession, 2013–14.” Academe 100 (March–April
2014): 4–17.
“Cyrenaics.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Eleventh Edition. Vol. VII. New York: The
Encyclopedia Britannica Company, 1910. 703–704.
Darnton, Robert. “A Star Is Born.” New York Review of Books (27 October 1988).
http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1988/oct/27/a-star-is-born/
Davies, Bronwyn, Michael Gottsche, and Peter Bansel. “The Rise and Fall of the
Neoliberal University.” European Journal of Education 41.2 (2006): 305–319.
Davies, William. The Happiness Industry: How the Government and Big Business
Sold Us Well-Being. New York: Verso, 2015.
DeNavas-Walt, Carmen and Bernadette D. Proctor. “Appendix B. Estimates of
Poverty.” In “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2013.” U.S. Census
Bureau (September 2014). http://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/
library/publications/2014/demo/p60-249.pdf
Digest of Education Statistics, 2012 (NCES 2014–015). U.S. Department of
Education. National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). http://nces.
ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=76
Digest of Education Statistics. National Center for Education Statistics.
Table 330.10. http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_
330.10.asp
Di Leo, Jeffrey R. Academe Degree Zero: Reconsidering the Politics of Higher
Education. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2011.
_____. Affiliations: Identity in Academic Culture. Edited with an introductory
essay. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2003.
_____. Corporate Humanities in Higher Education: Moving Beyond the Neoliberal
Academy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
_____. Dead Theory: Derrida, Death, and the Afterlife of Theory. Edited with an
introductory essay. London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2016.
_____. From Socrates to Cinema: An Introduction to Philosophy. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
_____. “In Praise of Tough Criticism.” The Chronicle Review, Chronicle of Higher
Education, section B (18 June 2010): B4–B5.
_____. “On Academic Terrorism: Neoliberalism, Higher Education, and the
Politics of Emotion.” In Neoliberalism, Education, Terrorism: Contemporary
Dialogues. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2013. 115–134.
_____. “Review of Charlotte Bloch, Passion and Paranoia.” The British Journal of
Sociology 65.3 (2014): 583–585.
_____. “Shame in Academe: On the Politics of Emotion in Academic Culture.”
Academe Degree Zero: Reconsidering the Politics of Higher Education. Boulder,
CO: Paradigm, 2011. 33–42.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 179
Freud, Sigmund. “The ‘Uncanny [1919].’” Collected Papers, Volume IV: Papers on
Metapsychology; Papers on Applied Psycho-Analysis. Authorized translation under
the supervision of Joan Riviere. Fourth impression. London: The Hogarth
Press, 1948. 368–407.
_____. “Anxiety and Instinctual Life.” In New Introductory Lectures on
Psychoanalysis. Lecture XXXII. Trans. and Ed., James Strachey. New York:
W. W. Norton & Company, 1965. 81–111.
Frykholm, Erin and Donald Rutherford. “Hedonism and Virtue.” In The Oxford
Handbook of British Philosophy in the Seventeenth Century. Ed. Peter R. Anstey.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. 415–439.
Gantt, Edwin. “Cognitive Psychology, Rationality, and the Assumption of
Hedonism.” The General Psychologist 35.3 (2000): 82–86.
Giroux, Henry. Neoliberalism’s War on Higher Education. Chicago: Haymarket
Books, 2014.
_____. The Terror of Neoliberalism: Authoritarianism and the Eclipse of Democracy.
Boulder: Paradigm, 2004.
“Google Lets Us Look into Its Search and Translation Technology.” Heise Online
(March 5, 2008). http://radar.oreilly.com/2008/03/etech-2008-coverage-
roundup.html
Gosling, Justin and Christopher Taylor. The Greeks on Pleasure. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1982.
Grendler, Paul. The Humanities in the Italian Renaissance. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2003.
Grossberg, Lawrence, Cary Nelson, and Paula A. Treichler, eds. Cultural Studies.
New York: Routledge, 1992.
Hacker, Andrew and Claudia Dreifus. Higher Education? How Colleges Are Wasting
Our Money and Failing Our Kids—And What We Can Do About It. New York:
Times Books/Henry Holt, 2010.
Halevy, Alon, Peter Norvig, and Fernando Pereira. “The Unreasonable
Effectiveness of Data.” IEEE Intelligent Systems (March/April 2009): 8–12.
http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_intelligent/intelligent/
homepage/2009/2exp.pdf
Hankins, James, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Philosophy.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Hanson, Norwood Russell. Patterns of Discovery. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1958.
Harvey, David. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2005.
Hilbert, Martin and Pricilla López. “The World’s Technological Capacity to Store,
Communicate, and Compute Information.” Science 1 (April 2011): 60–65.
_____. “How to Measure the World’s Technological Capacity to Communicate,
Store and Compute Information?” International Journal of Communication
(2012): 1042–55.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 181
blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/10/12/imf-austerity-is-much-worse-
for-the-economy-than-we-thought/
Postsecondary Education Commission. “Frequently Asked Questions.” CA.gov.
http://www.cpec.ca.gov/SecondPages/FAQ.asp?Category=13
Reed, Adolph L., Jr. “Majoring in Debt.” January 2004. http://www.progressive.
org/news/2007/07/5072/majoring-debt
Quine, W. V. O. “Reference and Modality.” From a Logical Point of View. Second
rev. ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964. 139–159.
Richir, Marc. “Révolution et transparence sociale.” In Johann Gottlieb Fichte,
Considérations sur la Révolution française [1793]. Paris: Payot, 1989. 7–74.
Riker, William H. “Political Science and Rational Choice.” In Perspectives on
Positive Political Economy. Eds. James Alt and Kenneth Shepsle. Cambridge,
MA: Cambridge University Press, 1990. 163–181.
Rivard, Ry. “Power of the Wisconsin Idea.” Inside Higher Ed (5 February 2015).
www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/02/05/drafting-error-or-gubernatorial-
assault-expansive-view-higher-ed-wisconsin
Ross, Andrew. “Payback’s a Bitch.” Chronicle of Higher Education (12 December
2014): B4–B5.
_____. Creditocracy: And the Case for Debt Refusal. New York and London: OR
Books, 2013.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Trans. with an
intro., J. M. Cohen. New York: Penguin, 1953.
Rule, J. B. Theory and Progress in Social Science. Cambridge UP, 1997.
Russell, Bertrand. “On Denoting [1905].” Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950.
Ed. R. C. Marsh. London: Allen & Unwin, 1956. 41–56.
Samuels, Robert. Why Public Education Should Be Free: How to Decrease Cost and
Increase Quality at American Universities. New Brunswick: Rutgers University
Press, 2013.
Savage, Charlie. “Obama Administration Set to Expand Sharing of Data That
N.S.A. Intercepts.” The New York Times (25 February 2016).
Schäfer, Armin and Wolfgang Streek. “Introduction: Politics in the Age of
Austerity.” Politics in the Age of Austerity. Eds. Armin Schäfer and Wolfgang
Streek. Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2013. 1–25.
Schaler, Jeffrey A., ed. Peter Singer Under Fire: The Moral Iconoclast Faces His
Critics. Peru, IL: Open Court, 2009.
Scott, John Paul. “Biological Basis of Human Warfare: An Interdisciplinary
Problem.” In Interdisciplinary Relationships in the Social Sciences. Eds. Muzafer
Sherif and Carolyn W. Sherif. Chicago: Adeline, 1969. 121–136.
Sidgwick, Henry. Methods of Ethics [1907], Seventh Edition. New York: Dover,
1966.
_____. Outlines of the History of Ethics, Fifth Edition. Indianapolis: Hackett Classics,
1988.
184 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Smith, Helena. “Greek Police Face Investigation after Protest Violence.” The
Guardian (1 July 2011). http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/01/
greek-police-investigation-protest-violence
Starobinski, Jean. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction [Jean-
Jacques Rousseau: La transparence et l’obstacle, 1971]. Trans. Arthur
Goldhammer. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1988.
Steuerle, C. Eugene. “Financing the American State at the Turn of the Century.”
In Funding the Modern American State, 1941–1995. Ed. W. Elliot Brownlee.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 409–444.
Streeck, Wolfgang and Daniel Mertens. “Public Finance and the Decline of State
Capacity.” Politics in the Age of Austerity. Eds. Armin Schäfer and Wolfgang
Streek. Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2013. 26–58.
Striker, Gisela. “Epicurean Hedonism.” In Passions and Perceptions: Studies in
Hellenistic Philosophy of Mind. Eds. Jacques Brunschwig and Martha Nussbaum.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. 3–17.
Stuckler, David and Sanjay Basu. The Body Politic: Why Austerity Kills. New York:
Basic Books, 2013.
_____. “How Austerity Kills.” The New York Times (12 May 2013). http://www.
nytimes.com/2013/05/13/opinion/how-austerity-kills.
html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
Sussman, Henry, ed. Impasses of the Post-Global: Theory in the Era of Climate
Change. Vol. 2. Ann Arbor, MI: Open Humanities, 2012.
“The College Board’s ‘Annual Survey of Colleges 2014.’” Chronicle of Higher
Education (14 November 2014): A6. Print.
“The Petabyte Age: Because More Isn’t Just More—More Is Different.” Wired
Magazine (23 June 2008). http://www.wired.com/2008/06/pb-intro/
Todd, William Mills. “The Brothers Karamozov and the Poetics of Serial
Publication.” Dostoevsky Studies 7 (1986). http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/
DS/07/087.shtml
Vaughan, Frederick. The Tradition of Political Hedonism: From Hobbes to J. S. Mill.
New York: Fordham University Press, 1982.
United States Census Bureau. U.S. and World Population Clock. January 30,
2015. http://www.census.gov/popclock/
United States Census Bureau. International Programs. January 30, 2015. http://
www.census.gov/population/international/data/countryrank/rank.php
Vine, Ian. “Altruism and Human Nature: Resolving the Evolutionary Paradox.”
In Embracing the Other: Philosophical, Psychological, and Historical Perspectives
on Altruism. Pearl M. Oliner, Samuel P. Oliner, Lawrence Baron, Lawrence
A. Blum, Dennis L. Krebs, and M. Zuzanna Smolenska. New York: New York
University Press, 1992.
Waal, Helge and Jørg Møreland. “Addiction as Impeded Rationality.” In
Addictions: Entries and Exits. Ed. Jon Elster. New York: Russell Sage
Foundation, 1999. 120–147.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 185
C E
California higher education system, 103 easy financing, 2, 3
Chicago School of economics, xviii, xx economic mobility. See also working-
Chronicle of Higher Education, xi, 50 class families
consumerism, xxi and graduate degrees, 119
Cooper, John, 60n20 lack of mobility, 96, 116,
“crisis,” xi–xxiii, 14, 165, 166 119–21, 170
critical dialogue, 124 through higher education, 96, 98–9,
critical exchange, xiv, 64, 124 111, 115–17, 119
critical inquiry, 57, 87, 143 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 17n7
critical university studies, 121n3 elitism, 38
critique, xvii, xix, xxii, 69, 77, 124, Ellison, Ralph, 144
140, 141, 166 emotions
of big data, xix, 77 in academe, 8–10, 12–13, 18n17,
Breaking Bad as example 75n30, 166
(see Breaking Bad) as constructions, 8–10
political critique, 144, 150 and habitus, 71, 75n30
Cynicism, 11–13, 23 and transparency, 27
Cyrenaicism, 52 endowments, 14
“entrepreneurial man,” 148,
158–60
D Epicureanism, 52, 59n12
Darnton, Robert, 30 Epicurus, 52
Davies, William, xviii–xxii, xxiv, 87 Eubilides, 25
debt. See also austerity; student loans existentialism. See Nietzsche, Friedrich
and “creditocracy,” 95, 105 existential man, 160, 163n18
debt economy, 158, 159
and liberal democracy, 4
student debt, 50, 63 F
Debt Collective, 105 Facebook, xx, xxi, 80, 82
debt economy, 158, 159 Federal Bureau of Investigations
vs. knowledge economy, 158 (FBI), 78
docile subjects, x, xiv, xxii, 1, 15, Foucault, Michel
123–5 on Bentham, 32–3, 46n31
definition of, 15 on Cynicism, 11–13
and “indebted man,” 158, 160, on Rousseau, 31, 32
163n18 on surveillance state, xviii
rejection of docility, x on transparency, 31–3
Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 144, 162n3 free education movement, 104
Drug Enforcement Administration Frege, Gottlob, 25
(DEA), 141 Freud, Sigmund, 64
Durkheim, Émile, 68, 69 Friedman, Milton, xvii
190 INDEX
L O
Lacan, Jacques, 58n7 Obama, Barack, 104, 105
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 68, 69 O’Reilly Emerging Technology
London School of Economics, xviii conference, 85
M P
Mad Men, 143–4 Page, Larry, 80
Malcolm in the Middle, 162n6 panopticon, 32–3. See also big data
market paralogy, xiv–xv, 64, 124
and autonomy, lack of, 147 Patriot Act, 78
and calculations, 148–9, 152–3, 159 Petabyte Age, 78, 80–3, 85
(see also big data) Philosophical Radicals, 53
vs. co-existence, xx Pierson, Paul, 3
and hedonism, xviii, xx–xxi plaisir, 51, 56
and market demands, understanding pleasure. See happiness; hedonism
of, 149–50 politics of affiliation
Max Planck Institute for the Study of and barriers to education, 115
Societies, 4 and disfunction among faculty,
Menand, Louis, 65, 72, 168 127–8
meta-professional studies, 121n3 as fuel for democratic education,
metrics, 15, 165 110
humanities’ critique of, xvi–xvii in the neoliberal academy, 111–15
Mill, John Stuart, 37, 53–4, 56–7 and politics in the academy, 115–17
scholarly work on, 110–11
“predictive education,” xxi
N private institutions, 14
naïve realism, 86–8 publicity. See transparency
192 INDEX