Fvets 04 00068
Fvets 04 00068
This review aims to report an update on drugs administered into the epidural space for
anesthesia and analgesia in dogs, describing their potential advantages and disadvan-
tages in the clinical setting. Databases searched include Pubmed, Google scholar, and
CAB abstracts. Benefits of administering local anesthetics, opioids, and alpha2 agonists
into the epidural space include the use of lower doses of general anesthetics (anesthetic
“sparing” effect), perioperative analgesia, and reduced side effects associated with sys-
temic administration of drugs. However, the potential for cardiorespiratory compromise,
Edited by: neurotoxicity, and other adverse effects should be considered when using the epidural
Christopher R. Byron, route of administration. When these variables are considered, the epidural technique
Virginia Tech, USA
is useful as a complementary method of anesthesia for preventive and postoperative
Reviewed by:
analgesia and/or as part of a balanced anesthesia technique.
Yael Shilo-Benjamini,
Koret School of Veterinary Medicine,
Keywords: epidural, canine, analgesia, anesthesia, opioids, local anesthetics, pain
Israel
Michael Jaffe,
Midwestern University, USA
*Correspondence: INTRODUCTION
Bradley T. Simon
[email protected] Epidural administration of drugs for pain management has been widely used in veterinary medi-
cine (1–3). The advantage of this route is its proximity to the spinal cord receptors involved in the
Specialty section:
modulation and transmission of the nociceptive signal. The terms epidural and extradural refer to
This article was submitted to the space outside the dura mater. The terms intrathecal, subarachnoid, and spinal refer to the space
Veterinary Surgery and between the pia mater and arachnoid membrane. Epidural anesthesia refers to the sensory, motor,
Anesthesiology, and autonomic blockade produced by epidural administration of local anesthetics while epidural
a section of the journal analgesia refers to epidural administration of analgesics, such as opioids.
Frontiers in Veterinary Science
The use of this technique may provide preemptive analgesia by inhibiting central sensitization
Received: 29 November 2016 and modulating afferent signals to the dorsal horn, reducing pain and inhalant, and/or analgesic
Accepted: 20 April 2017 requirements during the perioperative period (4–6). In addition, epidural anesthesia suppresses
Published: 12 May 2017
the markers of stress response as represented by decreases in serum concentrations of cortisol and
Citation: norepinephrine for up to 48 h after administration (7–9).
Steagall PVM, Simon BT, Absolute contraindications to epidural anesthesia include untreated hypovolemia, coagulation
Teixeira Neto FJ and Luna SPL
disorders, septicemia, bacteremia, skin trauma, neoplasia, and/or infection at the lumbosacral region
(2017) An Update on Drugs Used for
Lumbosacral Epidural Anesthesia and
(2, 10). Some neurological diseases, spinal cord trauma, low-dose heparin therapy, and anatomical
Analgesia in Dogs. changes including trauma of the pelvic area and obesity resulting in difficulty locating the lumbosa-
Front. Vet. Sci. 4:68. cral space are considered relative contraindications (2). The use of ultrasonography to locate the
doi: 10.3389/fvets.2017.00068 epidural space may circumvent this latter issue (11).
The benefits of this technique often outweigh the risks; (29–35). For example, the use of low concentration of local
however, clinicians should be aware of potential complications anesthetics (e.g., bupivacaine less than 0.25%) or low-dose bupi-
such as technical failure, contamination, hematoma, accidental vacaine (0.05 mL kg−1) may be useful when sensory blockade is
intrathecal injections, respiratory depression, sympathetic block- desired with minimum impairment of motor function (36–38).
ade, bradycardia, hypotension, neurological deficits, delayed hair This property of “differential” or “selective” blockade may be
growth, pruritus, and urinary retention (12–18). For example, attributed to the larger diameter and more profound myelination
an epidural abscess and lumbosacral discospondylitis has been of Aα motor nerve fibers when compared with Aδ and C fibers
reported in a dog most likely due to colonic perforation or fecal (39). However, this is not always the case and motor function may
contamination (19). The technique was performed after multiple be blocked even when low concentrations are administered (40).
skin penetrations and subcutaneous needle redirections were It has been recommended that dogs be positioned in sternal
done prior to achieving correct epidural placement. Epidural recumbency and kept in this position following injection to provide
injections should only be performed after strict aseptic technique bilateral analgesia or in lateral recumbency with the surgical site as
and manipulations should be gentle and cautious. In addition, the dependent side until the block has taken effect (32). One study
epidural injections should be performed with preservative-free using canine cadavers showed that if greater cranial migration of
solutions to avoid the toxic effects produced by preservatives on an epidurally administered drug is desired, placing the patient in
the spinal cord. However, in research settings, epidural admin- lateral recumbency with the surgical site on the dependent side for
istration of morphine containing 0.1% of sodium metabisulfite 30–40 min may precede surgery (gravity effect) (32). In the authors’
did not cause neurotoxicity in dogs (20). In humans, side effects experience, placing the affected limb in a dependent position for the
after intrathecal administration of morphine containing up to duration of the clipping and surgical preparation (approximately
0.004% sodium edetate and up to 0.04% of sodium metabisulfate 30 min) is enough time to achieve this effect without delaying
appeared to be non-existent in 15 patients (21). In rats and sheep, surgery.
chronic intrathecal administration of neostigmine containing When local anesthetics are administered epidurally using a
methyl- and propylparaben did not produce any histologic evi- Tuohy needle for epidural catheter placement, the needle bevel
dence of neurotoxicity. Some institutions in North America and should face the head of the animal since it will facilitate the
Europe use morphine containing 0.1% of sodium metabisulfite threading of the catheter to more cranial portions of the spinal
by the epidural route on a routine basis in dogs without reporting canal (41). However, there is a lack of evidence to support the
side effects (9). benefit of this technique when an epidural catheter is not being
Epidural administration of local anesthetics can be effective used, as the Tuohy needle bevel direction had limited clinical sig-
for a variety of surgical procedures such as cesarean section (22), nificance on preferential spread of 1.5% lidocaine after epidural
orthopedic procedures in the hind limb, and soft tissue surgeries administration in young (<40 years of age) human subjects (42).
(8, 23). In these cases, minimal maternal and fetal depression (22) Another factor that may play a role in the cephalad migration
and less cardiopulmonary depression than general anesthesia of the local anesthetic in the spinal canal is the velocity of injec-
(23) have been observed. Epidural anesthesia has been frequently tion. However, a recent study showed that an injection velocity
used in combination with general anesthesia to reduce anesthetic of 1 mL min−1 compared with 2 mL min−1 of 0.5% bupivacaine
and analgesic requirements, improve analgesia, and quality of after epidural administration had limited effect on injectate
anesthetic recovery (8, 24–26). distribution and sensory blockade in anesthetized dogs (33). The
This review reports potential advantages and disadvantages effect of epidural drug injection velocity on duration and quality
of each class of drugs and their combinations used for epidural of analgesia is yet to be determined (43). In the authors’ routine,
anesthesia and analgesia in dogs. The epidural technique per se is injectate volume is commonly administered over approximately
not the main focus of this article and has been reported elsewhere 1 min. Peak cephalad migration of the injectate to the level of the
(10, 27). cervical vertebra within the spinal canal is typically reached at
doses of 0.4 mL kg−1 in dogs (40). Patients with high body mass
index may have a smaller volume of epidural space due to accu-
LOCAL ANESTHETICS mulation of adipose tissue in the spinal canal (34, 44). This factor
Local anesthetics diffuse across the dura mater to act on nerve may contribute to a more cranial migration of the local anesthetic
roots and the spinal cord, and into the paravertebral area through specifically with injections in the lumbosacral region (45). Lean
the intervertebral foramina, producing multiple paravertebral body weight or spinal column length (occipital condyle to the first
nerve blocks after epidural administration (28). coccygeal vertebra) should be used when calculating the epidural
dose in obese patients or those with abnormal spinal column
conformations (35). An upward sloping body position of patients
Factors Influencing Onset and Duration of in sternal recumbency also did not affect injectate spread (44).
Autonomic, Sensory, and Motor Blockade
The extent of the sensory, motor, and autonomic blockade
produced by a lumbosacral epidural injection will depend on Side Effects after Epidural Administration
the cranial distribution of the local anesthetic according to the of Local Anesthetics and Their Treatment
anesthetic volume, concentration, velocity of injection, amount In general, small volumes (0.1 mL kg−1) of 2% lidocaine or 0.5%
of the epidural fat, epidural space size, posture, and gravity bupivacaine produce blockade of the immediate lumbosacral
area while larger volumes (0.2 mL kg−1) produce complete dogs weighing more than 30 kg (10). However, larger volumes
desensitization of the caudal portions of the abdominal cavity, have been reported (8.6 mL) without complications (53). The
inguinal area, hind limbs, tail, and perineum (30, 46). Although authors have also used higher volumes (e.g., 8 mL) of epidural
volumes of local anesthetic exceeding 0.2–0.25 mL kg−1 may injectate in large canine breeds without complications but one
desensitize areas up to the thoracic and cervical vertebrae should consider that smaller volume per kg of bodyweight (less
(31, 40), the use of greater volumes is not recommended than 0.2 mL kg−1) is often enough for pelvic limb surgery.
because long-term blockade of sympathetic fibers may lead to Post-epidural hypotension during combined epidural/general
severe cardiovascular depression, characterized by peripheral anesthesia (systolic arterial blood pressure < 90 mmHg or mean
vasodilation, hypotension and bradycardia (47), and respiratory arterial pressure < 60 mmHg) might be treated by increasing
compromise as a result of blockade of the phrenic nerve (48). intravenous crystalloid administration and reducing vaporizer
Hypovolemia should be treated before epidural anesthesia and concentrations. In humans, post-epidural hypotension was
cardiorespiratory monitoring is strongly recommended during found to be very frequent (55–90%) in patients undergoing
injection otherwise serious complications may occur. Cardiac cesarean section and spinal anesthesia (54). A crystalloid or colloid
arrest due to excessive sympathetic blockade has been reported preload alone was ineffective in preventing hypotension follow-
in a dog with uncorrected hypovolemia after lumbosacral ing the administration of the local anesthetic (17, 54). Ephedrine
administration of epidural 2% lidocaine (5.33 mg kg−1) (49). (0.05 mg kg−1 IV), a non-selective agonist of beta and alpha recep-
Extensive cranial spread of epidural administration of 0.75% tors increases mean arterial blood pressure due to increases in
ropivacaine resulting in high sympathetic blockade (levels T1– systemic vascular resistance and cardiac output, may be effective
T3) was likely to be the cause of cardiovascular depression and in the treatment of post-epidural hypotension. Ephedrine has
the Horner’s syndrome in a dog (13). Horner’s syndrome, ataxia, the advantages of being inexpensive and convenient to use as an
paraplegia, depression, stupor, and intermittent cough were also intravenous (IV) bolus. Given the transient nature of hypotension
reported in dogs receiving epidural lidocaine (0.1–0.2 mL kg−1) observed after epidural anesthesia, the authors have found that
at the level of the seventh thoracic epidural space (50). The a single dose is adequate in most cases. Ephedrine significantly
thoracic epidural space for the administration of anesthetics or increased cardiac index and stroke volume index but not arterial
analgesics has received little attention in small animal medicine, blood pressure in 5 out 6 dogs that had been treated with an epi-
but may provide an alternative to the lumbosacral approach dural with morphine–bupivacaine (55) but one has to consider
when analgesia for the thoracic or upper-abdominal region is that this was a small clinical study where different anesthetic
required (50, 51). To avoid cephalad spread and adverse effects protocols had been administered. If ephedrine is ineffective to
associated with the thoracic epidural technique, smaller volumes treat post-epidural hypotension, dopamine can be administered
(0.1 mL kg−1) should be considered when compared to the lum- as a constant rate infusion (5–10 µg kg min−1) as the rate can
bosacral approach. In the authors’ experience, complications are be adjusted according to individual blood pressure responses. If
rare with lumbosacral epidural administration and avoided by bradycardia-induced hypotension is detected, a reflex as a result
following appropriate dosage regimens (Table 1) and technique. of either low right heart filling pressures or from the generation of
The prevalence of cardiovascular adverse effects has been high extradural pressures following an epidural, it can be treated
reported in the literature (6). For example, mild cardiovascular with the administration of an anticholinergic such as atropine
depression developed in 20 of 219 dogs receiving a lumbosacral (0.02–0.04 mg kg−1 IV).
epidural injection of bupivacaine and morphine during inhalation
anesthesia (6). Morphine does not cause sympathetic blockade and Drugs
therefore it is likely that the cardiovascular depression reported in Table 1 shows the local anesthetics used for epidural anesthesia
that study was associated with the blockade of sympathetic gan- in dogs.
glia induced by the local anesthetic. Epidural administration of a Lidocaine is an amide type local anesthetic that can be
large volume of 0.75% ropivacaine (1.65 mg kg−1 or 0.22 mL kg−1) administered into the lumbosacral epidural space to produce a
at the thoracic level was also shown to produce hypotension and rapid desensitization with good muscle relaxation (46). Epidural
bradycardia in isoflurane-anesthetized dogs (17, 52). Transient administration of 0.25 mL kg−1 of 2% lidocaine with epinephrine
hypotension and bradycardia have also been reported in two (1:200,000) results in shorter latency period and shorter duration
obese dogs after lumbosacral epidural administration of local of desensitization, than 0.25 mL kg−1 of 0.5% bupivacaine with
anesthetics (16). Although the volume injected into the epidural epinephrine (1:200,000) (46). Because the duration of sensory
space was 0.2 mL kg−1 in both dogs, the total volume administered blockade is longer following epidural bupivacaine 0.5% alone
was relatively high (8 and 11 mL) (16). Cardiovascular depression (110 ± 14 min) or bupivacaine 0.5%–lidocaine 2% (94 ± 8 min)
may be observed due to the spread of local anesthetic to the upper when compared with lidocaine alone (54 ± 5 min), the use of epi-
four thoracic segments, low right-sided cardiac filling pressure, dural bupivacaine either alone or combined with lidocaine may
high epidural pressure raising cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure be preferred during prolonged surgeries (46). Onset of analgesia
resulting in increased vasomotor tone, and due to undetected has been shown to be clinically similar following epidural admin-
hypovolemia and/or rapid and high volume injection of drugs istration of 2% lidocaine alone (5 ± 1 min) or in combination with
into the epidural space (16). There is usually a recommenda- 0.5% bupivacaine (7 ± 1 min) (46).
tion by veterinarians without scientific support of limiting total Bupivacaine is another amide type local anesthetic with a
injectate volume of local anesthetics to a maximum of 6 mL in prolonged duration of effect compared with lidocaine (56) and
Steagall et al.
TABLE 1 | Commonly used and recommended epidural anesthetics and analgesics in dogs.
Drug Dose (mg kg−1) Final volume (mL kg−1) Onset time Duration of Comments Reference
injected into the LS (min) analgesia (h)
epidural space
Local anesthetics
2% Lidocaine with 1:200,000 5.0 0.25 4–6 1 Duration of motor blockade 60–120 min (46, 60, 66, 68)
epinephrine
0.5% Bupivacaine 0.5–1.0 0.2–0.25 5–15 >2 Duration of complete motor blockade and ataxia was 65 and
240 min, respectively. May be prolonged with 0.75% bupivacaine.
Complete motor blockade may not be observed at 0.25%
0.5% Levobupivacaine 0.5–1.0 0.2 5–15 1–1.5 Duration of complete motor blockade and ataxia was 30 and
180 min, respectively. Complete motor blockade may not be
observed at 0.25%
0.75% Ropivacaine 1.65 0.22 7–15 1.5–2.5 Duration of motor blockade 90–150 min
Opioids
Morphine PF 0.1 0.1 for abdominal and pelvic 45–90 12–24 for pelvic limb and Reduced minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) by 30% and (4, 25, 80)
procedures; 0.25 for thoracic abdominal procedures minimized CV depression from inhalant. Potential for urinary
procedures at 0.1 mL kg−1; 5–6 for retention and pruritus
4
thoractomy procedures at
0.25 mL kg−1
Buprenorphine 0.004 0.2 <60 Up to or greater than 24 Reduced risk for urinary retention (83)
Alpha2-Adrenoreceptor agonists
Dexmedetomidine 0.003–0.006 0.25 <15 Up to 4.5 Dose-dependent MAC reduction up to 4.5 h. Bradycardia and (110, 111)
may induce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiotoxicity at lower be seen when epinephrine is added to long acting local anesthet-
doses than lidocaine (57) but this is usually not a concern when ics such as bupivacaine and ropivacaine, presumably because the
doses and concentrations stated in this review are followed. At greater solubility of these drugs causes them to bind avidly to tis-
clinically used doses, epidural bupivacaine has limited effects on sues. In one study, the sensory and motor blockade produced by
ventilation and oxygenation (24). Delayed hair growth following epidural administration of 0.75% bupivacaine or 1% ropivacaine
epidural bupivacaine has been reported in dogs (6, 14). However, in dogs was not further prolonged when epinephrine (1:200,000)
this is observed following any epidural injection and not only was added to the local anesthetic solutions. However, epinephrine
with bupivacaine. Other factors such as season, housing, diet, or reduced the average anesthetic blood concentration observed in
care of the coat may contribute to delayed hair growth following both treatment groups (62) possibly decreasing the likelihood of
lumbosacral epidurals in dogs (14). The epidural administration systemic toxicity. In a more recent study, dogs undergoing tibial
of 0.2 mL kg−1 or 0.22 mL kg−1 of 0.25% or 0.75% bupivacaine plateau leveling osteotomy that received an epidural combination
results in analgesia to the level of the third or fourth lumbar of ropivacaine, sufentanil, and epinephrine had longer lasting
vertebra, respectively (40, 58). A larger volume (0.31 mL kg−1) analgesia with less adverse effects when compared to epidural
is required to anesthetize up to the eleventh thoracic vertebra ropivacaine alone or combined with sufentanil (71). Therefore,
(59) but this volume may not be recommended for clinical use the addition of epinephrine (1:200,000) to local anesthetics is an
because sympathetic blockade followed by hypotension may alternative to prolong duration of action of standard formula-
result especially during the combine used of epidural anesthesia tions of local anesthetics. However, in some cases, this may be a
with inhalational anesthetics. The onset of motor blockade after disadvantage especially if motor tone and normal ambulation are
lumbosacral administration of 0.5% bupivacaine (1.8 mg kg−1) is impaired hours after surgery.
approximately 2–4 min and lasts about 2–3 h (60).
Ropivacaine is a highly lipid soluble local anesthetic with the OPIOIDS
advantage of being less arrhythmogenic and toxic for the CNS and
cardiovascular system than bupivacaine. Of interest, both drugs Opioids act by binding to opioid receptors that are located in
have similar pharmacokinetic profiles (61–64). It is believed the central nervous system, spinal cord, and peripheral tissues.
that ropivacaine causes less motor blockade than bupivacaine in Epidural or spinal administration of opioids relieve somatic and
humans (65) and dogs (29, 66), but this has not been confirmed in visceral pain by selectively blocking nociceptive impulses with-
clinical trials using dogs. To obtain a successful blockade (>80%) out interfering with sensory and motor function or depressing
up to dermatomes T13–L1, a volume of 0.22 mL kg−1 using the the sympathetic nervous system (72). The pharmacodynamic
concentration of 0.75% of bupivacaine or ropivacaine has been profile is based on their receptor specificity, affinity, potency, and
recommended (30). efficacy at the different opioid receptors and has been discussed
Levobupivacaine is the S (-) isomer of bupivacaine and elsewhere (73, 74).
produced longer duration of motor block when compared with
racemic bupivacaine in dogs (67). However, the dose-dependent Drugs
analgesic and motor-blocking effects of epidurally adminis- Highly hydrophilic drugs, such as morphine, produce analgesia
tered levobupivacaine and racemic bupivacaine (0.25, 0.5, and 30–40 min after epidural administration and have long duration
0.75%) were similar in conscious dogs (68). Like ropivacaine, of effect due to the delayed systemic absorption and longer main-
levobupivacaine is less arrhythmogenic and cardiotoxic than tenance in the spinal cord (75, 76). Highly lipophilic drugs, such
bupivacaine (63). as fentanyl and meperidine have a shorter latency and duration of
action (73, 77, 78). Lipophilicity can increase uptake into the adi-
pose tissue of the epidural space, the degree of which will depend
Adjuvants Drugs without Intrinsic on the quantity of fat around the epidural space. Therefore, the
Analgesic Effect in Combination with tendency of drugs with high lipid partition coefficients to bind
Local Anesthetics into the lipid phase leads to drug sequestration in lipid layers.
The duration and intensity of desensitization produced by the In dogs, epidural administration of 0.1 mg kg−1 of mor-
epidural technique will be influenced by the addition of adjuvant phine reduced the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of
drugs without intrinsic analgesic effect. Epinephrine (1:200,000 halothane by 30% and minimized the hemodynamic depression
or 5 µg mL−1) aims to increase the duration of action and reduce produced by the inhalant agent (4, 79). Since morphine is more
the incidence of adverse effects by reducing systemic absorption soluble in water than in fat, epidural administration of this opioid
of the local anesthetic from the injection site (69–71). In dogs, results in relatively high concentrations of the drug in the CSF
the epidural administration of mepivacaine with epinephrine (76). The tendency for epidural morphine to accumulate in the
(1:200,000) exerted considerable influence on the azygos venous CSF rather than in fat results in delayed systemic absorption
blood uptake: peak concentrations of mepivacaine were reduced and facilitates the cranial spread of this opioid in the vertebral
by two-thirds and systemic absorption of the drug was delayed. canal (76). These unique pharmacokinetic properties of epidural
The azygos vein collects most of the blood draining from the morphine (long residence time in the CSF and delayed systemic
internal vertebral venous plexus; therefore, the concentration absorption) explain why lower doses of this opioid administered
of local anesthetics in this vein is an approximation of the total epidurally (0.1 mg kg−1) will often result in more prolonged anal-
uptake by the epidural plexus (69). However, this effect may not gesic effects than those observed after systemic administration of
higher doses and the extension of the analgesic effects to more (94, 95), the authors reported good intra- and postoperative
cranial dermatomes, including the chest wall and thoracic limbs analgesia without neurological complications. However, spinal
(75, 76, 80). In one study, epidural morphine (0.1 mg kg−1) administration of opioids may not provide any clinical advan-
produced similar analgesia when compared with intercostal tages over a single epidural injection of bupivacaine and/or
bupivacaine during the first 24 h after thoracotomy (75) and morphine in most of the cases.
both techniques are often combined by the authors for this type The anatomical location in which the opioid has been
of surgery. Epidural administration of morphine may not be administered may also affect duration of analgesia. In one study,
used as a single analgesic technique to treat severe postoperative 0.1 mg kg−1 of morphine administered at T5–T6 provided signifi-
pain. In the two studies comparing the postoperative analgesic cantly longer analgesia (9.9 ± 1.6 h) with minimal side effects when
effects produced by epidural morphine (0.1–0.2 mg kg−1) in compared with its administration at L6–L7 (5.8 ± 0.8 h) following
combination with bupivacaine with those produced by epidural thoracotomy (80). This difference in duration of action may be
morphine alone (0.1–0.2 mg kg−1) or epidural saline (placebo), attributed to its “local” effect when administered adjacent to the
the opioid-local anesthetic combination was always associated site of pain modulation. The use of topical epidural morphine
with longer lasting analgesia and improved pain scores than administered at the site of injury via gelfoam, gelatin sponge,
the other epidural treatments (8, 25). Epidural administration or “splash” technique resulted in varying effects on analgesia
of morphine also provides analgesia for castration procedures during hemilaminectomy in dogs (96–98). The administration
(81). However, the authors do not recommend this technique for of morphine (0.1 mg kg−1) or oxymorphone (0.1 mg kg−1) on a
routine neutering (castration or ovariohysterectomy) since pain gelfoam pad then placed topically in the epidural space at the
after neutering is well controlled with the administration of non- surgical site is used at the authors’ institutions in dogs undergoing
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, parenteral opioids, and other hemilaminectomy as part of a multimodal analgesic protocol.
local anesthetic blocks (intratesticular or intraperitoneal blocks).
Buprenorphine is a promising drug for epidural analgesia Side Effects and Their Treatment
(82) with similar analgesic effect and duration of action when Side effects are not common but may occur following administra-
compared to morphine in dogs undergoing stifle surgery (83). tion of opioids by the epidural route. Mild respiratory depression
Epidural buprenorphine may be useful for some animals because has been reported after epidural administration of 0.1 mg kg−1
it does not appear to induce the urinary retention due to detrusor of morphine in dogs (6) but this is not clinically relevant (38) if
muscle relaxation seen with epidural morphine (84). It is apparent assisted or mechanical ventilation is promptly instituted. Pruritus
that in dogs and humans (83, 85), epidural buprenorphine may has also been reported following epidural and intrathecal mor-
induce long lasting analgesia of similar duration of that provided phine administration (99–101). The use of a 5-hydroxytryptamine
by epidural morphine, but with fewer side effects. However, addi- antagonists (e.g., ondansetron) has been described as treatment
tional studies are necessary to confirm if the epidural administra- for neuraxial opioid-induced pruritus (102). Myoclonic activ-
tion of this opioid can replace epidural morphine in dogs. ity upon recovery from anesthesia was also reported following
Other opioids including different formulations (e.g., intrathecal administration of morphine in dogs (15, 100) but this
methadone, liposome-based sustained-release preparations of is not a clinical issue with epidural injections, providing that the
morphine, oxymorphone, butorphanol, and tramadol) have been maximum dose of 0.1 mg kg−1 is respected and accidental punc-
administered by the epidural route in the experimental and clini- ture of the subarachnoid space does not take place during needle
cal setting but do not provide consistent and additional informa- insertion (103). Studies showed that approximately 3% of dogs
tion that would replace or change current practices (86–92). receiving epidural morphine showed urinary retention postop-
eratively (6, 104). The prevalence of urinary retention increases
when morphine is administered epidurally for postoperative pain
Spinal (Intrathecal) versus Epidural control via indwelling epidural catheter. In this case, abnormal
Administration of Opioids urinary patterns were observed in up to 39% of canine individu-
Spinal administration of opioids is not commonly used in small als (105). In practice, gentle bladder expression after surgery and
animals; however, it may provide some advantages over the before patient extubation avoids atony of the detrusor muscle and
epidural route such as lower intraoperative analgesic failure urinary retention (15).
and faster return to normal motor function (93). A case report Epidural administration of opioids seems to be a valuable tool
described the combination of spinal administration of fentanyl for treatment of postoperative pain mainly as part of a balanced
(0.77 µg kg−1) and bupivacaine (0.31 mg kg−1) and epidural analgesia protocol and not as a sole technique. The dose, time
administration of morphine (0.15 mg kg−1) for tail resection to effect, and duration of action of epidural administration of
and surgical exploration of the pelvic canal in a dog (94). In commonly used opioids are described in Table 1.
addition, a sparing effect of a low dose of spinal morphine
(0.03 mg kg−1) on intraoperative fentanyl requirements in dogs
undergoing spinal surgery has been reported (95) but one should AGONISTS OF ALPHA2-ADRENERGIC
consider that dogs in the control group were intentionally given RECEPTORS
a higher loading dose and constant rate infusion of fentanyl
when compared with the morphine group. The observer was These drugs are potent sedatives and analgesics that bind to
also aware of the treatments administered (95). In both studies noradrenergic receptors of the spinal cord, inhibiting the central
transmission of the afferent nociceptive impulses, by pre- and block when administered by the epidural route (115). Epidural
postsynaptic membrane hyperpolarization and inhibition of administration of ketamine (2 mg kg−1) caused minimal hemody-
norepinephrine and substance P release (5, 106). The use of namic effects in dogs (114) and effectively reduced post-incisional
lower doses of epidural alpha2 agonists minimizes the systemic hyperalgesia in the hind limbs for 12 h in dogs (117), but was more
side effects and produces a more effective antinociception when effective when administered preemptively (118). The advantages
compared with their systemic use (5, 106). of epidural administration of ketamine over the systemic route
in human medicine are controversial (119). Also, the efficacy
Drugs of epidural racemic or ketamine S (+) has rarely been reported
The MAC of isoflurane was reduced by 8, 22, and 33%, after in veterinary medicine (117, 118). Preservative-free ketamine
epidural administration of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 mg kg−1 of xylazine, (S+) resulted in toxic damage to both the spinal cord and nerve
respectively (107). All doses of xylazine decreased the heart rate, roots in both rabbits and humans following repeated intrathe-
but only the highest dose caused second-degree atrioventricular cal administration (120, 121). Indeed, ketamine should not be
block (107). Epidural xylazine was also shown to provide longer administered by the epidural or intrathecal route until further
postoperative analgesia when compared with epidural romifidine, studies report its neurotoxic effects in dogs.
dexmedetomidine, detomidine, and clonidine in dogs (108). This
can be attributed to xylazine’s local-like anesthetic properties and
its low lipophilicity when compared with other alpha2 agonists. OPIOID AND LOCAL ANESTHETIC
Medetomidine might produce dose-dependent antinocic- COMBINATIONS
eption when administered by the epidural route. Postoperative
analgesia was observed for up to 90 min after epidural admin- The combination of opioids with local anesthetics may be ben-
istration of 10 µg kg−1 of medetomidine in dogs (109) whereas eficial because affinity of opioid drugs for their receptors in the
5 µg kg−1 of the drug administered by the epidural route did not spinal cord is increased by local anesthetics (122). The combina-
provide analgesia when a towel clamp was applied to the tail tion of opioids and local anesthetics decreased anesthetic require-
(106). Epidural administration of medetomidine (15 µg kg−1) ments, postoperative analgesic requirements, and plasma cortisol
also caused bradycardia, atrioventricular block, and transient concentrations and improved pain scores in dogs undergoing
hypertension (5). Epidural dexmedetomidine (1 µg kg−1), the surgery when compared with dogs that received an opioid alone
active isomer of medetomidine with a high alpha2-selectivity and (6, 8, 24, 25, 123, 124). The combination morphine–bupivacaine
efficacy, produced an antinociceptive effect and reduced heart provides similar analgesia to femoral-sciatic nerve blocks or con-
rate, without changes in carbon dioxide response, behavior, and stant rate infusions of analgesics in dogs undergoing orthopedic
motor function (110). Epidural administration of dexmedetomi- surgeries (125–128). However, the drug combination may result
dine to isoflurane-anesthetized dogs decreased the MAC of the in more intraoperative hypotension and urinary retention than
inhalant anesthetic in a dose-dependent fashion (111). other forms of local regional techniques due to the effects of local
Epidural administration of these drugs will normally cause anesthetics and morphine on vascular and bladder tone, respec-
mild to moderate cardiovascular changes which may or may tively (125). Epidural administration of morphine (0.1 mg kg−1)
not be tolerated depending on the health status of the patient and 2% lidocaine (0.1 mL kg−1) may be an option when shorter
(112). In addition, there are concerns of using multi-vial drugs duration of motor blockade is desired (129). If urinary retention
(risk of contamination and neurotoxicity) with preservatives for is a concern, the administration of epidural 0.5% bupivacaine
epidural administration. A study showed that epidural admin- (1 mg kg−1) and buprenorphine (0.004 mg kg−1) provided up to
istration of preservative-free dexmedetomidine to rabbits may 24 h of analgesia in dogs undergoing stifle arthroplasty with a low
produce spinal neurotoxicity, characterized by demyelination of incidence (1 out of 13) of urinary retention (130).
the oligodendrocytes in the white matter (113). The neurotoxic Other combinations using local anesthetics and different opi-
effect was attributed to vasoconstriction of the medullary spinal oids have been reported (e.g., methadone–lidocaine, morphine–
vessels and pH of dexmedetomidine that can cause demyelina- ropivacaine, tramadol–lidocaine, oxymorphone–bupivacaine)
tion (113). The prolonged duration of block may be also an issue but it seems that none of these protocols provided clear benefits
after administration of these drugs in combination with local over the administration of morphine–bupivacaine (64, 88, 127,
anesthetics (see below). The dose, time to effect, and duration 131, 132). However, they may be useful when the latter two drugs
of action of epidural administration of commonly used alpha2- are not available.
adrenoreceptor agonists are described in Table 1. The administration of local anesthetics and opioids can be also
performed via a constant rate infusion using an epidural catheter.
DISSOCIATIVE ANESTHETICS In this case, bupivacaine should be diluted to a concentration less
than or equal to 0.125% and will avoid motor weakness than
Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of N-methyl when higher concentrations are used. When combined in a 50:50
D-aspartate receptors involved in the transmission and modu- mixture with morphine (1 mg mL−1), 0.25% bupivacaine is diluted
lation of nociceptive stimuli in the dorsal horn of the spinal to 0.125% and when administered via an indwelling epidural
cord, which plays a key role in chronic pain, reducing spinal catheter to deliver 0.3 mg kg−1 per day of morphine, the total
cord hyperexcitability (114–116). Ketamine has intrinsic local amount of bupivacaine delivered to the patient is 0.75 mg kg−1
anesthetic effects, producing motor, sensory, and sympathetic per day (12).
ALPHA2-ADRENORECEPTOR AGONIST ketamine (ketamine S+) (0.5 or 1 mg kg−1) combined with mor-
AND OPIOID OR LOCAL ANESTHETIC phine (0.025 or 0.05 mg kg−1) provided satisfactory intra- and
postoperative analgesia with cardiorespiratory stability in dogs
COMBINATIONS undergoing ovariohysterectomy (136). However, pain associated
The combination of alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonists and opioids with ovariohysterectomy is moderate and the advantages of the
into the epidural space increases magnitude of analgesia. This syn- use of epidural ketamine alone or combined with other drugs
ergism may be due to the activation of alpha2-adrenoreceptors on should be an objective of further studies.
opiate-containing interneurons, increasing the release of opioid Doses, injection volumes, onset period, and duration of epi-
peptides (133) and also due to the prolongation of the increased dural anesthesia or analgesia produced by combinations of drugs
plasma morphine concentration produced by medetomidine are described in Table 1.
(134). The duration of morphine analgesia was increased by almost Other drugs such as midazolam, ketorolac, and neostigmine
twofold when morphine was administered with medetomidine in have been administered epidurally in dogs in the experimental
dogs (106). According to the authors, this may have been due and clinical setting (137–141). None of these drugs have been
to the waning alpha2-adrenoreceptor-mediated vasoconstriction shown to be promising safe and alternative analgesic techniques
associated with medetomidine in epidural vasculature. Morphine for clinical use.
present in the spinal cord, CSF, and epidural tissues may have
had increased uptake into systemic circulation following the rela- CONCLUSION
tive vasodilation of epidural vessels as the medetomidine effect
subsided (134). The potential for cardiorespiratory compromise, neurotoxicity,
The addition of 0.05% dexmedetomidine (4 µg kg−1) to 0.5% and other side effects should be considered when drugs are to
bupivacaine (1 mg kg−1) provided adequate analgesia; however, be administered into the epidural space. These drugs should be
prolonged duration of motor blockade was a clinical concern selected according to the potency, onset and duration of action,
following pelvic orthopedic surgeries in dogs (126). Time to first surgical procedure, cardiorespiratory changes, and local and
urination was earlier but pain scores worsened at 1 h following systemic side effects. When these variables are considered, the
surgery when compared with dogs receiving epidural bupiv- epidural route is useful as a complementary method of anesthe-
acaine–morphine for similar procedures (126). The combination sia, preemptive and postoperative analgesia, and/or as part of a
of alpha2 agonists with opioids or local anesthetics might be a balanced anesthesia technique.
good option for pain management in healthy dogs that are in
severe pain. However, the same concerns described with the AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
administration of agonists of alpha2 receptors alone should be
taken in consideration. PS, BS, FN, and SL have contributed to gathering data and writing
of the manuscript; have thoroughly evaluated the final product
DISSOCIATIVE ANESTHETIC AND OPIOID and checked all references; PS and BS assisted with the manu-
script publication process.
OR LOCAL ANESTHETIC COMBINATIONS
Ketamine might have an analgesic sparing effect when combined FUNDING
with local anesthetics and opioids (115). However, there was no
potential advantage when opioids and ketamine were combined The open access publishing fees for this article have been covered
in humans (116) neither when ketamine (2.5 mg kg−1) was in part by the Texas A&M University Open Access to Knowledge
administered with meperidine (2 mg kg−1) by the epidural route Fund (OAKFund), supported by the University Libraries and the
of administration in dogs (135). On the other hand, levorotatory Office of the Vice President for Research.
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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was con-
in dogs receiving epidural morphine plus medetomidine. J Vet Pharmacol
ducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
Ther (2003) 26:71–7. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2885.2003.00452.x
construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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ally administered ketamine and pethidine in dogs. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol
Clin Med (2003) 50:254–8. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0442.2003.00497.x Copyright © 2017 Steagall, Simon, Teixeira Neto and Luna. This is an open-access
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in combination with morphine on intraoperative and postoperative pain the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this
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