Zimbabwe

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Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe (/zɪmˈbɑːbweɪ, -wi/), officially the Republic

of Zimbabwe, formerly Rhodesia,[13] is a landlocked
Republic of Zimbabwe
13 other official names
country located in Southern Africa, between the Zambezi
and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa, Botswana,
Zambia and Mozambique. The capital and largest city is
Harare. The second largest is Bulawayo. A country of
roughly 14 million[6][7] people, Zimbabwe has 16 official
Flag
languages,[3] with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most Coat of arms
common. Motto: "Unity, Freedom, Work"[1]
Since the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the Anthem:
"Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe"[2]
site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a
major route for migration and trade. The British South
0:00 MENU
Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes first demarcated the
present territory during the 1890s; it became the self-
governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia in 1923. In
1965, the conservative white minority government
unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia. The state
endured international isolation and a 15-year guerrilla war
with black nationalist forces; this culminated in a peace
agreement that established universal enfranchisement and
de jure sovereignty as Zimbabwe in April 1980. Zimbabwe
then joined the Commonwealth of Nations, from which it
was suspended in 2002 for breaches of international law by
its then-government, and from which it withdrew in Location of Zimbabwe (dark blue)
December 2003. The sovereign state is a member of the in the African Union (light blue)
United Nations, the Southern African Development Capital Harare
Community (SADC), the African Union (AU), and the and largest city 17°50′S 31°3′E
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa Official languages 16 languages:[3]
(COMESA). It was once known as the "Jewel of Africa" for Chewa · Chibarwe ·
its great prosperity.[14][15][16] English · Kalanga ·
"Koisan"
Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in (presumably Tsoa) ·
Nambya · Ndau ·
1980, when his ZANU-PF party won the elections following Ndebele · Shangani
the end of white minority rule; he was the President of · Shona · "sign
Zimbabwe from 1987 until his resignation in 2017. Under language" · Sotho ·
Tonga · Tswana ·
Mugabe's authoritarian regime, the state security apparatus Venda · Xhosa
dominated the country and was responsible for widespread
Ethnic groups 99.38% Black
human rights violations.[17] Mugabe maintained the (2012 Census[4]) African (over 80%
revolutionary socialist rhetoric of the Cold War era, Shona; Ndebele are
blaming Zimbabwe's economic woes on conspiring Western largest minority)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe 1/55
capitalist countries.[18]
Contemporary African political 0.22% White African
leaders were reluctant to criticise Mugabe, who was 0.14% Coloured
burnished by his anti-imperialist credentials, though 0.08% Asian
Archbishop Desmond Tutu called him "a cartoon figure of 0.01% Other
an archetypal African dictator".[19] The country has been in 0.18% Not Stated
economic decline since the 1990s, experiencing several Demonym(s) Zimbabwean
crashes and hyperinflation along the way. Zimbo[5] (colloquial)
Government Unitary dominant-
On 15 November 2017, in the wake of over a year of protests party presidential
against his government as well as Zimbabwe's rapidly constitutional
declining economy, Mugabe was placed under house arrest republic
by the country's national army in a coup d'état.[20][21] On • President Emmerson
19 November 2017, ZANU-PF sacked Robert Mugabe as Mnangagwa
• Vice Presidents Constantino
party leader and appointed former Vice President Chiwenga
Emmerson Mnangagwa in his place.[22] On 21 November Kembo Mohadi
2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation prior to Legislature Parliament
impeachment proceedings being completed.[23] On 30 July • Upper house Senate
2018 Zimbabwe held its general elections,[24] which was • Lower house House of Assembly
won by the ZANU-PF party led by Emmerson
Independence from the United Kingdom
Mnangagwa.[25] Nelson Chamisa who was leading the main
• Declared 11 November 1965
opposition party MDC Alliance contested the election • Republic 2 March 1970
results and filed a petition to the Constitution Court of • Zimbabwe 1 June 1979
Zimbabwe.[26] The court confirmed Mnangagwa's victory, Rhodesia
making him the newly elected president after • Republic of 18 April 1980
Zimbabwe
Mugabe.[27][28] • Current 15 May 2013
constitution
Area
Contents • Total 390,757 km2
(150,872 sq mi)
(60th)
Etymology
• Water (%) 1
History
Population
Before 1887
• 2018 estimate 14,438,802[6][7]
Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964) (73rd)
UDI and civil war (1965–1980) • 2012 census 12,973,808[8]
Independence era (1980–present) • Density 26/km2 (67.3/sq mi)
(170th)
Geography
Geology GDP (PPP) 2019 estimate
• Total $41.031 billion
Climate
• Per capita $2,621[9]
Flora and fauna
Environmental issues GDP (nominal) 2019 estimate
• Total $22.290 billion
Government • Per capita $1,424[9]
Human rights
Gini (1995) 50.1[10]
Armed forces high
Administrative divisions
HDI (2018) 0.563[11]
Economy medium · 150th
Agriculture Currency Zimbabwean dollar

(current)
Tourism
Water supply and sanitation Time zone UTC+2 (CAT[12])
Science and technology Driving side left
Demographics Calling code +263

Ethnic Groups ISO 3166 code ZW
Largest cities
Internet TLD .zw
Refugee crisis
Languages
Religions
Culture
Arts
Cuisine
Sports
Media
Scouting
National symbols
Health
Education
Gender equality
Discrimination in the work force
Domestic violence
Political representation
Society and culture
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
Etymology
The name "Zimbabwe" stems from a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe, an ancient city in the country's
south-east whose remains are now a protected site. Two different theories address the origin of the
word. Many sources hold that "Zimbabwe" derives from dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the
Karanga dialect of Shona as "houses of stones" (dzimba = plural of imba, "house"; mabwe = plural of
bwe, "stone").[29][30][31] The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the
modern-day province of Masvingo. Archaeologist Peter Garlake claims that "Zimbabwe" represents a
contracted form of dzimba-hwe, which means "venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona and
usually references chiefs' houses or graves.[32]
Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia (1898), Rhodesia (1965), and Zimbabwe
Rhodesia (1979). The first recorded use of "Zimbabwe" as a term of national reference dates from
1960 as a coinage by the black nationalist Michael Mawema,[33] whose Zimbabwe National Party
became the first to officially use the name in 1961.[34] The term "Rhodesia"—derived from the
surname of Cecil Rhodes, the primary instigator of British colonisation of the territory during the late
19th century—was perceived by African nationalists as inappropriate because of its colonial origin and
connotations.[33]
According to Mawema, black nationalists held a meeting in 1960 to choose an alternative name for the
country, proposing names such as "Matshobana" and "Monomotapa" before his suggestion,
"Zimbabwe", prevailed.[35] A further alternative, put forward by nationalists in Matabeleland, had
been "Matopos", referring to the Matopos Hills to the south of Bulawayo.[34]
It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used—a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers
to "Zimbabweland"[34] — but "Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the
generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.[33] In a 2001 interview, black nationalist
Edson Zvobgo recalled that Mawema mentioned the name during a political rally, "and it caught hold,
and that was that".[33] The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name during the Second
Chimurenga campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the Rhodesian Bush War of 1964–
1979. Major factions in this camp included the Zimbabwe African National Union (led by Robert
Mugabe from 1975), and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (led by Joshua Nkomo from its
founding in the early 1960s).
History
Before 1887
Archaeological records date human settlement of present-day Zimbabwe
to at least 100,000 years ago. The earliest known inhabitants were
probably San people, who left behind arrowheads and cave paintings.
The first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion
around 2,000 years ago.[36][37]
Societies speaking proto-Shona languages first emerged in the middle

Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean
highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of
subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the
early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian
Ocean coast, helping to develop the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 11th
century. This was the precursor to the Shona civilisations that would Towers of Great Zimbabwe.
dominate the region during the 13th to 15th centuries, evidenced by ruins
at Great Zimbabwe, near Masvingo, and by other smaller sites. The main
archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture.
The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of trading states which had developed in
Zimbabwe by the time the first European explorers arrived from Portugal. These states traded gold,
ivory, and copper for cloth and glass.[38]
From about 1300 until 1600 the Kingdom of Zimbabwe eclipsed Mapungubwe. This Shona state
further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at
the ruins of the kingdom's capital of Great Zimbabwe. From c. 1450 to 1760 Zimbabwe gave way to the
Kingdom of Mutapa. This Shona state ruled much of the area of present-day Zimbabwe, plus parts of
central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as
Mwene Mutapa or Monomotapa as well as "Munhumutapa", and was renowned for its strategic trade
routes with the Arabs and Portugal. The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a
series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.[38]
As a direct response to increased European presence in the interior a new Shona state emerged,
known as the Rozwi Empire (1684–1834). Relying on centuries of military, political and religious
development, the Rozwi (meaning "destroyers") expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean
plateau by force of arms. They continued the stone-building traditions of the Zimbabwe and
Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding muskets to their arsenal and recruiting a professional army to
defend recent conquests.
Around 1821 the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan

successfully rebelled against King Shaka and established his own
clan, the Ndebele. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into
the Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and
beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the
Mfecane. When Dutch trekboers converged on the Transvaal in
1836, they drove the tribe even further northward, with the
assistance of Tswana Barolong warriors and Griqua commandos.
By 1838 the Ndebele had conquered the Rozwi Empire, along with
the other smaller Shona states, and reduced them to A Matabele kraal, as depicted by
vassaldom.[39] William Cornwallis Harris, 1836
After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840,

Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became
known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society
into a military system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to
repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868; following a violent power struggle, his son
Lobengula succeeded him.
Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964)

In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with Cecil Rhodes's British South Africa Company (BSAC).
In 1888, Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele
peoples.[40] He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant
a royal charter to the company over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as Mashonaland as
well.[41]
Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the Pioneer Column, a group of Europeans
protected by well-armed British South Africa Police (BSAP) through Matabeleland and into Shona
territory to establish Fort Salisbury (now Harare), and thereby establish company rule over the area.
In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new Maxim guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele
in the First Matabele War. Rhodes additionally sought permission

to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the
Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika, then known as
"Zambesia".[41]
In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and

treaties,[41] mass settlement was encouraged, with the British
maintaining control over labour as well as precious metals and
other mineral resources.[42] The Union Jack was raised over
Fort Salisbury on 13 September
In 1895, the BSAC adopted 1890
the name "Rhodesia" for the

territory, in honour of
Rhodes. In 1898 "Southern Rhodesia" became the official name
for the region south of the Zambezi,[43][44] which later became
Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately
and later termed Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). Shortly after
The Battle of the Shangani on 25 Rhodes' disastrous Jameson Raid on the South African Republic,
October 1893 the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their charismatic
religious leader, Mlimo. The Second Matabele War lasted in
Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was assassinated. Shona
agitators staged unsuccessful revolts (known as Chimurenga) against company rule during 1896 and
1897.
Following these failed insurrections, the Ndebele and Shona groups were finally subdued by the
Rhodes administration, which organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring Europeans,
thus displacing many indigenous peoples.[45]
Southern Rhodesia was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923.[46][47][48][49] Shortly
after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia
came into force.[48][50]
Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing

British colony, subsequent to a 1922 referendum. Rhodesians of all races
served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars.
Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed
more per capita to both the First and Second World Wars than any other
part of the Empire, including Britain itself.[51]
In 1953, in the face of African opposition,[52] Britain consolidated the two

Rhodesias with Nyasaland (Malawi) in the ill-fated Central African
Federation, which was essentially dominated by Southern Rhodesia.
Growing African nationalism and general dissent, particularly in
Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the Union in 1963, forming 1953 stamp with the portrait
of Queen Elizabeth II
three separate divisions. While multiracial democracy was finally
introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, however, Southern
Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy minority rule.[53]
With Zambian independence, Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front (RF) dropped the designation "Southern"
in 1964 (as Northern Rhodesia changed its name to Zambia, having the word Southern before the
name Rhodesia became unnecessary and the nation was simply known as Rhodesia afterwards) and
issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (commonly abbreviated to "UDI") from the United
Kingdom on 11 November 1965, intent on effectively repudiating the recently adopted British policy of
"no independence before majority rule". It was the first such course taken by a British colony since the
American declaration of 1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent
to their own actions.[51]
UDI and civil war (1965–1980)

After the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), the
British government petitioned the United Nations for sanctions
against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's
administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the
organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade
embargo on an autonomous state.[54] These sanctions were
expanded again in 1968.[54]
The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of

rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. A guerrilla war Ian Smith signing the Unilateral
Declaration of Independence on 11
subsequently ensued when Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African
November 1965 with his cabinet in
People's Union (ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African audience.
National Union (ZANU), supported actively by communist powers
and neighbouring African nations, initiated guerilla operations
against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU was supported by the Soviet Union, the
Warsaw Pact and associated nations such as Cuba, and adopted a Marxist–Leninist ideology; ZANU
meanwhile aligned itself with Maoism and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. Smith
declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a referendum the previous year, but this
went unrecognised internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified, eventually
forcing him to open negotiations with the militant communists.
In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African

leaders, led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, who offered to leave the
white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the
establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result of the Internal
Settlement, elections were held in April 1979, concluding with the
United African National Council (UANC) carrying a majority of
parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa, the UANC head,
became prime minister and the country's name was changed to
Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The Internal Settlement left control of the Bishop Abel Muzorewa signs the
Rhodesian Security Forces, civil service, judiciary, and a third of Lancaster House Agreement seated
parliament seats to whites.[55] On 12 June, the United States next to British Foreign Secretary
Lord Carrington.
Senate voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia.
Following the fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), held in Lusaka, Zambia
from 1 to 7 August in 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to
participate in a constitutional conference at Lancaster House. The purpose of the conference was to
discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution, and provide for
elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal
independence.[56]
With Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United
Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979,
producing a total of 47 plenary sessions.[56] On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major
interest represented reached the Lancaster House Agreement, effectively ending the guerrilla war.[57]
On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial
status (the 'aye' votes included Ian Smith himself). The bill then passed the Senate and was assented
to by the President. With the arrival of Lord Soames, the new Governor, just after 2 p.m. on 12
December 1979, Britain formally took control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern
Rhodesia, although on 13 December Soames declared that during his mandate the name Rhodesia and
Zimbabwe Rhodesia would continue to be used. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December, and the
United Nations on 16 December, before calling on its member states to do likewise on 21 December.
Thus Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Angola and Botswana lifted sanctions on 22–23 December;
Australia partly pre-empted this, lifting all but trade sanctions on 18 December, and trade sanctions
on 21 December.[58]
During the elections of February 1980, Robert Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide
victory.[59] Prince Charles, as the representative of Britain, formally granted independence to the new
nation of Zimbabwe at a ceremony in Harare in April 1980.[60]
Independence era (1980–present)

Zimbabwe's first president after its
independence was Canaan Banana in what was
originally a mainly ceremonial role as Head of
State. Robert Mugabe, leader of the ZANU
party, was the country's first Prime Minister
and Head of Government.[61]
Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona

takeover immediately erupted around
Matabeleland. The Matabele unrest led to what
has become known as Gukurahundi (Shona: Trends in Zimbabwe's Multidimensional Poverty Index,
"the early rain which washes away the chaff 1970–2010.
before the spring rains").[62] The Fifth Brigade,
a North Korean-trained elite unit that reported
directly to the Zimbabwean Prime Minister,[63] entered Matabeleland and massacred thousands of
civilians accused of supporting "dissidents".[63][64]
Estimates for the number of deaths during the five-year Gukurahundi campaign ranged from
3,750[65] to 80,000.[64] [66] Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps.[67][68]
The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that
merged their respective parties, creating the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front
(ZANU–PF).[63][69][70]
Elections in March 1990 resulted in another victory for Mugabe and the ZANU-PF party, which
claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats.[71][72]
During the 1990s, students, trade unionists, and other workers often demonstrated to express their
growing discontent with Mugabe and ZANU-PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and
junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.[73][74] The general health of the population also began
to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated 25% of the population had been infected by HIV in a
pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa.[75][76]
Land redistribution re-emerged as the main issue for the ZANU-PF government around 1997. Despite
the existence of a "willing-buyer-willing-seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, the minority
white Zimbabwean population of around 0.6% continued to hold 70% of the country's most fertile
agricultural land.[77]
In 2000, the government pressed ahead with its Fast Track Land Reform programme, a policy
involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white
population to the majority black population.[78] Confiscations of white farmland, continuous
droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other supports led to a sharp decline in
agricultural exports, which were traditionally the country's leading export-producing sector.[78] Some
58,000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash
crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale.[79]
President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of
international sanctions.[80] In 2002, the nation was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations
due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant election tampering.[81] The following year, Zimbabwean
officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership.[82] The Zimbabwe Democracy and
Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA) went into effect in 2002, creating a credit freeze of the
Zimbabwean government through Section 4 C, Multilateral Financing Restriction. The bill was
sponsored by Bill Frist, and co-sponsored by US senators Hillary Clinton, Joe Biden, Russ Feingold
and Jesse Helms. Through ZDERA Section 4C, the Secretary of the Treasury is ordered to direct US
Directors at the International Financial Institutions listed in Section 3, "to oppose and vote against--
(1) any extension by the respective institution of any loan, credit, or guarantee to the Government of
Zimbabwe; or (2) any cancellation or reduction of indebtedness owed by the Government of
Zimbabwe to the United States or any international financial institution."[83]
By 2003, the country's economy had collapsed. It's estimated that up to a quarter of Zimbabwe's 11
million people had fled the country. Three-quarters of the remaining Zimbabweans were living on less
than one US dollar a day.[84]
Following elections in 2005, the government initiated "Operation Murambatsvina", an effort to crack
down on illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities, leaving a substantial section of urban
poor homeless.[85][86] The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to
provide decent housing to the population, although according to critics such as Amnesty
International, authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims.[87]
On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a presidential election along

with a parliamentary election. The results of this election were
withheld for two weeks, after which it was generally
acknowledged that the Movement for Democratic Change –
Tsvangirai (MDC-T) had achieved a majority of one seat in the
lower house of parliament.
On 10 July 2008, Russia and China vetoed UN Zimbabwe

sanctions pushed by Britain and the US.[88] The US drafted the
file, which would have placed an arms embargo on Mugabe's Map showing the food insecurity in
regime. However, nine of 15 countries on the UN council opposed Zimbabwe in June 2008
it, including Vietnam, South Africa, and Libya, which argued that
Zimbabwe was not a 'threat to international peace and
security.'[89]
In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards, public
health (with a major cholera outbreak in December) and various basic affairs.[90] During this period
NGOs took over from government as a primary provider of food during this period of food insecurity
in Zimbabwe.[91]
In September 2008, a power-sharing agreement was reached between Tsvangirai and President
Mugabe, permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister. Due to ministerial differences
between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February
2009. By December 2010, Mugabe was threatening to completely expropriate remaining privately
owned companies in Zimbabwe unless "western sanctions" were lifted.[92]
A 2011 survey by Freedom House suggested that living conditions

had improved since the power-sharing agreement.[93] The United
Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
stated in its 2012–2013 planning document that the
"humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe since 2009,
but conditions remain precarious for many people".[94]
On 17 January 2013, Vice President John Nkomo died of cancer at

St Anne's Hospital, Harare at the age of 78.[95] A new constitution Zimbabwean President Robert
Mugabe attended the Independence
approved in the Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2013
Day celebrations in South Sudan in
curtails presidential powers.[96]
July 2011
Mugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013 Zimbabwean

general election which The Economist described as "rigged."[97] and the Daily Telegraph as
"stolen".[98] The Movement for Democratic Change alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief
through the courts.[99] In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU-PF congress in December
2014, President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the
contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%.[100] After winning the election, the Mugabe ZANU-PF
government re-instituted one party rule,[98] doubled the civil service and, according to The
Economist, embarked on "misrule and dazzling corruption".[97] A 2017 study conducted by the
Institute for Security Studies (ISS) concluded that due to the deterioration of government and the
economy "the government encourages corruption to make up for its inability to fund its own
institutions" with widespread and informal police roadblocks to issue fines to travellers being one
manifestation of this.[101]
In July 2016 nationwide protests took place regarding the economic collapse in the country,[102][103]
and the finance minister admitted "Right now we literally have nothing."[97]
In November 2017, the army led a coup d'état following the dismissal of Vice President Emmerson
Mnangagwa, placing Mugabe under house arrest. The army denied that their actions constituted a
coup.[20][21] Mugabe resigned on 21 November 2017, after leading the country for 37 years. Although
under the Constitution of Zimbabwe Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice President Phelekezela
Mphoko, a supporter of Grace Mugabe, ZANU-PF chief whip Lovemore Matuke stated to the Reuters
news agency that Mnangagwa would be appointed as president.[23]
In December 2017 the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of the Mugabe era using various
statistics, said that at the time of independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at
about five per cent a year, and had done so for quite a long time. If this rate of growth had been
maintained for the next 37 years, Zimbabwe would have in 2016 a GDP of US$52 billion. Instead it
had a formal sector GDP of only US$14 billion, a cost of US$38 billion in lost growth. The population
growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3.5 percent per annum, doubling every 21
years. Had this growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of
2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be partly caused by death from
starvation and disease, and partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and death
from politically motivated violence sponsored by government exceeds 200,000 since 1980. The
Mugabe government has directly or indirectly caused the deaths of at least three million Zimbabweans
in 37 years.[104] According to World Food Programme, over two million people are facing starvation
because of the recent droughts the country is going through.[105]
Geography
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying
between latitudes 15° and 23°S, and longitudes 25° and 34°E. It is
bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and
southwest, Zambia to the northwest, and Mozambique to the east
and northeast. Its northwest corner is roughly 150 meters from
Namibia, nearly forming a four-nation quadripoint. Most of the
country is elevated, consisting of a central plateau (high veld)
stretching from the southwest northwards with altitudes between
1,000 and 1,600 m. The country's extreme east is mountainous,
The Zambezi River in the Mana
this area being known as the Eastern Highlands, with Mount Pools National Park.
Nyangani as the highest point at 2,592 m.
The highlands are known for their natural environment, with tourist destinations such as Nyanga,
Troutbeck, Chimanimani, Vumba and Chirinda Forest at Mount Selinda. About 20% of the country
consists of low-lying areas, (the low veld) under 900m. Victoria Falls, one of the world's biggest and
most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the country's extreme

northwest and is part of the Zambezi river.[106][107]
Geology
Over geological time Zimbabwe has experienced two major post-
Gondwana erosion cycles (known as African and post-African),
and a very subordinate Plio-Pleistocene cycle.[108]
Climate
Zimbabwe has a tropical climate with many local variations. The Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate
southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, parts of the classification.
central plateau receive frost in winter, the Zambezi valley is also
known for its extreme heat and the Eastern Highlands usually
experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's rainy season
generally runs from late October to March and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude.
Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts. The most recent one began early in 2015 and lasted into
2016. In 2019, at least 55 elephants died because of the drought.[109] Severe storms are rare.[110]
Flora and fauna

The country is mostly savannah, although the moist and
mountainous eastern highlands support areas of tropical
evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in these Eastern
Highlands include teak, mahogany, enormous specimens of
strangling fig, forest Newtonia, big leaf, white stinkwood, chirinda
stinkwood, knobthorn and many others.
In the low-lying parts of the country fever trees, mopane,

An elephant at a water hole in
combretum and baobabs abound. Much of the country is covered
Hwange National Park.
by miombo woodland, dominated by brachystegia species and
others. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus,
flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotus, cassia, tree wisteria and dombeya. There are around 350
species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe. There are also many snakes and lizards, over 500
bird species, and 131 fish species.
Environmental issues
Large parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant wildlife. Deforestation and
poaching has reduced the amount of wildlife. Woodland degradation and deforestation, due to
population growth, urban expansion and lack of fuel, are major concerns[111] and have led to erosion
and land degradation which diminish the amount of fertile soil. Local farmers have also been criticised
by environmentalists for burning off vegetation to heat their tobacco barns.[112]
Government
Zimbabwe is a republic with a presidential system of government. The semi-presidential system was
abolished with the adoption of a new constitution after a referendum in March 2013. Under the
constitutional changes in 2005, an upper chamber, the Senate, was reinstated.[113] The House of
Assembly is the lower chamber of Parliament. Former President Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African
National Union – Patriotic Front (commonly abbreviated ZANU-PF) has been the dominant political
party in Zimbabwe since independence.[114]
In 1987 then-prime minister Mugabe revised the constitution,

abolishing the ceremonial presidency and the prime ministerial
posts to form an executive president, a Presidential system. His
ZANU party has won every election since independence, in the
1990 election the second-placed party, Edgar Tekere's Zimbabwe
Unity Movement, won only 20% of the vote.[115]
During the 1995 parliamentary elections most opposition parties, Parliament of Zimbabwe in Harare
including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near-
sweep by the ruling party.[116] When the opposition returned to
the polls in 2000, they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU.[116]
Presidential elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and
fraud.[117] The 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on 31 March and multiple claims of
vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the MDC and Jonathan Moyo, calling for
investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies.[118] Jonathan Moyo participated in the elections
despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.
General elections were again held in Zimbabwe on 30 March 2008.[119] The official results required a
run-off between Mugabe and Morgan Tsvangirai, the opposition leader; the MDC challenged these
results, claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government.[120]
The run-off was scheduled for 27 June 2008. On 22 June, citing the continuing unfairness of the
process and refusing to participate in a "violent, illegitimate sham of an election process", Tsvangirai
pulled out of the presidential run-off, the ZEC held the run-off and President Mugabe received a
landslide majority.[121]
The MDC-T led by Morgan Tsvangirai is now the majority in the

Lower chamber of Parliament. The MDC split into two factions.
One faction (MDC-M), now led by Arthur Mutambara contested
the elections to the Senate, while the other, led by Tsvangirai,
opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a
rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that
past elections were free and fair. The opposition parties have
resumed participation in national and local elections as recently
Supporters of the Movement for
as 2006. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2006 with
Democratic Change in 2005.
Tsvangirai being elected to lead MDC-T, which has become more
popular than the other group.[122]
Mutambara, a robotics professor and former NASA robotics specialist has replaced Welshman Ncube
who was the interim leader of MDC-M after the split. Morgan Tsvangirai did not participate in the
Senate elections, while the Mutambara faction participated and won five seats in the Senate. The
Mutambara formation has been weakened by defections from MPs and individuals who are
disillusioned by their manifesto. As of 2008, the Movement for Democratic Change has become the
most popular, with crowds as large as 20,000 attending their rallies as compared to between 500–
5,000 for the other formation.[122]
On 28 April 2008, Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a joint news conference in Johannesburg
that the two MDC formations were co-operating, enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary
majority.[123][124] Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain President without a parliamentary
majority.[124] On the same day, Silaigwana announced that the recounts for the final five
constituencies had been completed, that the results were being collated and that they would be
published on 29 April.[125]
In mid-September 2008, after protracted negotiations overseen by the leaders of South Africa and
Mozambique, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing deal which would see Mugabe retain
control over the army. Donor nations have adopted a 'wait-and-see' attitude, wanting to see real
change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves to funding rebuilding
efforts, which are estimated to take at least five years. On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in
as Prime Minister by President Mugabe.
In November 2008, the government of Zimbabwe spent US$7.3 million donated by the Global Fund
to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. A representative of the organisation declined to speculate on
how the money was spent, except that it was not for the intended purpose, and the government has
failed to honour requests to return the money.[126]
In February 2013, Zimbabwe's election chief, Simpson Mtambanengwe, resigned due to ill health. His
resignation came months before the country's constitutional referendum and elections.[127]
The Status of Zimbabwe politics has been thrown into question by a coup taking place in November
2017, ending Mugabe's 30 year presidential incumbency. Emmerson Mnangagwa was appointed
president following this coup, and officially elected with 50.8% of the vote in the 2018 Zimbabwean
general election, avoiding a run-off and making him the 3rd President of Zimbabwe.
Human rights
There are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations of human rights in Zimbabwe
under the Mugabe administration and the dominant party, the ZANU-PF.[129]
In 2011, there were reports of 640 corpses having been recovered from the Monkey William Mine in
Chibondo. They were allegedly authenticated by the Fallen Heroes Trust of Zimbabwe and the
Department of National Museums and Monuments who are leading the exhumation process as
victims of the Ian Smith regime during the Rhodesian Bush War.[130][131] One body was identified as a
ZANLA cadre, Cde Rauya, by the Fallen Heroes Trust Chief exhumer.[132]
Government Minister Saviour Kasukuwere admitted the remains

were discovered in 2008, but claimed the remains were decades
old despite clear evidence the exhumed skeletons still had hair
and clothes. Solidarity Peace Trust said that the presence of soft
tissues "is not necessarily an indicator that these bones entered
the grave more recently, although it could be."[133]
Journalists found a body in the mine with 'what appeared to be

blood and fluids dripping onto the skulls below'. The opposition
MDC called for research on all violence that included killings of its A demonstration in London against
Robert Mugabe. Protests are
supporters during disputed elections in 2008. Amnesty
discouraged by Zimbabwean police
International (AI) expressed concern that "international best
in Zimbabwe.[128]
practice on exhumations is not being adhered to ... [M]ishandling
of these mass graves has serious implications on potential
exhumations of other sites in Zimbabwe. Thousands of civilians were also killed in Matabeleland and
Midlands provinces in the mid 1980s and are allegedly buried in mine shafts and mass graves in these
regions", AI added.[133][134]
According to human rights organisations such as Amnesty International[135] and Human Rights
Watch[136] the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food, freedom of movement and
residence, freedom of assembly and the protection of the law. In 2009, Gregory Stanton, then
President of the International Association of Genocide Scholars, stated there was "clear evidence that
Mugabe government was guilty of crimes against humanity and that there was sufficient evidence of
crimes against humanity to bring Mugabe to trial in front of the International Criminal Court.”[137]
Male homosexuality is illegal in Zimbabwe. Since 1995, the government has carried out campaigns
against both homosexual men and women.[138] President Mugabe has blamed gays for many of
Zimbabwe's problems and viewed homosexuality as an "un-African" and immoral culture brought by
European colonists and practiced by only "a few whites" in his country.[139]
Opposition gatherings are frequently the subject of brutal attacks by the police force, such as the
crackdown on an 11 March 2007 Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) rally and several others
during the 2008 election campaign.[140]
In the attacks of 2007, party leader Morgan Tsvangirai and 49 other opposition activists were arrested
and severely beaten by the police. After his release, Morgan Tsvangirai told the BBC that he suffered
head injuries and blows to the arms, knees and back, and that he lost a significant amount of blood
and hundreds were killed.[141]
Police action was strongly condemned by the UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, the European
Union and the United States.[141] While noting that the activists had suffered injuries, but not
mentioning the cause of them,[142] the Zimbabwean state-owned daily newspaper The Herald claimed
the police had intervened after demonstrators "ran amok looting shops, destroying property, mugging
civilians, and assaulting police officers and innocent members of the public". The newspaper argued
that the opposition had been "willfully violating the ban on political rallies".[142]
There are also abuses of media rights and access. The Zimbabwean government is accused of
suppressing freedom of the press and freedom of speech.[135] It has been repeatedly accused of using
the public broadcaster, the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, as a propaganda tool.[143]
Newspapers critical of the government, such as the Daily News, closed after bombs exploded at their
offices and the government refused to renew their license.[144][145] BBC News, Sky News, and CNN
were banned from filming or reporting from Zimbabwe. In 2009 reporting restrictions on the BBC
and CNN were lifted.[146] Sky News continue to report on happenings within Zimbabwe from
neighbouring countries like South Africa.[147][148]
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Zimbabwe, have signed a joint letter to the
UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.[149]
Armed forces
The Zimbabwe Defence Forces were set up by unifying three
insurrectionist forces – the Zimbabwe African National Liberation
Army (ZANLA), the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army
(ZIPRA), and the Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF) – after the
Second Chimurenga and Zimbabwean independence in 1980. The
integration period saw the formation of the Zimbabwe National
Army (ZNA) and Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ) as separate entities
under the command of Rtd General Solomon Mujuru and Air The flag of the Zimbabwe Defence
Marshal Norman Walsh who retired in 1982, and was replaced by Forces.
Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to Rtd

Air Chief Marshal Josiah Tungamirai in 1985.
In December 2003, General Constantine Chiwenga, was promoted and appointed Commander of the
Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Lieutenant General P. V. Sibanda replaced him as Commander of the
Army.[150]
The ZNA has an active duty strength of 30,000. The Air Force has about 5,139 standing personnel.[151]
The Zimbabwe Republic Police (includes Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) is part of the
Zimbabwe Defence Forces and numbers 25,000.[152]
Following majority rule in early 1980, British Army trainers oversaw the integration of guerrilla
fighters into a battalion structure overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces. For the first year, a
system was followed where the top-performing candidate became battalion commander. If he or she
was from ZANLA, then his or her second-in-command was the top-performing ZIPRA candidate, and
vice versa.[153] This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command structure. From
early 1981, this system was abandoned in favour of political appointments, and ZANLA and ZANU
fighters consequently quickly formed the majority of battalion commanders in the ZNA.
The ZNA was originally formed into four brigades, composed of a total of 28 battalions. The brigade
support units were composed almost entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army, while
unintegrated battalions of the Rhodesian African Rifles were assigned to the 1st, 3rd and 4th Brigades.
The Fifth Brigade was formed in 1981 and disbanded in 1988 after the demonstration of mass
brutality and murder during the brigade's occupation of Matabeleland in what has become known as
Gukurahundi (Shona: "the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains"), the
campaign which finished off Mugabe's liberation struggle.[62][154] The Brigade had been re-formed by
2006, with its commander, Brigadier-General John Mupande praising its "rich history".[155]
Administrative divisions
Zimbabwe has a centralised government and is divided
into eight provinces and two cities with provincial
status, for administrative purposes. Each province has
a provincial capital from where government
administration is usually carried out.[2]
Province Capital
Bulawayo Bulawayo
Harare Harare
Manicaland Mutare
Mashonaland Central Bindura
Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe
Mashonaland East Marondera
Mashonaland West Chinhoyi
Masvingo Masvingo city
Matabeleland North Lupane District
Matabeleland South Gwanda
Midlands Gweru
The names of most of the provinces were generated from the Mashonaland and Matabeleland divide
at the time of colonisation: Mashonaland was the territory occupied first by the British South Africa
Company Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the First Matabele War.
This corresponds roughly to the precolonial territory of the Shona people and the Matabele people,
although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is headed by a
Provincial Governor, appointed by the President.[156]
The provincial government is run by a Provincial Administrator, appointed by the Public Service
Commission. Other government functions at provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of
national government departments.[157]
The provinces are subdivided into 59 districts and 1,200 wards (sometimes referred to as
municipalities). Each district is headed by a District Administrator, appointed by the Public Service
Commission. There is also a Rural District Council, which appoints a chief executive officer. The Rural
District Council is composed of elected ward councillors, the District Administrator and one
representative of the chiefs (traditional leaders appointed under customary law) in the district. Other
government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government
departments.[158]
At the ward level there is a Ward Development Committee, comprising the elected ward councillor,
the kraalheads (traditional leaders subordinate to chiefs) and representatives of Village Development
Committees. Wards are subdivided into villages, each of which has an elected Village Development
Committee and a Headman (traditional leader subordinate to the kraalhead).[159]
Economy
Minerals, gold,[110] and agriculture are the main
foreign exports of Zimbabwe. Tourism also plays a
key role in its economy.[160]
The mining sector remains very lucrative, with

some of the world's largest platinum reserves
being mined by Anglo American plc and Impala
Platinum.[161] The Marange diamond fields,
discovered in 2006, are considered the biggest
diamond find in over a century.[162] They have the
potential to improve the fiscal situation of the
country considerably, but almost all revenues
from the field have disappeared into the pockets of
army officers and ZANU-PF politicians.[163]
In terms of carats produced, the Marange field is

one of the largest diamond producing projects in
the world,[164] estimated to produce 12 million A proportional representation of Zimbabwe's exports,
carats in 2014 worth over $350 million.[165] 2010
Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South

Africa on the continent.[166]
Taxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises, while state enterprises are strongly subsidised. State
regulation is costly to companies; starting or closing a business is slow and costly.[167] Government
spending was predicted to reach 67% of GDP in 2007.[168]
Tourism was an important industry for the country, but has been failing in recent years. The
Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating 60% of Zimbabwe's
wildlife has died since 2000 due to poaching and deforestation. The report warns that the loss of life
combined with widespread deforestation is potentially disastrous for the tourist industry.[169]
The ICT sector of Zimbabwe has been growing at a fast pace. A report by the mobile internet browser
company, Opera, in June/July 2011 has ranked Zimbabwe as Africa's fastest growing market.[170][171]
Since 1 January 2002, the government of Zimbabwe has had its lines of credit at international
financial institutions frozen, through US legislation called the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic
Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA). Section 4C instructs the Secretary of the Treasury to direct directors
at international financial institutions to veto the extension of loans and credit to the Zimbabwean
government.[172] According to the United States, these sanctions target only seven specific businesses
owned or controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens.[173]
Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the

1980s (5% GDP growth per year) and 1990s (4.3% GDP growth
per year). The economy declined from 2000: 5% decline in 2000,
8% in 2001, 12% in 2002 and 18% in 2003.[174] Zimbabwe's
involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of dollars
from the economy.[175] From 1999–2009, Zimbabwe saw the
lowest ever economic growth with an annual GDP decrease of
6.1%.[176]
A market in Mbare, Harare
The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly

to mismanagement and corruption by the
government and the eviction of more than
4,000 white farmers in the controversial land
confiscations of 2000.[177][178][179][180] The
Zimbabwean government and its supporters
attest that it was Western policies to avenge the
expulsion of their kin that sabotaged the
economy.[181]
By 2005, the purchasing power of the average

Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in
real terms as 1953.[182] In 2005, the
government, led by central bank governor The GDP per capita (current), compared to neighbouring
Gideon Gono, started making overtures that countries (world average = 100).
white farmers could come back. There were
400 to 500 still left in the country, but much of
the land that had been confiscated was no longer productive.[183] By 2016 there were about 300 farms
owned by white farmers left out of the original 4,500. The farms left were either too remote or their
owners had paid for protection or collaborated with the regime.[98]
In January 2007, the government issued long term leases to some white farmers.[184] At the same
time, however, the government also continued to demand that all remaining white farmers, who were
given eviction notices earlier, vacate the land or risk being arrested.[185][186] Mugabe pointed to
foreign governments and alleged "sabotage" as the cause of the fall of the Zimbabwean economy, as
well as the country's 80% formal unemployment rate.[187]
Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998, to an official estimated high of 11,200,000% in
August 2008 according to the country's Central Statistical Office.[188] This represented a state of
hyperinflation, and the central bank introduced a new 100 trillion dollar note.[189]
On 29 January 2009, in an effort to counteract runaway inflation, acting Finance Minister Patrick
Chinamasa announced that Zimbabweans will be permitted to use other, more stable currencies to do
business, alongside the Zimbabwe dollar.[190] In an effort to combat inflation and foster economic
growth the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended indefinitely on 12 April 2009.[191] In 2016 Zimbabwe
allowed trade in the United States dollar and various other currencies such as the rand (South Africa),
the pula (Botswana), the euro, and the Pound Sterling (UK).[192] In February 2019, RBZ Governor
introduced a new local currency, the RTGS Dollar in a move to address some of the Zimbabwean
economic and financial challenges.[193]
After the formation of the Unity Government and the adoption of several currencies instead of the
Zimbabwe dollar in 2009, the Zimbabwean economy rebounded. GDP grew by 8–9% a year between
2009 and 2012.[194] In November 2010, the IMF described the Zimbabwean economy as "completing
its second year of buoyant economic growth".[195][196] By 2014, Zimbabwe had recovered to levels seen
in the 1990s[194] but between 2012 and 2016 growth faltered.[197]
Zimplats, the nation's largest platinum company, has proceeded with US$500 million in expansions,
and is also continuing a separate US$2 billion project, despite threats by Mugabe to nationalise the
company.[198] The pan-African investment bank IMARA released a favourable report in February 2011
on investment prospects in Zimbabwe, citing an improved revenue base and higher tax receipts.[199]
In late January 2013, the Zimbabwean finance ministry reported that they had only $217 in their
treasury and would apply for donations to finance the coming elections that is estimated to cost
US$107 million.[200][201]
As of October 2014, Metallon Corporation was Zimbabwe's largest gold miner.[202] The group is
looking to increase its production to 500,000 troy ounces per annum by 2019.[202]
Inflation in Zimbabwe was 42% in 2018. In June 2019, the inflation rate reached 175%, leading to
mass unrest across the country and in Harare.[203]
Agriculture
Zimbabwe's commercial farming sector was traditionally a source of exports and foreign exchange,
and provided 400,000 jobs. However, the government's land reform program badly damaged the
sector, turning Zimbabwe into a net importer of food products.[2] For example, between 2000 and
2016, annual wheat production fell from 250,000 tons to 60,000 tons, maize was reduced from two
million tons to 500,000 tons and cattle slaughtered for beef fell from 605,000 to 244,000.[98] Coffee
production, once a prized export commodity, came to a virtual halt after seizure or expropriation of
white-owned coffee farms in 2000 and has never recovered.[204]
For the past ten years, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) has been assisting Zimbabwe's farmers to adopt conservation agriculture techniques, a
sustainable method of farming that can help increase yields. By applying the three principles of
minimum soil disturbance, legume-based cropping and the use of organic mulch, farmers can improve
infiltration, reduce evaporation and soil erosion, and build up organic soil content.
Between 2005 and 2011, the number of smallholders practising conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe
increased from 5,000 to more than 150,000. Cereal yields rose between 15 and 100 per cent across
different regions.[205]
Tourism
Since the land reform programme in 2000, tourism in

Zimbabwe has steadily declined. After rising during
the 1990s (1.4 million tourists in 1999), industry
figures described a 75% fall in visitors to Zimbabwe in
2000. By December, less than 20% of hotel rooms had
been occupied.[206]
In 2016, the total contribution of tourism to Zimbabwe

was $1.1 billion (USD), or about 8.1% of Zimbabwe's
GDP. It is expected to rise 1.4% in 2017. Employment
in travel and tourism, as well as industries travel and
tourism indirectly supports, was 5.2% of national
employment and is expected to rise by 1.4% in Victoria Falls, the end of the upper Zambezi and
2017.[207] beginning of the middle Zambezi.
Several airlines pulled out of Zimbabwe between 2000

and 2007. Australia's Qantas, Germany's Lufthansa, and Austrian Airlines were among the first to pull
out and in 2007 British Airways suspended all direct flights to Harare.[206][208] The country's flagship
airline Air Zimbabwe, which operated flights throughout Africa and a few destinations in Europe and
Asia, ceased operations in February 2012.[209] As of 2017, several major commercial airlines had
resumed flights to Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe has several major tourist attractions. Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, which are shared with
Zambia, are located in the north west of Zimbabwe. Before the economic changes, much of the
tourism for these locations came to the Zimbabwe side but now Zambia is the main beneficiary. The
Victoria Falls National Park is also in this area and is one of the eight main national parks in
Zimbabwe,[210] the largest of which is Hwange National Park.
The Eastern Highlands are a series of mountainous areas near the border with Mozambique. The
highest peak in Zimbabwe, Mount Nyangani at 2,593 m (8,507 ft) is located here as well as the
Bvumba Mountains and the Nyanga National Park. World's View is in these mountains and it is from
here that places as far away as 60–70 km (37–43 mi) are visible and, on clear days, the town of
Rusape can be seen.
Zimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient ruined cities built in a unique dry
stone style. Among the most famous of these are the Great Zimbabwe ruins in Masvingo. Other ruins
include Khami Ruins, Zimbabwe, Dhlo-Dhlo and Naletale.
The Matobo Hills are an area of granite kopjes and wooded valleys commencing some 35 km (22 mi)
south of Bulawayo in southern Zimbabwe. The Hills were formed over 2,000 million years ago with
granite being forced to the surface, then being eroded to produce smooth "whaleback dwalas" and
broken kopjes, strewn with boulders and interspersed with thickets of vegetation. Mzilikazi, founder
of the Ndebele nation, gave the area its name, meaning 'Bald Heads'. They have become a tourist
attraction due to their ancient shapes and local wildlife. Cecil Rhodes and other early white pioneers
like Leander Starr Jameson are buried in these hills at a site named World's View.[211]
Water supply and sanitation

Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe is defined by many small scale successful programs but also
by a general lack of improved water and sanitation systems for the majority of Zimbabwe. According
to the World Health Organization in 2012, 80% of Zimbabweans had access to improved, i.e. clean,
drinking-water sources, and only 40% of Zimbabweans had access to improved sanitation
facilities.[212] Access to improved water supply and sanitation is distinctly less in rural areas.[213]
There are many factors which continue to determine the nature,

for the foreseeable future, of water supply and sanitation in
Zimbabwe.
Three major factors are the severely depressed state of the

Zimbabwean economy, the reluctance of foreign aid organizations
to build and finance infrastructure projects, and the political
instability of the Zimbabwean state.[213][214]
Science and technology

Zimbabwe has relatively well-developed national infrastructure
and a long-standing tradition of promoting research and
development (R&D), as evidenced by the levy imposed on
tobacco-growers since the 1930s to promote market
research.[215][216] Public expenditure on education in
Southern Africa as a share of GDP,
The country also has a well-developed education system, with one 2012 or closest year. Source:
in 11 adults holding a tertiary degree. Given the country's solid UNESCO Science Report: towards
knowledge base and abundant natural resources, Zimbabwe has 2030 (2015)
the potential to figure among the countries leading growth in sub-
Saharan Africa by 2020.[215][216]
To do so, however, Zimbabwe will need to correct a number of

structural weaknesses. For instance, it lacks the critical mass of
researchers needed to trigger innovation. Although the
infrastructure is in place to harness research and development to
Zimbabwe's socio-economic development, universities and
research institutions lack the financial and human resources to
conduct research and the regulatory environment hampers the
Scientific research output in terms of
transfer of new technologies to the business sector. The economic
publications in Southern Africa,
crisis has precipitated an exodus of university students and cumulative totals by field, 2008–
professionals in key areas of expertise (medicine, engineering, 2014. Source: UNESCO Science
etc.) that is of growing concern. More than 22% of Zimbabwean Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure
tertiary students were completing their degrees abroad in 2012, 20.6
compared to a 4% average for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. In
2012, there were 200 researchers (head count) employed in the
public sector, one-quarter of whom were women. This is double the continental average (91 in 2013)
but only one-quarter the researcher density of South Africa (818 per million inhabitants). The
government has created the Zimbabwe Human Capital Website to provide information for the
diaspora on job and investment opportunities in Zimbabwe.[215][216]
Despite the fact that human resources are a pillar of any research and innovation policy, the Medium
Term Plan 2011–2015 did not discuss any explicit policy for promoting postgraduate studies in
science and engineering. The scarcity of new PhDs in science and engineering fields from the
University of Zimbabwe in 2013 was symptomatic of this omission.[215][216]
Nor does the development agenda to 2018, the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Economic
Transformation, contain any specific targets for increasing the number of scientists and engineers, or
the staffing requirements for industry and other productive sectors. In addition, the lack of co-
ordination and coherence among governance structures has led to a multiplication of research
priorities and poor implementation of existing policies.[215][216]
The country's Second Science and Technology Policy was

launched in June 2012, after being elaborated with UNESCO
assistance. It replaces the earlier policy dating from 2002. The
2012 policy prioritizes biotechnology, information and
communication technologies (ICTs), space sciences,
nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems, technologies yet
to emerge and scientific solutions to emergent environmental
challenges. The Second Science and Technology Policy also
asserts the government commitment to allocating at least 1% of
GDP to research and development, focusing at least 60% of
university education on developing skills in science and
technology and ensuring that school pupils devote at least 30% of Scientific publication trends in the
their time to studying science subjects.[215][216] most productive SADC countries,
2005–2014. Source: UNESCO
In 2014, Zimbabwe counted 21 publications per million Science Report: towards 2030
(2015), data from Thomson Reuters'
inhabitants in internationally catalogued journals, according to
Web of Science, Science Citation
Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Index Expanded
Expanded). This placed Zimbabwe sixth out of the 15 SADC
countries, behind Namibia (59), Mauritius (71), Botswana (103)
and, above all, South Africa (175) and the Seychelles (364). The average for sub-Saharan Africa was 20
scientific publications per million inhabitants, compared to a global average of 176 per million.[216]
Demographics
Zimbabwe's total population is 12.97 million.[8] According to the United Nations
Population in
World Health Organization, the life expectancy for men was 56 years and the life
Zimbabwe[6][7]
expectancy for women was 60 years of age (2012).[217] An association of doctors in
Zimbabwe has made calls for President Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing Year Million
health service.[218] The HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe was estimated to be 14% for 1950 2.7
people aged 15–49 in 2009.[219] UNESCO reported a decline in HIV prevalence 2000 11.9
among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.[220]
2018 14.4
Some 85% of Zimbabweans are Christian; 62% of the population attends religious
services regularly.[221] The largest Christian churches are Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day
Adventist[222] and Methodist.
As in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring

traditional beliefs. Ancestral worship is the most practised non-Christian
religion, involving spiritual intercession; the mbira dzavadzimu, which
means "voice of the ancestors", an instrument related to many
lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many
ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means "God the Creator" (musika
vanhu in Shona). Around 1% of the population is Muslim.[223]
Ethnic Groups
Bantu-speaking ethnic groups make
up 98% of the population. The
majority people, the Shona, comprise
A n'anga (Traditional
70%. The Ndebele are the second
Healer) of the Shona
most populous with 20% of the people, holding a kudu horn
population.[224][225] trumpet
A group of women and children in
The Ndebele
Norton, Zimbabwe
descended from Ethnic Groups in Zimbabwe (2012 Census)[4]
Zulu migrations Ethnic Groups percent
in the 19th century and the other tribes with which Black African 99.38%
they intermarried. Up to one million Ndebele may White 0.22%
Coloured 0.14%
have left the country over the last five years, mainly
Asian 0.08%
for South Africa. Other Bantu ethnic groups make up Other 0.01%
the third largest with 2 to 5%: these are Venda, Tonga, Not Stated 0.18%
Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau, Nambya, Tswana,
Xhosa and Lozi.[225]
Minority ethnic groups include white Zimbabweans, who make up less than 1% of the total population.
White Zimbabweans are mostly of British origin, but there are also Afrikaner, Greek, Portuguese,
French and Dutch communities. The white population dropped from a peak of around 278,000 or
4.3% of the population in 1975[226] to possibly 120,000 in 1999, and was estimated to be no more than
50,000 in 2002, and possibly much less. The 2012 census lists the total white population at 28,782
(roughly 0.22% of the population), one-tenth of its 1975 estimated size.[227] Most emigration has been
to the United Kingdom (between 200,000 and 500,000 Britons are of Rhodesian or Zimbabwean
origin), South Africa, Botswana, Zambia,[228] Mozambique,[229] Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
Coloureds form 0.5% of the population, and various Asian ethnic groups, mostly of Indian and
Chinese origin, are also 0.5%.[230]
According to 2012 Census report, 99.7% of the population is of African origin.[231] Official fertility
rates over the last decade were 3.6 (2002 Census),[232] 3.8 (2006)[233] and 3.8 (2012 Census).[231]
Largest cities
Refugee crisis
The economic meltdown and repressive political measures in Zimbabwe have led to a flood of refugees
into neighbouring countries. An estimated 3.4 million Zimbabweans, a quarter of the population, had
fled abroad by mid-2007.[235] Some 3,000,000 of these left for South Africa and Botswana.[236]
Apart from the people who fled into the neighbouring countries, there are approximately 36,000
internally displaced persons (IDPs). There is no comprehensive survey,[237] although the following
figures are available:
Survey Number Date Source
National Survey 880–960,000 2007 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee[238]
Former Farm Workers 1,000,000 2008 UNDP[237]
Victims of Operation Murambatsvina 570,000 2005 UN[239]
People Displaced by Political Violence 36,000 2008 UN[237]
The above surveys do not include people displaced by Operation Chikorokoza Chapera or beneficiaries
of the fast-track land reform programme but who have since been evicted.[237]
Languages
English is the main language used in the education and judiciary systems. The Bantu languages Shona
and Ndebele are the principal indigenous languages of Zimbabwe. Shona is spoken by 70% of the
population, Ndebele by 20%. Other minority Bantu languages include Venda, Tsonga, Shangaan,
Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau and Nambya. Less than 2.5%, mainly the white and "coloured" (mixed race)
minorities, consider English their native language.[240] Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was
incorporated into the first Shona novel, Feso by Solomon Mutswairo, published in 1956.[241] English is
spoken primarily in the cities, but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news now broadcast in
Shona, Sindebele and English.
Zimbabwe has 16 official languages and under the constitution, an Act of Parliament may prescribe
other languages as officially recognised languages.[3]
Religions
According to the 2017 Inter Censal Demography Survey by the
Religion in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency 69.2 percent of Zimbabweans (2017)[242]
belong to Protestant Christianity, 8.0 percent are Roman Catholic, in Religion Percent
total 84.1 percent follow one of the denominations of Christianity. Christianity 84.1%
No religion 10.2%
10.2 percent of the population does not belong to any religion, while
Traditional
the 0.7 percent is Muslim.[242][243] religions
4.5%
Islam 0.7%
Culture Others or none 0.5%
Zimbabwe has many different cultures which may include beliefs

and ceremonies, one of them being Shona, Zimbabwe's largest ethnic group. The Shona people have
many sculptures and carvings which are made with the finest materials available.[244]
Zimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980.[245] Celebrations are held at either the
National Sports Stadium or Rufaro Stadium in Harare. The first independence celebrations were held
in 1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds. At these celebrations, doves are released to symbolise peace and
fighter jets fly over and the national anthem is sung. The flame of independence is lit by the president
after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed forces of Zimbabwe. The president
also gives a speech to the people of Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the
stadium.[246] Zimbabwe also has a national beauty pageant, the Miss Heritage Zimbabwe contest
which has been held annually ever since 2012.
Arts
Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include pottery, basketry, textiles,
jewellery and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are
symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a
single piece of wood. Shona sculpture has become better known
after finding initial popularity in the 1940s. Most subjects of
carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others
are made with sedimentary rocks such as soapstone, as well as
harder igneous rocks such as serpentine and the rare stone
verdite. Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like
Singapore, China and Canada. e.g. Dominic Benhura's statue in
the Singapore Botanic Gardens.
Shona sculpture in has survived through the ages and the modern
style is a fusion of African folklore with European influences.
World-renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas,
Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry
Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika. Internationally, "Reconciliation", a stone sculpture
by Amos Supuni
Zimbabwean sculptors have managed to influence a new
generation of artists, particularly Black Americans, through
lengthy apprenticeships with master sculptors in Zimbabwe. Contemporary artists like New York
sculptor M. Scott Johnson and California sculptor Russel Albans have learned to fuse both African
and Afro-diasporic aesthetics in a way that travels beyond the simplistic mimicry of African Art by
some Black artists of past generations in the United States.
Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad. Charles Mungoshi is renowned in
Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in English and in Shona and his poems and books have sold
well with both the black and white communities.[247] Catherine Buckle has achieved international
recognition with her two books African Tears and Beyond Tears which tell of the ordeal she went
through under the 2000 Land Reform.[248] The first Prime Minister of Rhodesia, Ian Smith, wrote
two books – The Great Betrayal and Bitter Harvest. The book The House of Hunger by Dambudzo
Marechera won an award in the UK in 1979 and the Nobel Prize-winning author Doris Lessing's first
novel The Grass Is Singing, the first four volumes of The Children of Violence sequence, as well as the
collection of short stories African Stories are set in Rhodesia. In 2013 NoViolet Bulawayo's novel We
Need New Names was shortlisted for the Booker Prize. The novel tells the story of the devastation and
emigration caused by the brutal suppression of Zimbabwean civilians during the Gukurahundi in the
early 1980s.
Notable artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas Mukomberanwa. A recurring theme in
Zimbabwean art is the metamorphosis of man into beast.[249] Zimbabwean musicians like Thomas
Mapfumo, Oliver Mtukudzi, the Bhundu Boys; Stella Chiweshe, Alick Macheso and Audius Mtawarira
have achieved international recognition. Among members of the white minority community, Theatre
has a large following, with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe's urban
areas.[250]
Cuisine
Like in many African countries, the majority of Zimbabweans
depend on a few staple foods. "Mealie meal", also known as
cornmeal, is used to prepare sadza or isitshwala, as well as
porridge known as bota or ilambazi. Sadza is made by mixing the
cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste/porridge. After the
paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is
added to thicken the paste.
This is usually eaten as lunch or dinner, usually with sides such as

A meal of sadza (right), greens, and
gravy, vegetables (spinach, chomolia, or spring greens/collard goat offal. The goat's small
greens), beans, and meat (stewed, grilled, roasted, or sundried). intestines are wrapped around small
Sadza is also commonly eaten with curdled milk (sour milk), pieces of large intestines before
commonly known as "lacto" (mukaka wakakora), or dried cooking.
Tanganyika sardine, known locally as kapenta or matemba. Bota
is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and
usually flavoured with peanut butter, milk, butter, or jam.[251] Bota is usually eaten for breakfast.
Graduations, weddings, and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a
goat or cow, which will be barbecued or roasted by the family.
Even though the Afrikaners are a small group (10%) within the
white minority group, Afrikaner recipes are popular. Biltong, a
type of jerky, is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of
spiced raw meat to dry in the shade.[252] Boerewors is served with
sadza. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of beef
rather than pork, and barbecued. As Zimbabwe was a British
colony, some people there have adopted some colonial-era
English eating habits. For example, most people will have
porridge in the morning, as well as 10 o'clock tea (midday tea).
Raw boerewors
They will have lunch, often leftovers from the night before, freshly
cooked sadza, or sandwiches (which is more common in the
cities). After lunch, there is usually 4 o'clock tea (afternoon tea), which is served before dinner. It is
not uncommon for tea to be had after dinner.
Rice, pasta, and potato-based foods (french fries and mashed potato) also make up part of
Zimbabwean cuisine. A local favourite is rice cooked with peanut butter, which is taken with thick
gravy, mixed vegetables and meat. A potpourri of peanuts known as nzungu, boiled and sundried
maize, black-eyed peas known as nyemba, and bambara groundnuts known as nyimo makes a
traditional dish called mutakura. Mutakura can also be the above ingredients cooked individually.
One can also find local snacks, such as maputi (roasted/popped maize kernels similar to popcorn),
roasted and salted peanuts, sugar cane, sweet potato, pumpkin, and indigenous fruits, such as horned
melon, gaka, adansonia, mawuyu, uapaca kirkiana, mazhanje (sugar plum), and many others.
Sports
Football (also known as soccer) is the most popular sport in
Zimbabwe. The Warriors have qualified for the Africa Cup of
Nations three times (2004, 2006, 2017), and won the Southern
Africa championship on six occasions (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009,
2017, 2018) and the Eastern Africa cup once (1985). The team is
ranked 115th in the world (Fifa World Rankings Nov 2018).
Rugby union is a significant sport in Zimbabwe. The national side

Zimbabwe women's national football
have represented the country at 2 Rugby World Cup tournaments
team at the 2016 Olympic Games
in 1987 and 1991. The team are ranked 26 in the world by World
Rugby.[253]
Cricket also has a following among the white minority. It is one of twelve Test cricket playing nations
and an ICC full member as well. Notable cricket players from Zimbabwe include Andy Flower, Heath
Streak and Brendan Taylor.
Zimbabwe has won eight Olympic medals, one in field hockey with the women's team at the 1980
Summer Olympics in Moscow, and seven by swimmer Kirsty Coventry, three at the 2004 Summer
Olympics and four at the 2008 Summer Olympics.
Zimbabwe has also done well in the Commonwealth Games and All-Africa Games in swimming with
Kirsty Coventry obtaining 11 gold medals in the different competitions.[254][255][256][257] Zimbabwe
has also competed at Wimbledon and the Davis Cup in tennis, most notably with the Black family,
which comprises Wayne Black, Byron Black and Cara Black. Zimbabwe has also done well in golf. The
Zimbabwean Nick Price held the official World Number 1 status longer than any player from Africa
has ever done in the 24-year history of the ranking.[258]
Other sports played in Zimbabwe are basketball, volleyball, netball, and water polo, as well as squash,
motorsport, martial arts, chess, cycling, polocrosse, kayaking and horse racing. However, most of
these sports do not have international representatives but instead stay at a junior or national level.
Zimbabwean professional rugby league players playing overseas are Masimbaashe Motongo and
Judah Mazive.[259][260] Former players include now SANZAAR CEO Andy Marinos who made an
appearance for South Africa at the Super League World Nines and featured for the Sydney Bulldogs as
well as Zimbabwe-born former Scotland rugby union international Scott Gray, who spent time at the
Brisbane Broncos.[261]
Media
The media of Zimbabwe is now once again diverse, having come under tight restriction between 2002
and 2008 by the government during the growing economic and political crisis in the country. The
Zimbabwean constitution promises freedom of the media and expression. Since the appointment of a
new media and information minister in 2013 the media is facing less political interference and the
supreme court has ruled some sections of the strict media laws as unconstitutional.[262] In July 2009
the BBC and CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from Zimbabwe. CNN
welcomed the move. The Zimbabwe Ministry of Media, Information and Publicity stated that, "the
Zimbabwe government never banned the BBC from carrying out lawful activities inside
Zimbabwe".[146] The BBC also welcomed the move saying, "we're pleased at being able to operate
openly in Zimbabwe once again".[263]
In 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the inclusive, power-sharing
government. In May 2010 the Commission licensed three new privately owned newspapers, including
the previously banned Daily News, for publication.[264] Reporters Without Borders described the
decisions as a "major advance".[265] In June 2010 NewsDay became the first independent daily
newspaper to be published in Zimbabwe in seven years.[266]
ZBC's monopoly in the broadcasting sector was ended with the licensing of two private radio stations
in 2012.[267]
Since the 2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) was passed, a number of
privately owned news outlets were shut down by the government, including Daily News whose
managing director Wilf Mbanga went on to form the influential The Zimbabwean.[268][269] As a result,
many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by exiled
Zimbabweans. Because the internet is unrestricted, many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online
news sites set up by exiled journalists.[270] Reporters Without Borders claims the media environment
in Zimbabwe involves "surveillance, threats, imprisonment, censorship, blackmail, abuse of power
and denial of justice are all brought to bear to keep firm control over the news."[268] The main
published newspapers are The Herald and The Chronicle which are printed in Harare and Bulawayo
respectively. The heavy-handedness on the media has progressively relaxed since 2009.
In its 2019 report, Reporters Without Borders ranked the Zimbabwean media as 127th out of 180.[268]
The government also bans many foreign broadcasting stations from Zimbabwe, including the CBC,
Sky News, Channel 4, American Broadcasting Company, Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC),
and Fox News. News agencies and newspapers from other Western countries and South Africa have
also been banned from the country.
Scouting
It was in the Matabeleland region in Zimbabwe that, during the Second Matabele War, Robert Baden-
Powell, the founder of Scouting, and Frederick Russell Burnham, the American-born Chief of Scouts
for the British Army, first met and began their lifelong friendship.[271] In mid-June 1896, during a
scouting patrol in the Matobo Hills, Burnham began teaching Baden-Powell woodcraft. Baden-Powell
and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men, rich
in exploration, tracking, fieldcraft, and self-reliance.[272] It was also during this time in the Matobo
Hills that Baden-Powell first started to wear his signature campaign hat like the one worn by
Burnham.[273]
Scouting in the former Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1909 when the
first Boy Scout troop was registered. Scouting grew quickly and in 1924
Rhodesia and Nyasaland sent a large contingent to the second World
Scout Jamboree in Ermelunden, Denmark. In 1959, Rhodesia hosted the
Central African Jamboree at Ruwa. In 2009, Scouts celebrated 100 years
of Scouting in Zimbabwe and hundreds of Scouts camped at Gordon
Park, a Scout campground and training area, as part of these
celebrations.[274]
Besides scouting, there are also leadership, life skills and general
Baden-Powell's drawing of knowledge courses and training experiences mainly for schoolchildren
Chief of Scouts Burnham, ranging from pre-school to final year high school students and
Matobo Hills, 1896 sometimes those beyond high school. These courses and outings are held
at, for example, Lasting Impressions (Lasting Impressions ~Zimbabwe
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q5GiuX0O_so) on YouTube), Far
and Wide Zimbabwe (Far and wide. (http://www.farandwide.co.zw/)) and Chimanimani Outward
Bound (Outwardbound Zimbabwe (https://web.archive.org/web/20070616100110/http://www.outw
ardbound.net/locations/zimbabwe.php) at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 June 2007)).
National symbols
The stone-carved Zimbabwe Bird appears on the national flags and the
coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia, as well as on banknotes
and coins (first on Rhodesian pound and then Rhodesian dollar). It
probably represents the bateleur eagle or the African fish eagle.[275][276]
The famous soapstone bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the
ancient city of Great Zimbabwe, built, it is believed, sometime between
the 13th and 16th centuries by ancestors of the Shona. The ruins, which
gave their name to modern Zimbabwe, cover some 730 hectares (1,800
acres) and are the largest ancient stone construction in Zimbabwe.[277]
Balancing Rocks are geological formations all over Zimbabwe. The rocks
are perfectly balanced without other supports. They are created when Traditional Zimbabwe Bird
ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering, as softer rocks design
surrounding them erode away. They are often remarked on and have
been depicted on both the banknotes of Zimbabwe and the Rhodesian
dollar banknotes. The ones found on the current notes of Zimbabwe, named the Banknote Rocks, are
located in Epworth, approximately 14 km (9 mi) south east of Harare.[278] There are many different
formations of the rocks, incorporating single and paired columns of 3 or more rocks. These formations
are a feature of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa northwards to Sudan. The
most notable formations in Zimbabwe are located in the Matobo National Park in Matabeleland.
The National Anthem of Zimbabwe is "Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe" (Shona: "Simudzai Mureza
wedu WeZimbabwe"; Northern Ndebele: "Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe"). It was introduced in
March 1994 after a nationwide competition to replace "Ishe Komborera Africa" as a distinctly
Zimbabwean song. The winning entry was a song written by Professor Solomon Mutswairo and
composed by Fred Changundega. It has been translated into all three of the main languages of
Zimbabwe.
Health
At independence, the policies of racial inequality were reflected in
the disease patterns of the black majority. The first five years after
independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunisation
coverage, access to health care, and contraceptive prevalence
rate.[279] Zimbabwe was thus considered internationally to have
an achieved a good record of health development.[280]
Zimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases (such

as plague in 1994). The gains on the national health were eroded
by structural adjustment in the 1990s,[281] the impact of the Map showing the spread of cholera
HIV/AIDS pandemic [161] and the economic crisis since the year in and around Zimbabwe put
2000. In 2006, Zimbabwe had one of the lowest life expectancies together from several sources.
in the world according to UN figure—44 for men and 43 for

women, down from 60 in 1990, but recovered to 60 in
2015.[282][283] The rapid drop was ascribed mainly to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Infant mortality rose
from 6% in the late 1990s to 12.3% by 2004.[161] By 2016 HIV/AIDS prevalence had been reduced to
13.5%[282] compared to 40% in 1998.[194]
The health system has more or less collapsed. At the end of November 2008, some operations at three
of Zimbabwe's four major referral hospitals had shut down, along with the Zimbabwe Medical School,
and the fourth major hospital had two wards and no operating theatres working.[284] Due to
hyperinflation, those hospitals still open were not able to obtain basic drugs and medicines.[285] The
situation changed drastically after the Unity Government and the introduction of the multi-currency
system in February 2009 although the political and economic crisis also contributed to the emigration
of the doctors and people with medical knowledge.[286]
In August 2008 large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing cholera epidemic. By December
2008 more than 10,000 people had been infected in all but one of Zimbabwe's provinces and the
outbreak had spread to Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia.[287][288] On 4 December
2008 the Zimbabwe government declared the outbreak to be a national emergency and asked for
international aid.[289][290]
By 9 March 2009 The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 4,011 people had succumbed
to the waterborne disease since the outbreak began in August 2008, and the total number of cases
recorded had reached 89,018.[291] In Harare, the city council offered free graves to cholera
victims.[292] There had been signs that the disease is abating, with cholera infections down by about
50% to around 4,000 cases a week.[291]
The 2014 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Zimbabwe was 614[194] compared to 960 in
2010–11[194] and 232 in 1990. The under five mortality rate, per 1,000 births was 75 in 2014 (94 in
2009).[194] The number of midwives per 1,000 live births was unavailable in 2016 and the lifetime risk
of death for pregnant women 1 in 42.[293]
Life expectancy in Life expectancy in

Period Period
Years Years
1950–1955 48.5 1985–1990 60.2
1955–1960 50.6 1990–1995 54.7
1960–1965 52.5 1995–2000 47.4
1965–1970 54.1 2000–2005 44.1
1970–1975 55.8 2005–2010 48.4
1975–1980 57.8 2010–2015 57.6
1980–1985 60.5
Source: UN World Population Prospects[294]
Education
Due to large investments in education since independence,
Zimbabwe has the highest adult literacy rate in Africa which in
2013 was 90.70%.[295] This is lower than the 92% recorded in
2010 by the United Nations Development Programme[296][297]
and the 97.0% recorded in the 2002 census, while still
substantially higher than 80.4% recorded in the 1992 census.[298]
The education department has stated that 20,000 teachers have St George's College, Harare was
established in 1896 by a French
left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of Zimbabwe's children
Jesuit
have not progressed beyond primary school.[299]
The wealthier portion of the population usually send their

children to independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are attended by the
majority as these are subsidized by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but
since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until
they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe
maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are
regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe's education system consists of two years of pre-school, seven years of primary and six years
of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic
year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three terms, broken up by one month
holidays, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the
third term in November, with "O" level and "A" level subjects also offered in June.[300]
There are seven public (Government) universities as well as four church-related universities in
Zimbabwe that are fully internationally accredited.[300] The University of Zimbabwe, the first and
largest, was built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of Mount Pleasant. Notable alumni from
Zimbabwean universities include Welshman Ncube; Peter Moyo (of Amabhubesi); Tendai Biti,
Chenjerai Hove, Zimbabwean poet, novelist and essayist; and Arthur Mutambara. Many of the
politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees from universities in USA or other
universities abroad.
National University of Science and Technology (NUST) is the second largest public research university
in Zimbabwe located in Bulawayo. It was established in 1991. The National University of Science and
Technology strives to become a flourishing and reputable institution not only in Zimbabwe and in
Southern Africa but also among the international fraternity of Universities. Its guidance, cultural
values is the encouragement of all its members and society of those attitudes of fair mindedness,
understanding, tolerance and respect for people and views which are essential for the attainment and
maintenance of justice, peace and harmony at all times.
Africa University is a United Methodist related university institution located in Manicaland which
attracts students from at least 36 African countries. The institution has been growing steadily and has
steady study material and learning facilities. The highest professional board for accountants is the
Institute of Chartered Accountants of Zimbabwe (ICAZ) with direct relationships with similar bodies
in South Africa, Canada, the UK and Australia. A qualified Chartered Accountant from Zimbabwe is
also a member of similar bodies in these countries after writing a conversion paper. In addition,
Zimbabwean-trained doctors only require one year of residence to be fully licensed doctors in the
United States. The Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers (ZIE) is the highest professional board for
engineers.
Education in Zimbabwe became under threat since the economic changes in 2000 with teachers going
on strike because of low pay, students unable to concentrate because of hunger and the price of
uniforms soaring making this standard a luxury. Teachers were also one of the main targets of
Mugabe's attacks because he thought they were not strong supporters.[301]
Gender equality
Women in Zimbabwe are disadvantaged in many facets including
economic, political, and social spheres, and experience Sex and
Gender Based Violence.[302] A 2014 UN report found that deep
rooted cultural issues, patriarchal attitudes, and religious
practices negatively impacted women's rights and freedoms in the
country.[302] These negative views toward women as well as
societal norms impact the incentive for women to participate in
the economy and hinder their economic production.[302]
Zimbabwean women
Zimbabwe's constitution passed in 2013 has provisions in it that
provide incentive to achieve greater gender equality but the data
shows that enforcement has been lax and adoption slow.[302] In December, 2016 the International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies conducted a case study to determine how to best
implement effective policy to address issues such as gender violence and implementation of equality
laws.[303] It was found that Sex and Gender Based Violence against women and girls was increasing in
areas that had experienced disasters (floods, drought, disease) but could not quantify the extent of the
increase.[303] Some of the obstacles in combating these issues are that there are economic barriers to
declaring SGBV to be unacceptable as well as social barriers.[303] Additionally, governmental services
which were installed to help educate the populace about these issues as well as provide services to
victims are underfunded and unable to carry out their duties.[303] The UN also provided economic
incentive to adopt policies which would discourage these practices which negatively impacted women
in Zimbabwe.[304]
Discrimination in the work force

Zimbabwean women face cultural and social adversity in their professional lives which impacts their
educational attainment, professional development, and advancement.[305] In 2009 the South African
Journal of Education found that although the majority of primary school teachers in their random
sample size were qualified for advancement to administrative positions, none of them had applied for
administrative openings.[305] The women did not see themselves as equals with their male
counterparts and believed their role as a wife and mother superseded all other parts of their lives.[305]
The women surveyed in this trial were also found to have low self-esteem, a possible correlation to
their societal roles and gender stereotypes.[305] In 2016 the FAO found that only 60% of women
participated in the economy in some form compared to 74.3% for their male counterparts.[306]
Women also made up the majority of low education jobs, such as 70% of the agriculture work force,
yet only made up 16.7% and 21% of local authority and managers in the private sector
respectively.[306] In the public sector, women comprised 14% of the Zimbabwean House of Assembly
and 33% of the Senate, despite the population ratio being 0.95 males per 1 female.[307][304] To address
gender inequality in the economy, the UN supports policies which help increase the number of women
in leadership roles, such as heads of schools, with increased funding in line with #3 of the outlined
Millennium Development Goals.[304] Through these policies Zimbabwe has made gains in closing the
gender gap in school enrollment: 50.5% of males are enrolled in secondary schools compared to 49.5%
in females.[307]
Domestic violence
Zimbabwe experiences high rates of domestic and sexual violence; the Zimbabwe National Statistics
Office shows that rates are increasing.[308] 21 rapes are reported per day in Zimbabwe - a rate of 0.12
rapes a day per 100,000 people. As not all rapes are reported, the actual number is likely higher.
Reported rape increased 42% between 2010 and 2016.[308] Of all the violence against girls and women
reported in Zimbabwe, 78% was inflicted by their spouse, father, or domestic partner.[308] UNICEF
reports show that one in three girls that grow up in Zimbabwe experience sexual assault before
turning 18, this is further exacerbated by cultural norms such as child marriage.[308] Young girls often
run away with older men when their educational opportunities are limited or to escape a violent
household.[308] These incidents of domestic violence or young girls running away with older men are
usually not investigated by police as men are viewed as superior to women in Zimbabwean culture and
their role as the dominant person in the relationship is to discipline their spouse, often violently.[308]
There is an ingrained cultural norm that violence can be a show of power and love which makes
ending domestic abuse in Zimbabwe difficult.[308] The Zimbabwe Women's Lawyers Association is an
organisation that is assisting the implementation of the legal framework, as defined in the 2013
constitution, to help women. The association provides programmes which help educate women on
their rights and provides them with opportunities as a way of combating domestic and sexual
violence.[308]
Political representation
Women in Zimbabwe do not have proportional representation in the Zimbabwean lower and upper
houses of Parliament holding 14% and 33% of seats respectively, despite being a slight majority of the
population.[306] There are cultural and violence barriers women have to overcome to run for public
office; they are seen as "loose and immoral", called prostitutes, claimed to want to be men, and their
private lives are heavily scrutinised.[309]

Women seeking to participate in the political landscape as
candidates or voters cite violence as one of the main reasons they are dissuaded from
participating.[309] Lack of financial resources and confidence in their abilities stops many young
women from attempting to run as well as preconceived notions about women in politics creates an
environment that limits their involvement and desire to be involved in politics.[310] Women also make
up a disproportionate amount of the rural poor in Zimbabwe and make up 70% of the agricultural
work force. The rural poor find it difficult to access information and materials in relation to politics as
well as travel to polling stations and become registered to vote.[306][310] Collectively, women control
35% of parliamentary seats as a result of a provision of the 2013 constitution that mandated at least
30% of seats be occupied by women.[311] A 10-year extension is being considered to this mandate as it
is only law until 2022 and equal representation according to population distribution has not yet been
achieved.[311] A study by the Research and Advocacy Unit found that political parties in the country
appoint women to "window dress" and not for their political advancement.[311]
Society and culture

Women in Zimbabwean society and culture are often seen as inferior, treated as objects, and viewed in
subordinate roles in history and philosophy.[312] Ubuntu, an African philosophy's spiritual aspect
instills the belief that boys should be more valued than girls as boys pass on lineage and the belief
system places high value in respecting ones ancestors.[312] A common expression used in court,
"vakadzi ngavanyarare", translates to "women should keep quiet" and as a result women are not
consulted in decision-making; they must implement the men's wishes.[312] The subordination of
women in Zimbabwe and the cultural forces which dictate what they must be, have led to deaths and
the sacrifice of professional advancement in order for them to fulfill their roles as wives, mothers, and
subordinates.[305][312] Women are taught that they must never refuse their husbands sexual advances,
even if they know they are infected with HIV from being unfaithful.[312] As a result of this practice,
Zimbabwean women aged 15–49 have an HIV prevalence rate of 16.1% and make up 62% of the total
population infected with HIV in that age group.[313]
See also
Index of Zimbabwe-related articles
Outline of Zimbabwe
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Sources
Parsons, Neil (1993). A New History of Southern Africa (https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofsou
t0000pars) (2nd ed.). London, England: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-84195319-2.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO3.0
UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406
e.pdf), UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-
to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
Further reading
Burke, Jason (10 August 2019). " 'Hungry kids collapse as looters take millions': life in today's
Zimbabwe" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/10/zimbabwe-emmerson-mnangagwa-b
attle-to-survive). The Guardian.
Barclay, Philip (2010), Zimbabwe: Years of Hope and Despair.

Bourne, Richard. Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? (2011); 302 pages.
McGregor, JoAnn; Primorac, Ranka, eds. (2010), Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and
the Cultural Politics of Survival, Berghahn Books, 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement
as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and
South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse.
Meredith, Martin. Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future (2007) excerpt
and text search (https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003STCO04/).
Orner, Peter; Holmes, Annie (2011), Hope Deferred: Narratives of Zimbabwean Lives (http://www.
voiceofwitness.org/hope-deferred/), Voice of witness.
Smith, Ian Douglas. Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence (2008)
excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/dp/1857826043/).
Fontein, Joost "Remaking Mutirikwi: Landscape, Water and belonging in Southern Zimbabwe"
(2015), James Currey, BIEA Eastern African Series.
External links
Parliament of Zimbabwe (https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140754/http://www.parlzim.gov.z
w/)—official government site
Zimbabwe Government Online (https://web.archive.org/web/20050619011628/http://www.zim.gov.
zw/) official government mirror site
Zimbabwe (https://curlie.org/Regional/Africa/Zimbabwe) at Curlie
Zimbabwe profile (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14113249) from the BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of Zimbabwe
"Zimbabwe" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/zi.html). The World

Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Zimbabwe (https://web.archive.org/web/20081024133532/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpub
s/for/zimbabwe.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Key Development Forecasts for Zimbabwe (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Cou
ntry=ZW) from International Futures
World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zimbabwe (http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Countr
y/ZWE/Year/2012/Summary)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zimbabwe&oldid=943710899"
This page was last edited on 3 March 2020, at 14:13 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
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Zimbabwe

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3/12/2020 Zimbabwe - Wikipedia

Coordinates: 20°S 30°E

Zimbabwe (/zɪmˈbɑːbweɪ, -wi/), officially the Republic

common. Motto: "Unity, Freedom, Work"[1]

Agriculture Currency Zimbabwean dollar

Science and technology Driving side left

Demographics Calling code +263

Societies speaking proto-Shona languages first emerged in the middle

Around 1821 the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan

After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840,

Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964)

in the First Matabele War. Rhodes additionally sought permission

In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and

the name "Rhodesia" for the

Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing

In 1953, in the face of African opposition,[52] Britain consolidated the two

UDI and civil war (1965–1980)

The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of

In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African

Independence era (1980–present)

Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona

On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a presidential election along

On 10 July 2008, Russia and China vetoed UN Zimbabwe

A 2011 survey by Freedom House suggested that living conditions

On 17 January 2013, Vice President John Nkomo died of cancer at

Mugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013 Zimbabwean

most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the country's extreme

Flora and fauna

In the low-lying parts of the country fever trees, mopane,

In 1987 then-prime minister Mugabe revised the constitution,

The MDC-T led by Morgan Tsvangirai is now the majority in the

Government Minister Saviour Kasukuwere admitted the remains

Journalists found a body in the mine with 'what appeared to be

Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to Rtd

The mining sector remains very lucrative, with

In terms of carats produced, the Marange field is

Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South

Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the

The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly

By 2005, the purchasing power of the average

Since the land reform programme in 2000, tourism in

In 2016, the total contribution of tourism to Zimbabwe

Several airlines pulled out of Zimbabwe between 2000

Water supply and sanitation

There are many factors which continue to determine the nature,

Three major factors are the severely depressed state of the

Science and technology

To do so, however, Zimbabwe will need to correct a number of

The country's Second Science and Technology Policy was

As in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring

Survey Number Date Source

National Survey 880–960,000 2007 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee[238]

Former Farm Workers 1,000,000 2008 UNDP[237]

Victims of Operation Murambatsvina 570,000 2005 UN[239]

People Displaced by Political Violence 36,000 2008 UN[237]

Zimbabwe has many different cultures which may include beliefs

This is usually eaten as lunch or dinner, usually with sides such as

Rugby union is a significant sport in Zimbabwe. The national side

Zimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases (such

in the world according to UN figure—44 for men and 43 for

Life expectancy in Life expectancy in

Source: UN World Population Prospects[294]

The wealthier portion of the population usually send their