1.

INTRODUCTION
At first centrifugal casting was developed by A G Eckhardt in England during 1809. It utilizes
the centrifugal forces caused by rotation to distribute the molten metal to the mould cavities. So,
because of this centrifugal force the molten metal will be sticking to the mould that is how
we get the required geometry of the casting. So, this is the simple principle of the centrifugal
casting process.

There are 3 types of centrifugal castings :- i) True centrifugal casting (Horizontal & Vertical )

ii) Semi centrifugal cating

iii) Centrifuging casting

Fig-1 Horizontal & Vertical true centrifugal casting

If we focused on higher length and shorter diameter horizontal centrifugal casting followed. If
we focused for heavy parts whose diameter is more important than the length for this case
vertical centrifugal casting followed.

In metallurgical industries, centrifugal casting is widely used as one of the advanced casting
technique. It is a liquid phase process. Centrifugal casting machine is made of a high-speed
motor, joint with a suitable sample holder which is capable of rotation around the same axis of
motor. Centrifugal casting is a process of casting by causing molten metal to solidify in rotating
mould. In which the rate of pouring metal and speed of rotation is vary with the casting material
and its size and shape that is being cast.
The essential feature of the centrifugal casting is the introduction of liquid metal into a rotating
mold. Centrifugal force plays major role in shaping and feeding of the casting. There are process
variables like pouring temperature, speed of rotation, mould temp, pouring rate.

2.LITRATURE REVIEWS
The cast iron pistons were superseded by aluminium alloy piston around the year 1920. Cole and
Sherman [1] illustrated that, nowadays the replacement of steel and cast iron in automotive
components like pistons with light weight aluminium alloy casting received a significant interest
to improve their performance and efficiency.

Low expansion aluminium–silicon alloys referred by Haque and Young [2] as piston alloys due
to their because Al-Si alloys offer the best balance of deriuqer metaproperties .

According to Morishita et al. [3], aluminium based alloy piston provided particularly for diesel
cycle engine due to its lower weight and better heat radiation. piston aluminium based alloy
piston provided particularly for diesel cycle engine due to its lower weight and better heat
radiation.

Chen [4] showed that, light vehicle engine pistons are commonly cast from near-eutectic multi-
component Al-Si alloys. These alloys had high levels of copper to of 45wt. % and Ni to about 3
wt. %.

The gravity permanent mould casting considered as the pistons conventional manufacturing
method. However, in recent years, new manufacturing methods have emerged. Squeeze casting
is one of the new common fabrication routes for pistons fabrication. It was used to reinforce the
piston head .Currently, Urquhart [5] and Vijayaram et al. [6] reported that these pistons are
manufactured in Japan, Europe and USA.

Ghomashchi [7] and Vikhrov [6] discussed the principles of the squeeze casting process, and
Vijayaram et al. [6] produced metal matrix composite pistons reinforced with ceramic bars using
this method.

Other researchers including Wang and Tung [8], Wang et al. [9], Taymaz et al. [10] and Xu et
al. [11] illustrated that, when the piston surfaces coated with certain ceramic materials their
corrosion and wear resistance improved to some extent. Moreover, other new manufacturing
methods of pistons have been developed.

For example, Liu et al [12] invented a manufacturing method to make partially particle
reinforced pistons by centrifugal casting.

Among the above mention manufacturing methods, Chirita et al. [13] reported that, the
manufacturing of pistons using centrifugal casting process has many advantages such as low
cost, easy operation and good flexibility specially for cylindrical pistons. Moreover, it can be
adapted to meet the requirements for various mechanical performances at specific locations in
the piston. Therefore, centrifugal casting can be considered as a promising manufacturing
method of pistons. Casting mould rotational speed pouring temperature, mold coating and mold
temperature are the most important parameters affecting the centrifugal casting process.

Campbell [14] showed that, the main benefit of the centrifugal casting process is that the high
force resulting from high rotational speed of the mould which not only assists in mould filling,
but may also help to feed the shrinkage during the solidification of the casting. However, this
may be partly offset by the very turbulent nature of the mould filling process which may entrain
various defects such as bubbles and oxide films.

ASM [15] states that, when the molten metal enters the mold, a pressure gradient is established
across the wall thickness by centrifugal acceleration. This causes separation of constituent due to
various densities, with lighter particles such as slags and non-metallic impurities gathering at the
inner diameter. mentioned that the pouring process and temperature affect the structure of the
resultant centrifugal casting more than the initial mold temperature.

Ping et al. [16] showed that, the rotational speed of the mold consider as one of the significant
process variables which affect the molten metal cooling rate.

Suzuki and Yao [17] showed that, the centrifugal force increased by a square proportion when
the rotational speed is increased.This will produce homogenized temperature distribution in the
Melton materials due to the creation of a strong convection in the liquid pool.
Also, Cumberland [18] mentioned that, factors such as friction, surface tension, inertia, etc.
affect the rotational velocity of the molten metal, and thus, it is not possible to calculate the
ideal rotational speed of the mold.

Moreover, Hall [19] stated that usually the speed of rotation is varied during the casting
process. It must be recognized that during the pouring process the direction of movement of the
molten metal changes from vertical to horizontal.

Singh et al. [20] stated that, pouring temperature exerts an important effect on the solidification
mode and needs to be determined partly in relation to the type of structure required.

HU et al. [21] showed that, the metal density can be increased by maintaining a lower pouring
temperature. Low pouring temperature minimizes the gas absorption and gives fine grain size.
However, the minimum temperature is dictated by casting dimensions and pouring condition.

Davis [22] mentions the delivered process of horizontal centrifugal casting where, the pouring
spout is traversed parallel to the axis of rotation and the thickness of the casting is determined
by the rate of feeding.

McLean and Northcott [23] showed that high pouring temperatures slows solidification from the
outer diameter more than it delays freezing from the bore and (presumably) discourages
continuous growth of the outer diameter columnar grains.

According to Northcott and Dickin [24], the higher mold temperatures lead to coarse grains,
especially for equiaxed grains; however, the influence of mold temperature on the grain structure
was minor compared to some of the other parameters. Nevertheless, a low mold temperature can
result in a steep temperature gradient during solidification and this can give rise to banding .

A Evans et.al [25] stated that molds used in centrifugal casting processes are coated internally
with a mold coat, generally of a refractory powder with binder in the form of slurry. The basic
function of this coating is to avoid sticking of the casting to the mold and thus to facilitate
casting withdrawal and to protect the mold.
3. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

3.1 MATERIALS

Two different aluminium alloys were used in the current study; each alloy forms a specific zone
in the piston as shown in Fig. (2). The first aluminium alloy was A336 which located at the
piston skirt. While the second aluminium alloy was A242 located at the piston crown.Table (2)
presents the chemical composition of these alloys. A242 is a high strength low-alloy structural
steel specification with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance. A336 is the alloy whose
tensile strength of aluminium alloy is increased by adding of Si%.
 Fig. 2 Schematic drawing of the piston two zones partitions

Table :- 2 Units chemical analysis of alloys used in the manufacture of piston

No. Alloys Si% Cu% Mg% Ni% Fe% Ti% Zn% Mn% Al%

A A336 11.92 1.13 1.13 2.54 0.352 0.028 0.016 0.007 Bal

B A242 0.064 4.21 1.64 2.08 0.287 0.021 0.028 0.009 Bal

3.2 EQUIPMENTS

The equipment operation principle can be briefly described as follows: The mould is attached to
a metallic plate using M6 screws. The rotation of the plate is obtained through the shaft that is
attached to a transmission system that includes a motor, two pulleys and a transmission belt. The
plate motion stability is assured by two bearings placed in the shaft (enclosed by a metallic
cylinder) and by the anti-vibration base. A structure shell is the housing for the overall
equipment, using a tube and a metallic sheet, to guarantee the safety of the equipment.
Mould: The mould has a capacity to pour a piston. Its interior has one core. The core are fixed
by pins for the mould. Piston (oriented outside) is poured through the skirt using pouring
channel of square section. In the superior half-die a pouring basin made of thermo set sand is
used to allow the cut of the sprue when the piece is removed.

Transmission (off the shelf) - The transmission (figure 3) includes a 3-phases motor, two
pulleys and a belt. The movement transmission between the moved pulley and the machine
shaft is carry out by a key.

Figure:-3 Motor, pulleys, belt

Plate – A key assures the movement transmission between the shaft and the plate. This plate
(figure 4) is the component where the mould is attached; it has thread holes for its fixation.
Finally, the plate geometry was design in order to minimize its mass/weight.

Isolated joint – The isolated joint (figure 4) is made in Rockwool material. It is located
between the mould and the plate to minimize the heat transfer between the mould and the other
equipment components, since high temperatures could damage them, namely the belt.

Shaft - The shaft (figure 4) it is the most complex piece of the whole equipment, once it is
composed by three parts: the superior and inferior sections and the thread union. The superior
section serves as a guide and movement transmission for the pulley and the plate. On the other
hand, the inferior section, guarantees stability to the system during rotation, and it is where
bearings are attached. The union between both sections is made by a thread cover, as shown in
the same figure.
 Figure :- 4 Plate, isolated joint, shaft

Bearings :- Bearings (figure 5) were used to allow the relative movement between the rotative
group and the machine support. Two bearings types are used; one of deep groove ball type and
another of taper roller type (supports radial and axial strengths). Bearings assembly is made by
tighten between the shaft and the metallic cylinder.

Anti-vibration system – Outside, bearings are surrounded by a metallic cylinder. This cylinder
is independent of the rigid structure of the machine. There is a small space among both, that
allows the placement of the anti-vibration systems. These systems have the function to absorb
those shocks originated by the shaft and to avoid, this way, the vibrations propagation into the
machine structure. The anti-vibratory system is constituted by anti-vibratory bases (figure 5)
 Figure :-5 Bearing and Anti-vibration system

Figure :-6 Schematic illustrations of vertical centrifugal casting machin

Figure :-7 A photo for the vertical centrifugal casting machine

Figure :-8 piston geometry

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
During the experimental work, centrifugal casting processes carried out at three different
rotational speeds (i.e. 20, 30, and 40 rpm) and two pouring temperatures (i.e. 740 and 780
ºC). While, for permanent casting processes zero rotational speed was applied at the two
pouring temperatures.

Table :-3 Processing parameters of piston manufacturing

Processing Rotational speed RPM Pouring Temperature

(°c)
1 Zero 740
2 Zero 780
3 20 740
4 20 780
5 30 740
6 30 780
7 40 740
8 40 780

 In the first step in the experimental work the casting mold coated with graphite material to
avoid sticking of the casting piston to the mold and thus to facilitate casting withdrawal after the
end of the solidification process which will extend the mold life.

 Secondly, the casting mold heated by Ghazi Bonfire fixed at the centrifugal casting machine
structure. This synchronized with the alloys melting process in the oven.
 After that, pouring process started by pouring the first aluminium alloy (A alloy) inside the
casting mold cavity then the second aluminium alloy (B alloy) poured. Pouring process carried
out during the rotation of the casting mold with the predetermined rotational speed (Fig.9).

 When the solidification process completed the piston withdrew from he casting mold using
the designed ejecting system.

 Finally, sprues are removed using a turning machine. Then, the casted pistons are numbered
for conducting the tests on them later. Figure (10) is a photo for the pistons produced in all
cases.

Figure :-9 Schematic representation of the pouring process

 Figure :-10 A photo for the pistons produced in all cases

5. TESTING PROCEDURE

5.1 HARDNESS TEST

Vickers hardness test carried out on the fabricated pistons. The load was applied for 15 seconds.
Hardness measurements applied on the skirt and crown zones of the piston. Two hardness
readings were taken and averaged for each zone. Figure (11) shows locations for hardness tests.
Specimens were grinded and polished before testing.
 Figure :-11 Locations for hardness test

5.2 WEAR TESTING

The wear test was measured by weight loss and was performed on Pin-on-Disc apparatus type
(model TNO R,The Netherlands), in accordance to the ASTM. In this test the specimen
dimensions were 7.5 mm in width, 7.5 mm in Depth and 12 mm length. An axial load of 40 N
was applied with a rotating speed of 520 rpm and a wear period of 15 min using dry friction
conditions. The specimens ‘ends were polished with 1200 grit emery paper and cleaned with
acetone. A digital balance with a 0.1 mg accuracy was used to measure the mass of specimens
before and after frication.

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 HARDNESS

The average hardness values of the investigated zones (i.e. piston skirt and piston crown) at
different pouring temperatures (740 and 780 ºC) using different rotational speeds (0, 20, 30 and
40 rpm) are illustrated in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 respectively. Average hardness values were directly
proportional to the casting mold rotational speed. It can be noted that, the average hardness
values increased with the increasing of casting mold rotational speed (Figs. 12 and 13). The
reason for this is that where the molten metal enters the mold, a pressure gradient is established
at the outer diameter (the external surfaces of the piston)by centrifugal acceleration. This
causes notlemalloy constituent of various densities to separate, with lighter particles such as
slags and non-metallic impurities gathering at the inner diameter. However, under the same
conditions, the average hardness values are inversely proportional to the increasing of pouring
temperature. The reason for this is the occurrence of oxidants in the alloys.

Figure:-12 Hardness of piston skirt at different rotational speed using different pouring
temperature

Figure:-13 Hardness of piston crown at different rotational speed and different pouring
temperature
Figure (14) illustrates the relation between the average hardness values obtained for piston skirt
and crown and the casting mold rotational speed at pouring temperature of 740 °C. It can be
noted that, the average hardness values at piston skirt are higher than those of piston crown for
the different rotational speeds. This may be due to the presence of silicon element in the A-alloy
found at the piston skirt.

Figure:- 14 Comparison between the average hardness values of piston skirt and crown at
pouring temperature of 740°C using different rotational speeds

6.2 WEIGHT LOSS

Figure (15) illustrates the relation between the weight loss of Alloy located at the piston skirt
with various rotational mold speeds at different pouring temperatures (740 and 780) °C after
wear tests. Weight loss in the A-alloy and mold rotational speed have a inversely relationship.
Since, the weight loss reduced with increasing the mold rotational speed. This may be explained
by the increase of homogenization in the product surface (piston) with the increasing of casting
mold rotational speed (Fig.15). Furthermore, it can be observed that, the weight loss in the Alloy
at the same mold rotational speed conditions increased with the increasing of pouring temp
Figure:-15 Relation between the weight loss at A-alloy with various rotational speeds mold at
different pouring temperature

7. CONCLUSIONS
(1) Successfully manufacturing composite pistons composed of two aluminium alloys using
centrifugal casting process. This type of pistons contains two types of alloys, which each one
of them can meet the piston mechanical requirements such as hardness and wear.

(2) Average hardness values improved with centrifugal casting process compared to the
permanent casting process.
(3) Using the centrifugal casting process, average hardness values increased with the
increasing of casting mold rotational speed and decreased with the increasing of pouring
temperature.

(4) The highest average hardness value found at the piston skirt zone (126.5 HV) using
pouring temperature of 740 °C and a rotational speed mold of 40 rpm.

(5) Wear properties were improved using centrifugal casting process compared with the
permanent casting process.

(6) The weight loss values decreases with the increasing of casting mold rotational speed and
increased with increasing the pouring temperature in the centrifugal process.

(7) The weight loss of the piston skirt zone (A- alloy) is less than that of other zones.

(8) Pouring temperature of 740 °C and mold rotational speed of 40 rpm shows the best wear
behaviour (minimum weight loss value of 8.1 mg

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