No.123 Landlord and Tenant Responsibility For State and Condition of Property PDF

The Law Commission
Consultation Paper No. 123
Landlord and Tenant

Responsibility for State and Condition of Property
The Law Commission was set up by section 1 of the Law Commissions Act 1965 for the
purpose of promoting the reform of the law.
The Law Commissioners are:
The Honourable Mr. Justice Peter Gibson, Chairman

Mr. Trevor M. Aldridge
Mr. Jack Beatson
Mr. Richard Buxton, Q.C.
Professor Brenda Hoggett, Q.C.
The Secretary of the Law Commission is Mr. Michael Collon and its offices are at Conquest
House, 37-38 John Street, Theobalds Road, London WClN 2BQ.
This consultation paper, completed on 25 March 1992, is circulated for comment and
criticism only. It does not represent the final views of the Law Commission.
The Law Commission would be grateful for comments by 30 November 1992. All
correspondence should be addressed to:
Mrs. S . A. Jones
Law Commission
Conquest House
37-38 John Street
Theobalds Road
London W C l N 280.
(Tel: 07 '1-41 1 1265

Fax: 071-41 1 1297).
It may be helpful for the Law Commission, either in discussion with others concerned or in
any subsequent recommendations, t o be able to refer t o and attribute comments submitted
in response to this consultation paper. Whilst any request to treat all, or part, of a response
in confidence will, of course, be respected, if no such request is made the Law Commission
will assume that the response is not intended to be confidential.
The Law Commission
Consultation Paper No. 123
Landlord and Tenant

Responsibility for State and Condition of Property
LONDON: HMSO
0 Crown copyright 1992
Applications for reproduction should be made to HMSO
First published 1992
ISBN 0 11 730205 8
THE LAW COMMISSION
CONSULTATION PAPER NO. 123
LANDLORD AND TENANT

i
~
RESPONSIBILITY FOR STATE AND CONDITION OF PROPERTY
CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
PART I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 1

Background 1.1 1
Fitness for Human Habitation 1.12 1
Scope of this Paper 1.13 4
Structure of this Paper 1.15 4
PART 11: THE PRESENT LAW 2.1 5

A. Common Law 2.3 5
Landlords’ Obligations 2.3 5
Human Habitation 2.4 5
Correlative Duties 2.5 6
Other Property 2.8 7
Repair on Notice 2.14 9
Liability for Negligence 2.15 9
No Other Duties 2.16 10
Tenants’ Obligations 2.17 10
B. Contract 2.18 11
Repair 2.18 11
Improvements 2.22 12
Inherent Defects 2.23 13
Standard of Repair 2.27 14
C. Statutory Duties 2.29 14
Short Residential Tenancies 2.31 15
Right to Buy Long Leases 2.34 17
iii
Paragraph Page
D. Enforcement 2.36 17
Damages 2.37 18
Specific Performance 2.41 19
Rights of Entry 2.45 20
E. Waste 2.46 20
Categories of Waste 2.47 21

Defences 2.48 22
Tenants ’ Liability 2.49 23
F. Other Statutes 2.50 23
General 2.52 23
Residential Property - 2.53 24
Public Nuisance 2.59 26
Commercial Property 2.63 27
PART 111: NEED FOR REFORM 3.1 29

Condition of Premises 3.3 30
Repair 3.3 30
Improvement 3.6 30
Date of Letting 3.14 33
Modernisation 3.16 34
Responsibility 3.20 35
Part of Building 3.20 35
Services 3.25 36
Landlord’s Repairing on Notice 3.28 37
Crown as Landlord 3.29 38
Enforcement 3.30 38
Damages 3.30 38
Rights of Entry 3.33 39
iv
Paragraph Page
General Considerations 3.35 40

Clarity of Rules 3.35 40
Type of Property 3.38 40
PART IV: REFORM: PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 4.1 42

Objectives 4.1 42
Encapsulating the Parties’ Bargain 4.2 42
Correcting Inequality of Bargaining Power 4.6 43
Separate Categories 4.10 44
Fitness for Use 4.12 45
i
i Public Concern 4.17 47
Encouraging Repair 4.20 48
Role of Lease Bargains 4.21 48
PART V: REFORM OPTIONS 5.1 51

NO CHANGE 5.2 51
A NEW APPROACH 5.5 51
Duty to Maintain 5.6 52
Intended purpose 5.9 52
Limits on Work 5.10 53
Neighbouring Property 5.13 54
Access and Easements 5.15 54
Allocation of Responsibility 5.18 55
Primary Responsibility 5.19 56
The Crown 5.29 58
Sub-tenants 5.30 59
Transitional Provisions 5.31 59
Leases 5.31 59
Statutes 5.34 59
Waste 5.35 60
V
Paragraph Page
INDIVIDUAL REFORMS 5.36 60

Meaning of "Repair" 5.37 60
Improvement 5.38 60
Existing Defects 5.49 62
Standard at Date of Letting 5.52 63
Property to be Repaired 5.56 65
Waste 5.58 65
Enforcement 5.60 66
Objective 5.60 66
Damages 5.62 66
The Crown 5.63 67
PART VI: SUMMARY OF ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION 6.1 68

The Present Law 6.2 68
Repair 6.3 68
Responsibility 6.4 68
Enforcement 6.5 69
General 6.6 69
Reform 6.7 69
Objectives 6.7 69
First Option: No Change 6.8 70
Second Option: A New Approach 6.9 70
Third Option: Individual Reforms 6.10 71
Meaning of "Repair" 6.11 71
Waste 6.12 72
Enforcement 6.13 72
vi
THE LAW COMMISSION
LANDLORD AND TENANT

RESPONSIBILITY FOR STATE AND CONDITION OF PROPERTY
PART I
INTRODUCTION
I
~ Background 1.1 Both landlord and tenant have an obvious interest in the state and condition of
property which one lets to the other. The landlord wishes to ensure that the value
of his property is maintained; the tenant may equally be interested in its value,
- 1
but is also concerned that it is in or is put into a fit state for the use to which he
wishes to put it. The obligations which one or both parties undertake to maintain
the property may be a matter of contract, with the terms recorded in the lease or
tenancy agreement, or in some cases they are implied by law.
1.2 The present rules can be criticised for not guaranteeing that there will always be
a party responsible for maintaining premises which are let, for failing to provide
a satisfactory standard which premises must meet, for providing incomplete and
piecemeal statutory intervention and for being difficult to ascertain. This
Consultation Paper examines the scope of both the contractual and the implied
obligations, and also issues concerning their enforcement, with a view to solutions
to meet the criticisms.
1.3 In 1950 the Jenkins Committee recommended the adoption of standard repairing
obligations, as part of a code of standard covenants to apply to most leases.' The
suggested range of obligations followed what the Committee considered to be
normal practice in increasing the landlord's degree of responsibility as the period
of the letting reduced. It was to be possible to exclude the standard terms by
written agreement between the parties.* This scheme was not adopted.
1.4 The Housing Act 1961 introduced implied repairing obligations on the part of the
landlord into most lettings of residential accommodation for terms of up to seven
years3 This duty can only be excluded under the authority of a court order.
1.5 In 1970 the Commission published a Report4 which included two

recommendations: first, that landlords should be liable for damage or injury
They were to apply to unfurnished lettings at a rack rent of all types of premises, but not to
furnished lettings or building leases.
Leasehold Committee - Final Report (1950) Cmd. 7982, paras. 267-273 and Table facing p. 118.
Housing Act 1961, ss.32-33, now Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, ss.11-16; paras. 2.31 et seq
below.
Civil Liabiliv of Vendors and Lessors for Defective Premises (1970) Law Com. No. 40.
1
resulting from defects in premises of which they knew at the date of the letting
and, secondly, that a landlord under a repairing obligation or with a right to do
repairs should have a general duty of care in relation to injury or damage resulting
from a failure to perform the obligation or to exercise the right? The second, but
not the first,6 of these recommendations was implemented by the Defective
Premises Act 1972.7
1.6 In 1975 the Commission reported on a wide range of obligations undertaken by

parties to leases.* The Report recommended dividing statutory implied lease
covenants into "variable covenants" (which the parties would be free to modify or
exclude) and "overriding covenants" (which would apply regardless of any express
term). In relation to repairs, it recommended an overriding landlord's covenant
to repair the structure and exterior of dwellings let for less than seven years, and
a series of variable covenants as f01lows:~
Generally Tenant to take proper care of

premises and make good wilful
damage
Furnished dwelling let for up Landlord to repair the whole

to twenty years property
Other dwellings let for up to Landlord to repair structure and

twenty years (not covered by exterior, tenant to repair the
landlord's overriding remainder
covenant)
Lettings for over twenty years Tenant to repair the whole property
Lettings of part of a building Landlord to repair structure and

exterior of the building, and to keep
in good order any part of the
building and curtilage which the
tenant is entitled to use, and to
maintain facilities provided by the
landlord
Ibid., para. 70(3), (4).
See para. 2.26 below.
Section 4; para. 2.52 below.
Report on Obligations of Landlords and Tenants (1975) Law Corn. No. 67.
Ibid., paras. 136-152.
2
Means of access to demised Landlord to keep the means of
premises in the possession or access safe and fit for use
control of the landlord
1.7 No action has been taken to implement the proposals in that Report. We have
previously stated that "we can only assume, given the time which has elapsed
since the Report was published, that they will not be implemented"." This
Consultation Paper therefore covers some of the same ground as that Report,
although it ranges more widely.
1.8 The Commission's Report on Forfeiture of Tenancies" touched on certain issues

directly concerning the enforcement of repairing covenants." We have in hand
further work aimed at publishing a Bill to implement the recommendations in that
Report,13 and we have therefore sought to avoid dealing with the same topics in
this study.
1.9 Another topic covered by this Consultation Paper has also been considered
previously. Very soon after the Commission was established, it examined the
operation of the doctrine of waste between landlords and tenants. Having
circulated a questionnaire to Government Departments and other interested bodies,
it formulated some propositions for reform. l4 After deciding to extend the study
to include the law of waste as it applied in other cases, the Commission did not
carry the work forward to a conclusion because it became part of the project to
codify the law of landlord and tenant which was subsequently abandoned.
1.10 Topics relevant to this Consultation Paper have also been considered in two
Consultation Papers, on a New Right to Repair and a Better Tenant's Charter,
circulated by the Department of the Environment in 1991 pursuant to the Citizens'
Charter White Paper." The aim is to include in an enhanced Tenant's Charter
an improved right to repair and to strengthen procedures for urgent minor repairs
affecting health, safety or crime prevention.
1.11 We have been much assisted in the preparation of this Consultation Paper by Mr
Peter Smith, Reader in Law at the University of Reading, to whom we are most
grateful. We are also grateful to Mr T M Fox LL.M, formerly a research
assistant with the Commission, for making available to us his unpublished thesis
on this subject.
lo
Landlord and Tenant: Reform of the Law (1987) Law Corn. No. 162, para. 1.6. That later
Report drew attention to some unsatisfactory aspects of the law on this topic: paras. 4.69-4.71.
I'
(1985) Law Corn. No. 142.
I2 Ibid., paras. 8.39-8.62.
I3 Twenty-sixth Annual Report (1992) Law Com. No. 206, para. 2.44.
l4 First Annual Report (1966) Law Corn. No. 4, paras. 62-64.
Is Cm. 1599.
3
Fitness for Human
Habitation 1.12 One aspect of this subject is the statutory implied obligation of some landlords of
houses to put and keep them in a state which is fit for human habitation.16 In
June 1989, the Department of the Environment circulated a consultation paper
raising questions about the possibility of amending that provision. After
concluding their consultation, the Department decided to refer the matter to us as
part of our general review of the law in this area, and we have had the advantage
of reading the responses received by them.
Scope of this Paper .13 We are not considering, in the course of this project, obligations concerning the
state and condition of agricultural holdings. Lettings of farm property are the
subject of a comprehensive legislative codeI7 which includes provisions
regulating repairs and improvements. Special principles govern them and we
think it appropriate that they be excluded from consideration here.
1.14 There are many general and specialist statutes which seek to regulate the state and
condition of particular properties, including properties which are let. We consider
below how these general law rules supplement the bargain between landlord and
tenant. '*
Structure of this
Paper 1.15 Part I1 of this Paper summarises the present law. In Part I11 we consider the need
to reform it, and in Part IV discuss some of the principles which reforms should
take into account. Possible reform options are set out in Part V. Part VI is a
summary of the issues we are asking readers to consider.
1.16 We have not yet reached any firm conclusions, and this Consultation Paper is
issued to canvass as wide a range of opinions as possible. We should be glad to
hear from all those who are concerned with this aspect of the law, whether as
landlords, tenants, professional advisers or academic lawyers. We welcome views
on the present rules, details of the practical results which they have and appraisals
of the reform options we put forward.
l6 Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.8; see paras. 2.29-2.30 below.
l7 Agricultural Holdings Act 1986; Agriculture (Maintenance, Repair and Insurance of Fixed
Equipment) Regulations 1973.
Paras. 2.50 et seq below.
4
PART II
THE PRESENT LAW
2.1 The duties concerning the state and condition of premises let undertaken by the
parties to leases, as part of their relationship of landlord and tenant, are imposed
in three ways: those implied at common law,’ express contractual obligations’
and those implied by ~ t a t u t e . ~All may apply to a particular case, although
express agreement will exclude what the common law implies4 and statute may,
depending upon the terms of the particular provision, overrule any bargain
between the parties.
2.2 In addition to the duties imposed by the bargain between them, landlords and
tenants may also be affected by other statutes requiring that the condition of
properties put to particular uses or properties of a particular nature should be put
into or maintained to a defined standard.’ The ways in which these Acts operate
vary, some making special provision for properties which are let while others do
not.
A. Common Law
Landlords’
0 bligations 2.3 Generally, a landlord who undertakes no contractual duty to repair only has such
duty as statute imposes, but this is subject to limited exceptions. There are three
I relevant common law duties imposed on landlords: first, an undertaking as to
fitness for human habitation, secondly, correlative duties and, thirdly, obligations
relating to other property. Strictly, the last does not relate to the property let, but
is relevant because it has a direct bearing on the upkeep and use of that property
and arises as part of the landlord and tenant bargain.
Human Habitation 2.4 There are two cases in which, at common law, a landlord undertakes an obligation
about the fitness for human habitation of residential property which he lets:
(a) There is an implied condition that furnished premises are let in

a state reasonably fit for human habitation.6 This does not impose
’ Paras. 2.3 et seq below.
Standen v. Christmas (1847) 10 Q.B. 135.
Smith v. Marrable (1843) 11 M. & W. 5.
5
a duty on the landlord to keep them in that condition: and does not
aRect unfurnished lettings.8
(b) When a landlord agrees to let a house which is in the course of

erection, there is an implied covenant "that, at the date of
completion, the house should be in a fit state for human habitation"?
This does not apply where the contract is entered into after the house
is finished.''
Correlative Duties 2.5 In a recent case, the Court of Appeal held that where the tenant had a duty to do
interior repairs but neither party had an express obligation to repair the exterior
of the premises, the landlord had an implied duty to do that work because the
tenant's obligation could not otherwise be satisfactorily performed. Kerr L.J.
explained, "It is obvious ... that sooner or later the covenant imposed on the
tenant in respect of the inside can no longer be complied with unless the outside
has been kept in repair. Moreover, it is also clear that the covenant imposed on
the tenant was intended to be enforceable throughout the tenancy. ... [I]t is
therefore necessary, as a matter of business efficacy to make this agreement
workable, that an obligation to keep the outside in repair must be imposed on
someone". Having rejected the possibility of imposing liability on the tenant as
"unbusinesslike and unrealistic", and a joint obligation as "obviously unworkable",
he concluded that an implied covenant on the landlord "is the only solution which
makes business sense" . I 2
2.6 This seems to be a clear development of the law.13 There has in the past been
considerable resistance to implying repairing covenants, except in special cases;
. without an express covenant or a statutory obligation to repair, the landlords
'I..
would clearly be under no liability to repair any part of the demised premises
whether the required repairs were structural or internal and whether they had or
had not notice of the want of repair".14 It has, however, been recognised that
there is no absolute rule. "I cannot agree ... that the absence of some express
term in the tenancy ... means there can never arise a contractual duty on the
Sarson v. Roberts [1895] 2 Q.B. 395.
Hart v. Windsor (1844) 12 M. & W. 6 8 .
Perry v. Sharon Development Co. Ltd. [1937] 4 All E.R. 390, 395, per Romer L.J.
Io
Hoskins v. Woodham [1938] 1 All E.R. 692.
I'
Barrett v. Lounova (1982) Ltd. [1990] 1 Q.B. 348.
l2 Ibid., pp.358-359.
l3 It had been foreshadowed. "We do not ... doubt that in some instances it will be proper for the
court to imply an obligation against the landlord, on whom an obligation is not in terms imposed
by the relevant lease, to match a correlative obligation thereby expressly imposed on the other
party": Duke of Westminster v. Guild [1985] Q.B. 688, 697, per Slade L.J.
l4 Cockburn v. Smith [1924] 2 K.B. 119, 128, per Bankes L.J., dealing with the position of a letting
of a house as a whole, as distinct from letting part of a house.
6
landlord to do the repairs - in other words, that such term can never be implied.
... I am not prepared to say that circumstances may not arise in which a court
could find itself impelled to imply such terms in a tenancy agreement".15 Now,
however, the Court of Appeal has firmly said, "[A] repairing obligation upon the
landlord can clearly arise as a matter of implication".16
2.7 No further examples of the implication of repairing obligations have yet been
reported and it is not possible to predict all the circumstances in which the court
will be prepared to imply such an obligation on the part of the landlord. None
was implied in a case where the tenant had undertaken no repairing obligation."
'
1
I
Other Property 2.8 It is not possible to be precise about the basis and extent of the landlord's
obligation to the tenant in relation to property which is not the subject of the
tenancy. l8 Certainly, it only affects property which remains under his control.
There are two distinct types of case. The first group relates to work required to
i remedy defects which have a physical effect on the demised property or the
occupation of it. The second group concerns work on property on or over which
I
the tenant needs to exercise rights.
2.9 The general principle established by the case law" has been summarised as
follows -
"Where the lessor retains in his possession and control something

ancillary to the premises demised, such as a roof or staircase, the
maintenance of which in proper repair is necessary for the protection
of the demised premises or the safe enjoyment of them by the tenant,
the lessor is under an obligation to take reasonable care that the
premises retained in his occupation are not in such a condition as to
cause damage to the tenant or to the premises demised"."
2.10 Despite these cases it is not possible to be precise about the scope of any implied
covenant. Goulding J. has spoken in very general terms: "Where there are gaps
in an instrument expressing the reciprocal obligations of landlord and tenant, it is,
Sleafer v. Lambeth Borough Council (unreported) per Glyn-Jones J., cited with approval on
appeal [1960] 1 Q.B. 43, 60, per Ormerod L.J.
l6
Barrett v. Lounova (1982) Ltd. [1990] 1 Q.B. 348, 358.
l7 Demetriou v. Poolaction Ltd. [1991] 1 E.G.L.R. 100.
In the type of case dealt with here, tenants may also be able to seek relief for breaches of the
landlord's covenant for quiet enjoyment; see Gordon v. Selico Co. Ltd. [1985] 2 E.G.L.R. 79,
83. However, the covenant for quiet enjoyment does not impose a positive obligation on the
landlord to do repairs which he would not otherwise have been under any obligation to do: Duke
of Westminster v. Guild [1985] Q.B. 688, 703.
See, e.g., Hargroves, Aronson & Co. v. Hartropp [1905] 1 K.B. 472; Cockburn v. Smith [1924]
2 K.B. 119.
2o Woodfall, Landlord and Tenant, 28th ed. (1978), Vol. 1, para. 1-1469. This statement was
approved by the Court of Appeal in Duke of Westminster v. Guild [1985] Q.B. 688, 701.
7
in my judgment, more natural to fill them by implication ... than to invoke the
law of tort".'l In one case, the tenant was under a duty to pay the cost of
exterior painting done by the landlord, and although the landlord was under no
express duty to do the work, an obligation to do it was implied.n However,
Dillon L.J. recently accepted that if there were no express covenant to repair other
important parts of the building, for which it would have been sensible or
reasonable to make provision, that would not be enough to warrant implying
obligations.z
2.11 In relation to other property retained by the landlord over which the tenant enjoys
rights, the position is perhaps clearer. Adequate repair of the other property may
be fundamental to the use and enjoyment of the demised premises. This has been
applied to means of access. "The tenants could only use their flats by using the
staircase. ... It was contended ... that, according to the common law, the person
in enjoyment of an easement is bound to do the necessary repairs himself. That
may be true with regard to easements in general ... This is not the mere case of
a grant of an easement without special circumstances. It appears to me to be
obvious, when one considers what a flat of this kind is, and the only way in which
it can be enjoyed, that the parties to the demise of it must have intended by
necessary implication ... that the landlord should maintain the staircase".24
Again, "A lessor who lets rooms to a tenant and provides a common staircase
which the tenant must use must come under an implied contractual obligation to
keep the access in a reasonably safe condition, otherwise the tenant cannot enjoy
the use of the rooms which he has contracted to take".25
2.12 This approach was developed in the House of Lords: the landlords of a tower
block were held to have implied obligations to take reasonable care to maintain in
a state of reasonable repair and usability the stairs, lifts and lighting on the
stairs.% However, in explaining this decision, some doubt was cast on the
earlier cases by Lord Wilberforce, who drew a distinction between some access
easements and others, even within a building. He said, "I accept, of course, the
argument that a mere grant of an easement does not carry with it any obligation
on the part of the servient owner to maintain the subject-matter. The dominant
owner must spend the necessary money, for example, in repairing a drive leading
to his house. And the same principle may apply when a landlord lets an upper
floor with access by a staircase: responsibility for maintenance may well rest on
Gordon v. Selico Co. Ltd. [1985] 2 E.G.L.R. 79, 84.
Edmonton Corporation v. W. M. Knowles & Son Ltd. (1961) 60 L.G.R. 124.
Tennant Radiant Heat Ltd. v. WarringtonDevelopment Corporation [1988] 1 E.G.L.R. 41, 43.
Miller v. Hancock [1893] 2 Q.B. 177, 180, 181, per Bowen L.J. The decision, which allowed
a third party a right of action on that implied covenant, was subsequently reversed: Fairman v.
Perpetual Investment Building Society [1923] A.C. 74.
Dunster v. Hollis [1918] 2 K.B. 795, 802, per Lush J. A landlord was also held liable to repair
a path which was an essential means of access to a house let on a weekly tenancy: King v. South
Northamptonshire District Council [ 19921 06 E.G. 152.
Liverpool City Council v. Irwin [1977] A.C. 239.
8
the tenant. But there is a difference between that case and the case where there
is an essential means of access, retained in the landlord's occupation, to units in
a building of multi-occupation, for unless the obligation to maintain is, in a
defined manner, placed on the tenants, individually or collectively, the nature of
the contract, and the circumstances, require that it be placed on the landlord"."
In a later case concerning the maintenance of an access way, Mann L.J. placed
some emphasis on the purpose of the letting: "the rear access was plainly for the
removal of refuse and the delivery of coal and the like, uses to which this rear
access was in fact put. The houses could not be enjoyed or function in accord
with their design without the rear access".28
2.13 In another recent case, an attempt was made to imply into a lease an obligation on
the landlords to maintain a drain serving commercial premises which had been
let.29 This failed on a number of grounds: careful provision had been made for
the tenant's repair obligations in contrast to the absence of any repairing
obligations on the landlord in respect of the drain, an implied obligation on the
landlords would be onerous, there would be some conflict with the express terms
of the lease and the implied obligation was not necessary to make the scheme of
the lease work. There was, therefore, no decision whether drains could in other
circumstances be the subject of such an implied obligation.
Repair on Notice 2.14 A landlord who is responsible for repairing property let is not normally liable until
he has had notice of the need to do the work.30 This recognises the fact that he
is not in occupation and control of the property; but it therefore follows that there
is no such restriction on a landlord's duty to repair property not included in the
lease.31 The need to give the landlord notice extends to the repairing duties
implied by ~tatute.~'
Liability for
Negligence 2.15 A landlord who has built the premises which he then lets33 also has a liability
which is sometimes included as an example of his implied obligation to his tenant.
='Ibid., p.256.
28
King v. South Northamptonshire District Council [1992] 06 E.G. 152, 155.
29
Duke of Westminster v. Guild [1985] Q.B. 688.
3o Torrens v. Walker [1906] 2 Ch. 166. Information received from a third party is sufficient notice:
Hall v. Howard (1989) 57 P. & C.R. 226.
E.g., common parts of a building: Melles & Co. v. Holme [1918] 2 K.B. 100.
32
Duty to keep residential property fit for human habitation, para. 2.29 below: McCarrick v.
Liverpool Corporation [1947] A.C. 219; duty to repair residential property subject to short
lettings, para. 2.31 below: O'Brien v . Robinson [1973] A.C. 912.
33 But not a landlord who was not the builder: McNerny v. London Borough of Lambeth [1989] 1
E.G.L.R. 81.
9
This is a duty to ensure that the premises are reasonably safe when let.34
However, this is not truly part of the contractual bargain by which the landlord
agrees to let the property to the tenant; it is an obligation owed by the landlord
to later occupants of the property, a breach of which may give rise to a liability
in tort.3S For this reason, it is beyond the scope of this project.
No other Duties 2.16 The examples we have given of common law obligations are exceptional. The
general rule used to be quite clear: a landlord has no implied obligation in
relation to the state and condition of property which he lets.36 However, there
must now be some doubt about the universality of this rule.37 Nevertheless, even
in the light of recent developments, it has been pointed out that "it is a
phenomenon, certainly known at common law, that there may be situations in
which there is no repairing obligation imposed either expressly or impliedly on
anyone in relation to a lease".38 A similar rule, not so far challenged, is that the
landlord does not impliedly give any undertaking that the premises will be
physically suitable for use for a particular purpose,39 nor does he give any
implied undertaking that the premises may be lawfully used for the purposes for
which they are let.@
Tenants' Obligations 2.17 Apart from duties arising under the doctrine of waste, with which we deal
s e p a ~ a t e l y ,tenants
~~ have very few obligations implied at common law. The
primary duty is to use the property in a tenantlike manner,42 and a weekly tenant
has no further obligation. Tenants from year to year have an implied duty to keep
34
"The council [landlord], as their own architect and builder, owed the plaintiff a duty to take
reasonable care in designing and constructing the flat to see that it was reasonably safe when they
let it to him": Rimmer v. Liverpool Corporation [1985] Q.B. 1, 16, per Stephenson L.J.
35 "The duty for which the plaintiff argued and which the judge imposed was a duty at common law.
It was not alleged that there was any contractual liability": ibid., p.7, per Stephenson L.J.
36 Arden v. Pullen (1842) 10 M. & W. 321.
31 Para. 2.6 above.

38
Demetriou v. Poolaction Ltd. [1991] 1 E.G.L.R. 100, 104, per Stuart-Smith L.J.
39
Cheater v. Cater [1918] 1 K.B. 247. Nevertheless, in the case of a licence to occupy business
premises, such a term on the part of the owner was implied: Wettern Electric Ltd. v. Welsh
Development Agency [1983] Q.B. 796. The latter case was distinguished in Morris-Thomas v.
Petticoat Lane Rentals (1987) 53 P. & C.R; 238.
Hill v. Harris [I9651 2 Q.B. 601.

4'
42
The flavour of the nature and extent of this obligation is given -y the following explanation.
"The tenant must take proper care of the place. He must, if he is going away for the winter, turn
off the water and empty the boiler. He must clean the chimneys, when necessary, and also the
windows. He must mend the electric light when it fuses. He must unstop the sink when it is
blocked by his waste. In short, he must do the little jobs about the place which a reasonable
tenant would do": Warren v. Keen [1954] 1 Q.B. 15, 20, per Denning L.J.
10
I
buildings wind and water tight,43 but it is not clear how far the obligation
extends.
B. Contract
Repair 2.18 In deciding what responsibilities the parties to a lease are to undertake in relation
to the state and condition of the property, they are of course free to select any
obligation and any standard that they wish. Most commonly, however, the duty
is an obligation "to repair", and for that reason most of the reported cases
concentrate on defining that term. It has also been adopted for statutory implied
obligations, which are therefore to be interpreted in the same way.
2.19 "Repair" has a dictionary definition of "to restore to good condition by renewal
or replacement of decayed or damaged parts, or by refixing what has given way;
to mend''.44 It has been judicially defined similarly. "[The word] connotes the
idea of making good damage so as to leave the subject so far as possible as though
it had not been damaged. It involves renewal of subsidiary parts; it does not
involve renewal of the whole.45 Time must be taken into account; an old article
is not to be made new; but so far as repair can make good, or protect against the
ravages of time and the elements, it must be undertaken" .&
2.20 Repair is required to a standard which depends on the age and nature of the
premises at the start of the lease.47 But that does not mean that, if a dilapidated
property is let, any obligation to repair it is ineffective, because an obligation to
repair includes a duty to put it into repair at the The tenant is not
obliged to hand back a substantially different property at the end of the lease.49
43
Wedd v. Porter [1916] 2 K.B. 91. "I think that the expression 'wind and water tight' is of
doubtful value and should be avoided. It is better to keep to the simple obligation 'to use the
premises in a tenantlike manner"': Warren v. Keen, supra, p.20, per Denning L.J.
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed., revised (1959).

45
Hoffmann J . agreed with an arbitrator's view that "the words 'rebuild, reconstruct or replace' ...
extend the lessee's liability ... far beyond that contemplated in a covenant to keep the demised
premises in good and substantial repair": Norwich Union Life Insurance Society v. British
Railways Board [1987]2 E.G.L.R. 137, 138.
46 Anstruther-Gough-Calthorpe v. McOscar [1924]1 K.B. 716,734,per Atkin L.J.
4' Lurcott v. Wakely & Weeler [1911]1 K.B. 905; Brew Bros. Ltd. v. Snax (Ross) Ltd. [1970]
1 Q.B. 612. This qualification also applies to the repairing obligations imposed by statute on
lettings of agricultural holdings (Evans v. Jones [1955]2 Q.B. 58) and those implied on the part
of a landlord letting residential property for up to seven years, in which case the prospective life
of the dwelling-house is also to be considered (Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s. 1 l(3)).
Proudfoot v. Hart (1890)25 Q.B.D. 42; necessarily, there must have been some deterioration:
see para. 2.24 below.
49
"However large the words of the covenant may be, a covenant to repair a house is not a covenant
to give a different thing from that which the tenant took when he entered into the covenant":
Lister v. Lane & Nesham [1893]2 Q.B. 212,216-7,per Lord Esher M.R.
11
Nevertheless, the renewal over time of successive subsidiary parts% may result
in replacing the whole; however, merely adding a duty "to renew" to a repairing
covenant does not enlarge the ob1igatio1-1.~~All the same, a normal repairing
covenant imposes a duty to rebuild if the premises are destroyed.52
2.21 "The true test is ... that it is always a question of degree whether that which the
tenant is being asked to do can properly be described as repair,53 or whether on
the contrary it would involve giving back to the landlord a wholly different thing
from that which he demi~ed".'~Another examination of the authorities suggested
that "three different tests have been discerned, which may be applied separately
or concurrently as the circumstances of the individual case may demand, but all
to be approached in the light of the nature and age of the premises, their condition
when the tenant went into occupation, and the other express terms of the tenancy:
(i) whether the alterations went to the whole or substantially the whole of the
structure or only to a subsidiary part; (ii) whether the effect of the alterations was
to produce a building of a wholly different character from that which had been let;
(iii) what was the cost of the works in relation to the previous value of the
building, and what was their effect on the value and life span of the building"."
In applying these principles certain categories of work have particularly given rise
to questions.
Improvements 2.22 As a matter of principle, someone who has a duty to repair property is not obliged
to improve it. Accordingly, a landlord who covenanted to repair a house, the
outside walls of which had no damp proof course, was not obliged to insert
one.56 This can mean that a party required to repair is responsible for
50
Which is repair: Anstruther-Gough-Calthorpe v. McOscar [1924] 1 K.B. 716, 734, per Atkin
L.J.
51
Halliard Properties Co. Ltd. v. Nicholas Clarke Instruments Ltd. (1983) 269 E.G. 1257.
52
But not as a result of action by the Queen's enemies: Landlord and Tenant (War Damage) Act
1939, s. 1.
53
The narrowness of the distinction may be seen by contrasting the decision that to replace defective
foundations was not repair (Lister v. Lane & Nesham [1893] 2 Q.B. 212) with the fact that
substantial underpinning of foundations was (Rich Investments Ltd. v. Camgate Litho Ltd. [1988]
E.G.C.S. 132).
54
Ravenseft Properties Ltd. v. Davstone (Holdings) Ltd. [1980] Q.B. 12, 21, per Forbes J. The
factors to be considered can include: "the nature of the building, the terms of the lease, the state
of the building at the date of the lease, the nature and extent of the defect sought to be remedied,
the nature, extent and cost of the proposed remedial works, at whose expense the remedial works
are to be done, the value of the building and its expected life span, the effect of the works on
such value and life span, current building practice, the likelihood of a recurrence if one remedy
rather than another is adopted, the comparative cost of alternative remedial works and their
impact on the use and enjoyrhent of the building by occupants": Holding and Management Ltd.
v. Properg Holding and Investment Trust plc (1989) 21 H.L.R. 596, 605, per Nicholls L.J.
55
McDougall v. Easington District Council [1989] 1 E.G.L.R. 93, 95-6 per Mustill L.J.
56
Pembery v. Lamdin [1940] 2 All E.R. 434.
12
eliminating the results of design faults without removing their cause.57 However,
there are cases in which the repair cannot be effected without correcting the
defect, in which case the general principle of repair not extending to making the
property substantially different must apply; the work may be or it may
lnheren t Defects 2.23 It was at one time suggested that an obligation to repair could not extend to
rectifying a defect which was inherent in the property,@’ but it is now accepted
that this is not the crucial test. Necessarily, these will be cases of improvement,
so this category overlaps with the previous one, and it is recognised that the
general test is to be applied. The work to repair an inherent defect may be
substantial, but it is still a repair if it does not materially alter the nature of the
property.61
2.24 However, there is one case which cannot be repair: where the condition of the
property which it is proposed to change has existed since the building was
constructed. The argument is: repair means rectifying disrepair, disrepair implies
deterioration, but if the property is as it always was, there has been no
deterioration.62 It may be hard to determine whether rectifying a design fault or
replacing a component which was always unsatisfactory falls within this principle,
or whether it is an improvement.
2.25 When examining the responsibility of landlords for the condition of premises
which they let, the Commission proposed more than twenty years ago that they
should be under a general duty of care in respect of defects which could result in
injury or damage known to them at the date of the letting.63 This duty would
have been formulated as follows:64
“A person who disposes of premises, knowing at the material time

or at any time thereafter while he retains possession of the premises
57
Wates v. Rowland [1952] 2 Q.B. 12: timber affected by rot had to be replaced, but the cause of
the rot did not have to be eliminated; Plough Znvestments Ltd. v. Manchester City Council [ 19891
1 E.G.L.R. 244: a rusted steel frame did not have to be repaired, although the bricks in the
outside wall which had cracked as a result had to be replaced.
58
Ravenseft Properties Ltd. v. Davstone (Holdings) Ltd. [ 19801 Q.B. 12: external cladding replaced
because the design of the original fixing system was defective.
59
Sotheby v. Grundy [1947] 2 All E.R. 761: house could only be saved from demolition by new
foundations.
60
Pembery v. Lamdin [1940] 2 All E.R. 434; Hill and Redman’s Law of Landlord and Tenant,
16th ed., (1976) p.239.
61
Ravenseft Properties Ltd. v. Davstone (Holdings) Ltd. [1980] Q.B. 12.
62
Post Ofice v. Aquarius Properties Ltd. [1987] 1 All E.R. 1055.
63
Civil Liability of Vendors and Lessors for Defective Premises (1970), Law Corn. No. 40,
para. 54.
64
Ibid., Appendix A, draft Bill, c1.3(1).
13
that there are defects in the state of the premises, owes a duty to all
persons who might reasonably be expected to be affected by those
defects to take reasonable care to see that they are reasonably safe
from personal injury or from damage to their property caused by any
of those defects".
2.26 That recommendation was not included in the Private Members' Bill which
became the Defective Premises Act 1972 and implemented the Report's other
proposals. Introducing the Bill, its sponsor Mr. Ivor Richard said, "This
recommendation attracted a certain amount of controversy. For a number of
reasons, the most important for a practical politician being the need to get at least
three of the Commission's recommendations on the statute book and not to press
the fourth, that recommendation is omitted from the Bill".65
Standard of Repair 2.27 A covenant simply "to repair" means to keep the property in substantial repair.66
Commonly, covenants require "good repair", "habitable repair" or "tenantable
repair". These expressions seem to bear the same meaning.67 "Good tenantable
repair" has been defined: "such repair as, having regard to the age, character and
locality of the house, would make it reasonably fit for the occupation of a
reasonably minded tenant of the class who would be likely to take it".68 A
covenant to repair must be construed by reference to the condition of the property
at the date of the letting,6' although it is to be construed as imposing not only a
duty to keep the property in repair, but also to put it into repair.7o
2.28 Leases often impose separate obligations to decorate. In the absence of special
provisions, a duty to repair extends to giving proper protection to the materials
from which the property is constructed, even, e.g., extending to interior
painting."
C. Statutory Duties
Fitness for Human

Habitation 2.29 Where a is let for human habitation, it is a condition that it is fit for that
purpose when the tenancy starts and there is an implied undertaking by the
landlord that he will keep it fit throughout the tenancy. This applies,
65 Hansard, 11 February 1972, col. 1823.
Harris v. Jones (1832) 1 Moo. & R. 173.

67 Woodfall's Law of Landlord and Tenant, 28th ed., (1978), para. 1-1433.
Proudfoot v. Hart (1890) 25 Q.B.D. 42, 55, per Lopes L.J.

69 Walker v. Hatton (1842) 10 M. & W. 249.
70 Proudfoot v. Hart (1890) 25 Q.B.D. 42.
7' Monk v. Noyes (1824) 1 C . & P. 265.
72 Which includes part of a house.
14
notwithstanding any agreement to the contrary, to lettings at modest annual
so long as the property is capable of being made fit at reasonable
expense.74 It does not apply to lettings for at least three years, and not
terminable earlier, on terms that the tenant puts the premises into a condition
reasonably fit for human h a b i t a t i ~ n . ~ ~
2.30 There is statutory guidance as to the standard of fitness to be applied. A house

is only to be regarded as unfit for human habitation if it is not reasonably suitable
for occupation because its condition is defective in respect of one or more of
certain specified matters. They are: repair, stability, freedom from damp,
internal arrangement, natural lighting, ventilation, water supply, drainage and
sanitary conveniences, facilities for preparation and cooking of food and for
disposal of waste water.76
1
I
Short Residential
Tenancies 2.31 Since 25 October 1961, a landlord77 who lets a dwelling-house for less than
seven years has certain implied repairing obligation^.^^ Where the premises were
let on or after 15 July 1989 and form part only of a building, the landlord’s
obligations to repair the premises extend to any part of the building in which he
has an estate or interest. His obligations relating to installations include those
serving the demised premises and either forming part of the building in which he
has an estate or interest or which are owned by him or under his control.
However, no obligation is implied into leases granted on or after 3 October 1980
in favour of certain public sector and similar bodies.79
73
The relevant limits depend on the date of the letting and the location of the premises. The limits
are: lettings before 6 July 1957, London f40, elsewhere E26 (or in some places for lettings
before 31 July 1923, €16); later lettings, London (from 1 April 1965, Inner London) €80,
elsewhere f52.
74
BusweZZ v. Goodwin [1971] 1 W.L.R. 92.
75
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.8. That obligation is extended to the case of a worker
employed in agriculture who is provided with housing as part of his remuneration: ibid., s.9.
76
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.10.
7’
But not the Crown: Department of Transport v. Egorofs[1986] 1 E.G.L.R. 89.
78
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, ss. 11, 13. These rules apply for deciding the length of the term
for this purpose: any part of the term falling before the grant is disregarded, a lease containing
a landlord’s option to determine within seven years is treated as a term for less than seven years
and a lease with a tenant’s option to renew is treated (unless it also contains a landlord’s option
within the last category) as a lease for seven years or more if that would be the length of the term
as extended by the option.
79 Ibid., s. 14(4), (5).
15
.. . 1 2.32 The extent of the landlord's duty is:
"(a) To keep in repair the structure and exterior of the dwelling-

house (including drains, gutters and external pipes);s0 and
(b) To keep in repair and proper working order the installations in

the dwelling-house for the supply of water, gas and electricity, and
for sanitation (including basins, sinks, baths and sanitary
conveniences but not other fixtures, fittings and appliances for
making use of the supply of water, gas or electricity), and
(c) To keep in repair and proper working order the installations in

the dwelling-house for space heating and heating water".
The standard of repair is to be determined having regard to the age, character and
prospective life of the dwelling-house, and its locality.82 The duty does not
include work which falls within the tenant's obligation to use the premises in a
tenant-like manner,83 rebuilding .or reinstatement after destruction or damage by
fire, tempest, flood or other inevitable accident, nor maintaining anything which
the tenant is entitled to remove from the property.84
2.33 To ensure that the liability does effectively fall on the landlord, the Act provides
that a tenant's covenant to repair "is of no effect" so far as it relates to matters
within the landlord's implied This renders ineffective a tenant's express
covenant to paint and decorate the exterior, because that work inevitably involves
a degree of protection against the elements.86 Also, the statute makes void"
any covenant or agreement which excludes or limits the landlord's obligations or,
if the tenant enforces or relies on those obligations, allows the tenancy to be
80
It may be that, in some circumstances, the repairing obligation can extend to property which is
not demised: King v. South Northamptonshire District Council [1992] 06 E.G. 152. Mann L.J.
(at p.156) ruled out liability under the Defective Premises Act 1972 on the grounds that the
property in question had not been demised, but did not, on that ground, rule out repairing liability
under the 1985 Act.
81
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.ll(1).
82
Ibid., s.ll(3).
83
Para. 2.17 above.
84
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.ll(2).
85
Ibid., s. ll(4). There are exceptions relating to the matters not covered by that duty: para. 2.32
above.
86
Zrvine v. Morun [1991] 1 E.G.L.R. 261.
87
Unless authorised by the county court, which may make a consent order if it appears to the court
that it is reasonable to do so, having regard to all the circumstances of the case, including the
other terms and conditions of the lease: Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s. 12(2).
16
forfeited or imposes any penalty, disability or obligation on the tenant." This
has been held to prevent the landlord including the cost of exterior repairs in a
service charge which the tenant had to pay.89
Right t o Buy Long

Leases 2.34 Certain repairing obligations on the part of the landlord are implied into a long
lease granted as a result of a public sector tenant exercising his right to buy,g0
unless the county court authorises their exclusion or modification. The implied
covenants are:
"(a) to keep in repair the structure and exterior of the dwelling-

house and of the building in which it is situated (including drains,
gutters and external pipes) and to make good any defect affecting that
structure;
(b) to keep in repair any other property over or in respect of which

the tenant has rights ...;
(c) to ensure, so far as practicable, that services which are to be

provided by the landlord and to which the tenant is entitled (whether
by himself or in common with others) are maintained at a reasonable
level and to keep in repair any installation connected with the
provision of those services".
The landlord's obligation extends to rebuilding or reinstatement in case of

destruction or damage by fire, tempest, flood or any other cause against the risk
of which it is normal practice to insure;91 but all his duties are modified if he
is unable to discharge them because of the terms of a superior lease."
2.35 Covenants by the tenant are also implied into those long leases, unless otherwise
agreed by the parties. Where the property which is let is a house, the covenant
is to keep it in good repair, including decorative repair. In the case of a flat, the
obligation is to keep the interior in such repair.93
D. Enforcement 2.36 The remedies available to a landlord whose tenant is in breach of a repairing
covenant are damages or, if a right of re-entry was reserved in the lease, forfeiture
of the lease. A tenant whose landlord is in default can claim damages and apply
for specific performance of the obligation. It will sometimes be appropriate to
Ibid., s.12(1).
89 Canipden Hill Towers Ltd. v. Gardner [1977] Q.B. 823.
9o Housing Act 1985, s.151(1) and Sched. 6, para. 14(2).
91 Housing Act 1985, Sched. 6, para. 14.
Ibid., Sched. 5, para. 15(2).

93
Ibid., Sched. 6, para. 16.
17
apply for the appointment of a receiver or manager.94 We confine ourselves here
to examining issues which we see as of particular relevance.
Damages 2.37 There are two separate statutory restrictions on a landlord's power to recover
damages for breach of a tenant's repairing covenant. The first is a limit on the
amount recoverable, and the second is a restriction on taking proceedings.
2.38 The amount of damages is limited to "the amount (if any) by which the value of
the reversion (whether immediate or not) in the premises is diminished owing to
the breach".g5 Further, nothing is recoverable at the end of a lease if the
premises are then to be pulled down, or there are to be structural alterations which
would render any repairs valueless.% The limit covers all heads of damage. So,
for example, the landlord may have a claim for loss of rent to cover the period for
carrying out the repairsYg7but this would have to be accommodated within the
-- -1 statutory limit.
2.39 Proceedings for damages for breach of a covenant contained in a lease originally
granted for at least seven years, of which at least three years remained unexpired,
are restricted. A landlord must serve a preliminary notice" giving the tenant
twenty-eight days to serve a counternotice, the result of which is that the landlord
must obtain leave of the court before proceeding.w For the court to give leave,
the tenant must prove one of five grounds:'00
(a) that immediate repairs are necessary to prevent a substantial

diminution in the value of the reversion, or that the breach of
covenant has already caused a substantial fall in its value;
(b) that immediate repairs are needed to comply with any enactment,
court order or requirement of a statutory authority;
(c) where the tenant is not in occupation of the whole premises, that
immediate repairs are required in the interests of the occupier;
94
The court has jurisdiction to appoint a receiver in all cases where it appears just and convenient
to do so: Supreme Court Act 1981, s.37(1); see Hurt v. Emelkirk Ltd. [1983] 1 W.L.R. 1289.
A tenant of a flat can apply for the appointment of a manager, to carry out management
functions, the functions of a receiver or both: Landlord and Tenant Act 1987, s.24; where an
application can be made under this provision, the court's general jurisdiction does not apply:
ibid., s.21(6).
95 Landlord and Tenant Act 1927, s.lS(1).
96 Ibid.
97
Woods v. Pope (1835) 6 C. & P. 782.
98 Under the Law of Property Act 1925, s.146.
99 Leasehold Property (Repairs) Act 1938, s.1; Landlord and Tenant Act 1954, s.51.
'00 Leasehold Property (Repairs) Act 1938, s.1(5).
1 18
(d) that the breach of covenant can be remedied immediately at a
cost which is relatively small in comparison with the likely cost of
the work if postponed; or
(e) that special circumstances exist which render it just and equitable
that leave be given.
2.40 After some conflicting decisions,'" it has now been established that a landlord
who seeks leave to proceed must prove one of the statutory grounds on the
balance of probabilities, rather than merely showing a prima facie case.'02 "If
the landlord fails to prove that he is entitled to pursue ,his remedies, the tenant is
entitled, as of right, to a dismissal of the landlord's application under the Act of
1938".'03
Specific
Performance 2.41 Specific performance can in some circumstances be granted to enforce a landlord's
-1i repairing covenant. There has been a limited use of the remedy in equity and
there is a statutory jurisdiction.
2.42 Specific performance has been granted against the landlord to repair a balcony on
the front of a house, which was not included in any of the four flats into which
the house had been divided and which were separately let,'04 and to repair a lift
which was also outside the premises derni~ed."~The principles were set out by
Pennycuick V.-C., "The rule has now become settled that the court will order
specific performance of an agreement to build if - (i) the building work is
sufficiently defined by the contract, e.g., by reference to detailed plans; (ii) the
plaintiff has a substantial interest in the performance of the contract of such a
nature that damages would not compensate him for the defendant's failure to
build; and (iii) the defendant is in possession of the land so that the plaintiff
cannot employ another person to build without committing a trespass" . l M
2.43 The statutory jurisdiction to grant an order for specific performance may be
exercised in favour of the tenant of a dwelling whose landlord fails to perform a
IO1 Cp. Phillips v. Price [1959] Ch. 181; Sidnell v. Wilson [1966] 2 Q.B. 67.
IM Associated British Ports v. C. H. Bailey plc [ 19901 2 A. C. 703.
IO3 Ibid., p.713 per Lord Templeman.
IO4 Jeune v. Queen's Cross Properties Ltd. [1974] Ch. 97
Io' Francis v. Cowcliffe Ltd. (1976) 33 P. & C.R. 368.
IO6 Jeune v. Queen's Cross Properties Ltd., supra, pp.99-100, adopting Snell's Principles of Equity,
26th ed., (1966), p.647. Interlocutory relief may be granted in cases of extreme urgency and
hardship: Parker v. Camden London Borough Council [1986] Ch. 162.
19
repairing covenant.Im The breach of a covenant may relate to the premises let
to the tenant or to some other part of the property comprising the dwelling.'08
2.44 It has not yet finally been settled whether specific performance can be ordered to
enforce a tenant's repairing covenant. Such authority as there is indicates that the
remedy is not available to a landlord.'@' However, the decision in Jeune v.
Queen's Cross Properties Ltd."' suggests that the court may now be more ready
to contemplate in an appropriate case specific performance of a tenant's repairing
covenant.
Rights of Entry 2.45 A landlord only has a right to enter premises which he has let if he reserves
one,'12 but if he expressly covenants to repair he has an implied licence to enter
for that p u r p o ~ e . " ~Rights of entry for repairs are also implied by statute: into
assured tenancie~,"~protected tenancies"' and statutory tenancies of tied
agricultural accommodation.''6 A landlord of residential accommodation let on
a short lease who has an implied repairing obligation"' has a statutory right to
enter the premises to view their condition and state of repair.'I8
E. Waste 2.46 The doctrine of waste imposes obligations on the occupiers of land which belongs
to others or in which others have an intere~t."~It was introduced into the
lo' Defined to mean a covenant to repair, maintain, renew, construct or replace property: Landlord
and Tenant Act 1985, s. 17(2)(d).
IO8 Ibid., s.l7(1).
IO9 Hill v. Barclay (1810) 16 Ves. 402: "the tenant cannot be compelled to repair" per Lord Eldon
L.C. Although Oliver J. in Regional Properties Ltd. v. City of London Real Property Co. Ltd.
(1979) 257 E.G. 65, expressed grave doubts whether specific performance would be available to
enforce the tenant's repairing covenant, he did not decide the point and acknowledged that what
may be only a dictum in Hill v. Barclay had been logically much weakened by the decision in
Jeune v. Queen's Cross Properties Ltd., supra.
]lo [1974] Ch. 97.
See Jones & Goodhart, Specijk Pegormance (1986), p.32.
'I2 Stocker v. Planet Building Society (1879) 27 W.R. 877.
Saner v. Bilton (1878) 7 Ch. D. 815.
'I4 Housing Act 1988, s.16.
I's Rent Act 1977, s.148.
'I6 Rent (Agriculture) Act 1976, Sched. 5 , para. 8.
Para. 2.31 above.
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s. 1l(6).
II9 "Waste is a somewhat archaic subject, now seldom mentioned; actions in respect of disrepair are
now usually brought on the Covenant": Mancetter Developments Ltd. v. Garmanson Ltd. [1986]
Q.B. 1212, 1218, per Dillon L.J.
20
I
general law of landlord and tenant by the Statute of Marlborough 1267,I2O

having previously applied only to tenancies arising by operation of law. Waste
imposes duties on tenants, enforceable by landlords, in addition to contractual
obligations.I2' Also, although we are not here concerned with these other cases,
it applies between trustee and beneficiary, mortgagor and mortgagee and vendor
and purchaser. Causing or permitting damage to propertyln in breach of an
obligation imposed by the doctrine of waste is a tort,123which means that people
other than the contractual tenant may also be liable.'% The landlord's remedy
for a breach will either be damages'= or an injunction.'26 Being tortious, a
right of action for waste against a tenant is not assignable,'" and does not
therefore automatically run with the reversion.
Categories of Waste 2.47 There are four categories of waste:
(a) Permissive Waste. Permissive waste is committed by lack of

action which allows premises to fall into disrepair.12' Examples
are: allowing walls to decay for want of daubing or plastering,lm
and not repairing fences.'%
(b) Voluntary Waste. Voluntary waste is a deliberate act, whether

wilful or negligent, which damages the property permanently
changing its ~haracter.'~' A recent example was the removal of
Izo Which provided that lessees during their terms should not "make waste ... of houses, woods, men
or of anything belonging to the tenements".
I2l There is some doubt whether an action in waste will lie where the act is covered by a covenant.
In Mancetter Developments Ltd. v. Garmanson Ltd., supra, Dillon L.J. said that the landlord has
an election where damage is covered both by the doctrine of waste and a covenant (pp. 1219-1220)
and Kerr L.J. doubted whether there could normally be alternative claims (p. 1223).
122 But not merely nominal damage: Harrow School v. Alderton (1800) 2 B. & P. 86.
In Mancetter Developments Ltd. v. Garmanson Ltd., supra, Dillon L.J. accepted that the landlord
had a choice of suing for waste or on a lease covenant (p.1218), but Kerr L.J. doubted this
(p.1223).
Mancetter Developments Ltd. v. Garmanson Ltd., supra: the director of a former tenant company
was personally liable.
IZfi Whitham v. Kershaw (1886) 16 Q.B.D. 613.
126 West Ham Central Charity Board v. East London Waterworks Co. [1900] 1 Ch. 624.
Defiies v. Milne [1913] 1 Ch. 98.
Herne v. Bembow (1813) 4 Taunt. 764.
12' 2 Roll. Abr. 816, pl. 36, 37.
Cheetham v. Hampson (1791) 4 Term Rep. 318.
West Ham Central Charity Board v. East London Waterworks Co. [1900] 1 Ch. 624.
21
tenants' fixtures without making Older examples include:
demolishing, or making structural alterations to, a building,'33
changing the course of husbandry'34 and opening and working a
new mine or quarry.'35
(c) Ameliorating Waste. Ameliorating waste is an act of voluntary

waste which increases the value fo the property. In this case, the
landlord cannot show loss, so no damages are likely to be awarded,
and an injunction will only be ordered if there is damage to the
reversion. 136
(d) Equitable Waste. If a person who would otherwise have been

liable for waste at common law has been expressly made
unimpeachable for waste, the court may nevertheless exercise an
equitable jurisdiction to restrain him from acts of gross or malicious
damage.'37 We are not aware of leases which make the tenant
unimpeachable for waste, so this category probably has no
application in the field of landlord and tenant. To the extent that
legal waste is in future abolished, equitable waste would necessarily
cease to apply, because it only affects those exonerated from the duty
they would otherwise have not to commit acts amounting to legal
waste.
I
i Defences 2.48 A tenant is not liable under the doctrine of waste for damage which results from:
I (a) the reasonable and proper use of the property . provided it is
'I..
for a purpose for which the property was intended to be used, and
provided the mode and extent of the user was apparently proper,
having regard to the nature of the property and to what the tenant
knew of it and to what as an ordinary businessman he ought to have
known of it";138
(b) an act authorised by the landl~rd;'~'
13* Mancetter Developments Ltd. v. Garmanson Ltd. [1986] Q.B. 1212.
133 Buckland v. Butterjield (1820) 2 Brod. & Bing. 54; Marsden v. Edward Heyes Ltd. [1927] 2
K.B. 1.
'34 Co. Litt. 53b; Simmons v. Norton (1831) 7 Bing. 640.
13' Clavering v. Clavering (1726) 2 P. Wms. 388.

i 136 Doherty v. Allman (1878) 3 App. Cas. 709.
137 Vane v. Barnard (1776) 2 Vern. 738.
13' Manchester Bonded Warehouse Company v. Carr (1880) 5 C.P.D. 507, 512.
139 Meux v. Cobley [1892] Ch. 253, 262.

I
(c) accidental fire;la or
(d) act of God, e.g. tempest.I4l
Tenants' Liability 2.49 Tenants under leases for terms of years are fully liable for waste.'" The extent
of the liability of other tenants is less certain. A tenant from year to year or a
monthly tenant is apparently liable for voluntary, but not for permissive,
and that is certainly the position of weekly tenants.144 A tenant at
will is not liable for waste, but voluntary waste automatically ends his
tenancy.'" A tenant at sufferance is liable for voluntary waste,'& but his
liability for permissive waste is doubtful.
F. Other Statutes 2.50 The other statutes with which we are concerned here are those which seek to
ensure that the owner of property - whether landlord or tenant in the case of
premises which are let - keep it in a particular physical condition. This generally
relates to the use to which the property is put. The rules have been enacted to
meet a variety of public concerns, generally aspects of public health, safety and
welfare. They do not form a consistent code, but because of the wide range of
issues which they address - from the elimination of sub-standard housing, through
hygiene in commercial food preparation to safety in the manufacture of explosives
- it is not reasonable to expect that they should do. Consequently our statement
of this part of the law cannot be comprehensive, but it will nevertheless be
possible to consider the implications of the legislation for the reform of landlord
and tenant law.
2.51 Most of these statutes apply equally to property which is owner-occupied and to
property which is let. They are concerned not with the bargain between landlord
and tenant, but directly with the property. However, leases frequently contain an
express covenant, normally on the part of the tenant, to comply with all statutory
requirements relating to the p r e r n i s e ~ . ' ~Accordingly,
~ even without a provision
referring to the Act in question, compliance with any requirement about the
condition of the property will frequently constitute a matter of bargain. Further,
the effect of the covenant may well be to require compliance with legislation
enacted later.
General 2.52 Any landlord who lets premises, on terms either that he has an obligation to the
'40 Fires Prevention (Metropolis) Act 1774, s.86.
14' Woodfall, Landlord and Tenant, 28th ed. (1978), Vol. 1, para. 1-1517.
'41 Yellowly v. Gower (1855) 11 Ex. D. 274.
'43 Torriano v. Young (1833) 6 C. & P. 8.
Warren v. Keen [1954] 1 Q.B. 15.
14s Countess OfShrewsbury's Case (1600) 5 Co. Rep. 13b.
Burchell v. Hornsby (1808) 1 Camp. 360.
147 E.g., Encyclopaedia of Forms and Precedents (5th ed.) (1986), Vol. 22, p.286.
23
tenant to maintain or repair them or that he has the right to do so, owes a
statutory duty to all who may reasonably be expected to be affected by defects in
the property. This duty is to take such care as is reasonable in all -the
circumstances to see that these people are reasonably safe from personal injury or
damage to their property.14* Although this provision was primarily intended to
protect third par tie^,'^' it has been construed to give tenants a right against their
landlords which they would not otherwise have had. For the purposes of the Act,
the legislation treats a landlord's right to enter to do maintenance or repair work
as the equivalent of an obligation to the tenant to do the work, as soon as the
landlord is in a position to exercise the right.IM Such a right of repair may be
im~1ied.l~'Accordingly, even if a landlord has no obligation to do the work,
but has reserved a power to do so, a tenant who is injured as a result of the
landlord's failure to repair can maintain a claim for breach of the statutory
duty. lS2
Residential Property 2.53 Statutory regulation has probably been most extensive in relation to residential
property. The objectives of the legislation are to ensure that dwellings are fit for
human habitation, to eliminate insanitary conditions and to engender the
improvement of individual properties and whole neighbourhoods. These policies
are pursued both by offering financial incentives, with which we are not
concerned, and by coercive measures. The provisions overlap, in the sense that
it may be possible to employ more than one of them in a particular case. We can
only give an outline of the relevant legislation.
Fitness for Human

Habitation 2.54 A local housing authority which is satisfied that a dwelling-h~use'~~
is unfit for
human habitati~n,"~ has a duty to adopt one of the following C O U ~ S ~ S . ' It~ ~
Defective Premises Act 1972, s.4(1), (4).
14' Civil Liability of Vendors and Lessors for Defective Premises (1970), Law Corn. No. 40, paras.
65-69.
Defective Premises Act 1972, s.4(4).
151 McAuley v. Bristol City Council [1992] 1 Q.B. 134.
Smith v. Bradford Metropolitan Council (1982) 44 P. & C.R. 171.
Which includes any yard, garden, outhouses and appurtenances belonging to it or usually enjoyed
with it: Housing Act 1985, s.207(2); Housing Act 1988, Sched. 15, para. 12(2). The term also
includes houses or flats in multiple occupation: Local Government and Housing Act 1990,
Sched. 9.
See para. 3.26 below. In the case of a flat, the condition of the building outside the flat can make
it unfit: Housing Act 1985, s.l89(1A); Housing Act 1988, Sched. 15, para. l(2).
IS5 R. v. Kerrier District Council, exparte Guppys (Bridport) Ltd. (No. I ) (1977) 32 P. & C.R. 411.
24
must either serve a "repair notice"'56 or make a closing orderlS7 or a
demolition order."' This is subject to exception^.'^^
2.55 Even in the case of a dwelling which is not unfit for human habitation, although
still in need of repair, the local authority has a discretionary power to serve a
repair notice@
'. ' This applies in two cases. Either, the authority must be
satisfied that substantial repairs are necessary to bring the house up to a reasonable
standard, having regard to its age, character and locality. Or, it must be satisfied
on a representation from an occupying tenant that the state of repair is such that
the condition interferes materially with the tenant's personal comfort. In this case,
unlike that of unfitness for human habitation, a repair notice cannot extend to
internal decorative repair works.'61
2.56 A repair notice is served on the person having control of the dwelling-house.'62
It requires him to carry out specified repairs within a stated reasonable time, with
I a minimum of twenty-eight days.'63
..i
2.57 There is a major limitation on the use of the repair notice procedure to protect
residential tenants from their landlords' repair defaults, bearing in mind the large
number of public sector tenancies. A repair notice cannot be served if the person
having control of the house is the local housing authority for that area.lU "It
is not the status of a local authority as such that excludes it from being the
Housing Act 1985, s.189.
Housing Act 1985, s.264; Local Government and Housing Act 1989, Sched. 9, para. 14.
'sI Housing Act 1985, s.265; Local Government and Housing Act 1989, Sched. 9, para. 14.
Is9 No action need be taken if the clearance area procedure is employed: Holmes v. Ministry of
Housing and Local Government (1960) 12 P. & C.R. 72; a local housing authority has no duty
to serve a repair notice if the building is to fall within a group repair scheme: Housing Act 1985,
s.190A; Local Government and Housing Act 1989, Sched. 9, para. 3.
Housing Act 1985, s . 190. . the policy of Parliament was to make the owners of houses keep
'I..
them in proper repair. Not only so as to keep up the stock of houses, but also to see that
protected tenants should be able to have their houses properly kept up": Hillbank Properties Ltd.
v. Hackney London Borough Council [1978] Q.B.998, 1009per Lord Denning M.R. Generally,
there must be a tenant in occupation: ibid., s. 190(1B); Local Government and Housing Act
1989, Sched. 9, para. 2(2).
Housing Act 1985, s. 190(2).
The person who is receiving the rack rent - for this purpose not less than two-thirds of the full
net annual value of the premises - whether for himself or as agent or trustee for another, or would
be receiving it if the house were let on those terms: Housing Act 1985, s.207; Housing Act
1988, Sched. 15, para. 12(1). In the case of a house in multiple occupation, the notice may be
served on the person managing the house: Local Government and Housing Act 1989, Sched. 9,
para. 1.
163 Housing Act 1985, ss.l89(2)(a), 190(2); Local Government and Housing Act 1989, Sched. 9,
paras. 1(4), 2(3).
R. v. CardifsCity Council, exparte Cross (1983) 45 P.& C.R. 156, affd. (1983) 81 L.G.R. 105.
25
recipient of a notice; it is the fact that under the Act it is charged with the duty
of giving notice. It follows, therefore, that if, as is not infrequently the case, a
local authority has housing in the area of another district, the authority in whose
area the property is situated can serve a notice on the authority that has the
relevant interest in the property"
2.58 If a repair notice is not complied with, the local housing authority has power to
do the work itself and to recover the expense from the person on whom the notice
was It is an offence intentionally to fail to comply with a n 0 t i ~ e . l ~ ~
Public Nuisance 2.59 Other statutory provisions which can be used to enforce standards of tenanted
accommodation, both residential and commercial, are found in the public health
legislation. If any premises are "in such a state as to be prejudicial to health or
a nuisance",16*the local authority for the area may serve an abatement notice,
requiring the abatement of the nuisance and the execution of any necessary
In the case of a structural defect, the notice is served on the owner of
the premises.'" Failure to comply with the notice is an 0 f f e n ~ e . l ~ ~
2.60 A separate procedure allows a person who is aggrieved by a statutory nuisance to

apply to the magistrates' court for an order that it be abated, prohibiting its
recurrence and for the person responsible to do any necessary work.'" As this
action can be initiated by anyone who is aggrieved, it is available against a local
authority landlord. The court can impose a fine on the person responsible for the
nuisance, and breach of the order is an offence.'" A landlord who is convicted
under this provision can be required to pay the tenant compensation for personal
injury, loss or damage.'74 .
2.61 "Prejudicial to health" is itself defined to mean "injurious, or likely to cause injury
to, health".'75 This can extend to cover damp caused by ~0ndensation.l~~
Ifi Ibid., p. 164 per Woolf J.
166 Housing Act 1985, s.193, Sched. 10; Housing Act 1988, Sched. 15, para. 5.
167 Housing Act 1985, s.198A; Housing Act 1988, Sched. 15, para. 8.
Environmental Protection Act 1990, s.79(l)(a). "Nuisance"means a common law nuisance, and
cannot therefore be to the prejudice of the occupiers of the property in question: National Coal
Board v. Neath Borough Council [1976] 2 All E.R. 478.
'61 Environmental Protection Act 1990, s.80(1).
I7O Ibid., s.80(2).
I7I Ibid., s.80(4).
17' Ibid., s.82(1), (2).
173 Ibid., s.82(2), (8).
174 Powers of Criminal Courts Act 1973, s.35(1); Daily Telegraph 21 November 1991.
Environmental Protection Act 1990, s.79(7).
26
Health is not, however, to be equated with personal comfort, and there is no
direct link with the statutory standard of fitness for human h a b i t a t i ~ n . ' ~ ~
However, when action is taken by a person aggrieved and the court is of the
opinion that the nuisance renders the premises unfit for human habitation, it may
prohibit their use for that purpose until they have been rendered fit.I7' The test
to be applied in ordering the abatement of a nuisance must take into account the
circumstances of the case. "The shorter the period before probable demolition,
the more severe must be the injury or likely injury to health or, as the case may
be, the nuisance, to justify action by way of abatement".'79
2.62 An emergency procedure is available where it appears to a local authority that

premises are in a state which is prejudicial to healthIs0 or a nuisance and that the
procedure relating to nuisances outlined above'" would result in unreasonable
delay in remedying the defects."* The local authority can serve notice, on the
owner or person responsible, that it intends to remedy the defective state of the
premises, and after nine days it may do the work and recover the costs from the
recipient of the notice.Is3 The recipient of the notice has seven days within
which to serve a counternotice that he will remedy the defects, in which case the
local authority may take no action unless the work is not started within a
reasonable time or reasonable progress is not made towards completion of it.Is4
Commercial Property 2.63 A number of statutes also regulate the condition in which commercial property is
to be maintained, frequently with reference to the activity conducted there. In
general terms, e.g., an employer has a duty with regard to any place of work
under his control. So far as is practicable he must ensure that it, and the means
of access to it, are maintained in a condition which is safe and does not present
any risk to health.185 More specifically, and again as an example, both in
'71 Dover District Council v. Farrar (1980) 2 H.L.R. 32.
177 Salford City Council v. McNally [1976] A.C. 379.
'71 Environmental Protection Act 1990, s.82(3).
'71 Salford City Council v. McNally, supra, p.390, per Lord Wilberforce.
See para. 2.61 above.
'I Paras. 2.59 et seq above.
Building Act 1984, s.76(1); Environmental Protection Act 1990, Sched. 15, para. 24.
Building Act 1984, s.76(1), (2). The costs may not be recoverable if, in proceedings to recover
them, the court concludes that the authority was not justified in using this procedure: ibid.,
s.76(4).
Ibid., s.76(3).
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1984, s.2(2)(d). Section 4 of this Act has been held to imply
a statutory duty on the management company controlling the common parts of a block of flats,
owed to the tenant of one of the flats, in respect of the lifts within the common parts controlled
by the management company: Westminster City Council v. Select Management Ltd. [1984] 1
W.L.R. 1058.
27
relation to factories and to shops, offices and railway premises, there are
obligations relating to floors, passages and stairs. They must be of sound
construction and properly maintained.lS6 This has been accepted as meaning
"that the floor should be of sound construction and so maintained as to be fit to
be used for the purpose for which the factory is intended to be used".'87
2.64 There is also a series of statutes conferring on the courts the power to vary the
terms of leases of business premises relating to improvements, so that the property
may be put or kept in a fit state to carry on the intended business.lS8 The
court's jurisdiction is normally to order such modification of the lease terms as is
fair and equitable in the circumstances.
I
~~ ~~
Factories Act 1961, s.28(1); Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963, s.16(1).
Mayne v. Johnstone & Cumbers Ltd. [1947] 2 AI1 E.R. 159 per Lynskey J.
E.g., Baking Industry (Hours of Work) Act 1954, s.8; Factories Act 1961, s.169; Offices,
Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963, s.73; Fire Precautions Act 1971, s.28.
28
PART Ill
NEED FOR REFORM
3.1 This branch of the law may be open to criticism in a number of respects:
(a) Condition of premises Even where the landlord is fully

responsible for repairs to premises which are let, their condition may
be such that they are unfit for the tenant to use them for their
intended purpose. The full performance of the current obligations
may not result in a building of a satisfactory standard. In addition,
the standard to which the property is to be maintained is normally
influenced by the date at which it is let and there is no provision for
modernisation;
(b) Responsibility The allocation of responsibility is not always

satisfactory. The present arrangements may leave some work
entirely out of account, not requiring either party to the lease to be
concerned, or they may in practice place responsibility where it was
probably not intended to lie. Although we are primarily concerned
in this Paper with relations between landlords and tenants, it is
necessary to take account of the public interest in the satisfactory
maintenance of buildings which may in most cases be thought to
require that someone be responsible;
(c) Otherproperty Where the property let to the tenant is dependent

on other property belonging to the landlord for its security or for
necessary services, the nature and extent of the landlord’s duties
relating to that other property are unclear, and, to the extent that the
tenant may not satisfactorily receive the services, unsatisfactory;
(d) Enforcement There may be no practical prospect of enforcement

of some of the obligations imposed. If the aim of imposing duties to
repair and maintain property is to ensure that the work be done, there
is a case for reconsidering the present limits on the sanctions
imposed, which often have the effect of ensuring that less
compensation is payable for breach of duty than would be necessary
to put matters right;
(e) Luck of clarity One of the reasons for confusion in this area of
the law is the accretion of rules which overlap. The duties imposed
by the law of waste, which frequently duplicate the contractual
obligations of tenants provide one example. Legislation addressing
repairing obligations between landlord and tenant has proliferated;
the difficulty of ascertaining the rules governing any particular
situation can make them less effective.
3.2 We consider each of these matters below and we invite those responding to this
Paper to consider whether they agree with these criticisms and whether there are
other unsatisfactory features of the present law which need to be addressed.
29
Condition of Premises
Repair 3.3 Until now, most obligations, both contractual and statutory, have been obligations
"to repair". It is clear that "disrepair" is related to the physical condition of
whatever has to be repaired, and not to the questions of lack of amenity or
inefficiency.' Accordingly, there may be no obligation to ensure that the building
let is fit for use for its intended purpose. This is graphically made by the ficts of
a recent case concerning a terraced house in Wales let by the local council?
"The evidence shows that there was considerable condensation on the walls,
windows and metal surfaces in all rooms of the house. Water had frequently to
be wiped off the walls; paper peeled off walls and ceilings, woodwork rotted,
particularly inside and behind the fitted cupboards in the kitchen. Fungus or
mould growth appeared in places and particularly in the two back bedrooms there
was a persistent and offensive smell of damp. Among the places where there was
mould growth were the wooden sills and surrounds of the windows in the
bedrooms, and some of these have become rotten. Additionally, in the bedrooms
condensation caused the nails used for fixing the ceiling plasterboard to sweat and
... there was some perishing of the plaster due to excessive moisture" .3
3.4 As the law stands, the tenants had only limited recourse against the landlord.
Much of the condition of the premises resulted from condensation which was not
caused by any deterioration of the exterior or structure of the house, for which the
landlord was responsible, and therefore there was no repair which it was liable to
carry out. Lawton and Neil1 L.JJ. reached that conclusion with regret. In another
case, Ralph Gibson L.J. said: "I found it at first to be a startling proposition that,
when an almost new office building lets ground water into the basement so that
water is ankle deep €or some years, that state of affairs is consistent with there
being no condition of disrepair under a repairing covenant in standard form
whether given by landlotd or tenant".4 It might be thought that the law should
go further and seek to ensure that premises let will be kept in a satisfactory state
for their intended purpose.'
3.5 The nature and extent of the work which falls within the term repair can best be
explained by examining a number of the issues which the courts have had to
determine in this context.
Improveme nt 3.6 A sharp distinction has been drawn between "repair" and improvement work; the
latter does not come within the duty to repair.6 This is justifiable on the grounds
that, in the absence of a special bargain, a lease entitles the tenant to enjoy the
property in the state in which it was let to him, without the landlord being obliged
' Quick v. TaffE2y Borough Council [1986] Q.B. 809, 818.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 8 15 pe,v Dillon L.J.
Post Ofice v. Aquarius Properties Ltd. [1987] 1 All E.R. 1055, 1063.
' We consider this issue in Part V below.
Para. 2.22 above.
30
to improve it, and obliges the tenant to hand the property back to the landlord at
the end of the lease, in a specified state of repair but without improvement. The
transaction is, therefore, essentially the hiring of a property in its existing state for
an agreed fee,7 but without any obligation on either party to make any further
capital investment in it.
3.7 The different treatment of improvements may be much more difficult to justify in
practice. As Sir John Megaw said in a recent judgment,* "Assume facts such as
exist in the present case:' that is, serious defects in the structure which can be
properly remedied (I must, of course, avoid the word 'repaired') only by works
which fall outside the meaning of 'repairs', or defects which it is sensible should
be remedied by such works rather than by repeated temporary or ephemeral
repairs. ... On those assumptions, the landlord, under the law as it has been
interpreted, cannot be compelled by the tenant to remedy the defects. ... All this
arises because of the distinction which the law has drawn between 'repairs' and
works of remedy of serious defects which fall outside the meaning of 'repairs'.''
However, it may be, as he went on to suggest, that the difficulties are in practice
too rare to justify legislation, which might result in more problems than it solved.
We should welcome views on whether the distinction between repair work and
improvement work frequently gives rise to problems in practice and whether that
distinction should be retained.
3.8 Another issue arises in connection with improvements to property, which is

whether an express duty to repair should extend to improvements. The position
is not at present entirely clear. A duty to repair "the demised premises" normally
includes buildings erected after the date of the demise," but a slight change in
the wording of the lease, requiring the repair of "the demised buildings", can
restrict the obligation to the buildings in existence when the lease was granted."
On the other hand, where improvement work, at least that which is done by the
party who does not have the repairing duty, makes that duty more onerous it may
cancel the obligation, unless the lease expressly provides for repairs to
improvements.12 While it is true that a duty to repair the improvements could
make that obligation materially more onerous, when improvements are authorised
by the lease or by ~ t a t u t e 'there
~ can hardly be any reason to exclude them. If
"In common usage rent refers to a payment for the use of either a tangible or intangible asset for
a fixed period of time, and will usually include the servicing of interest, depreciation, taxes and
other charges": Beirne, Fair Rent and Legal Fiction (1977), p.54.
McDougall v. Easington District Council [1989] 1 E.G.L.R. 93, 96.
An unsatisfactory system-built house required extensive remedial work, involving removing the
front and rear elevations, the roof structure and the rain dispersal system.
Io Hudson v. Williams (1878) 39 L.T. 632.
I' Doe d. Worcester Trustees v. Rowlands (1841) 9 C . & P. 734.
Barton v. Alliance Economic Investment Co. Ltd. (1935) 179 L.T. Jo. 256.
l3
E.g., Landlord and Tenant Act 1927, s.3(4); see Compensation for Tenants' Improvements,
(1989), Law Com. No. 178.
31
it is a proper case for requiring that the property be repaired, and a proper case
for allowing it to be improved, there seems no logic in not maintaining any
improvement in good condition.
Inherent Defects 3.9 Despite the dismissal of earlier suggestions that rectifying inherent defects in
premises let could never fall within the definition of repair,14 similar questions
have been raised by a recent case concerning the position of a building part of
which was never suitable for its purpose.15 A recently built office building in the
City of London was let in 1969. For some years, when the water table rose, the
basement was ankle deep in water because of the form of construction. In fact,
this does not appear to have caused inconvenience because the basement was not
used. The case was disposed of on the basis that it is not repair to change a state
of affairs which has always existed,16 although this view does not find universal
favour." If repair, as it is now understood, were not the test, the conclusion
might not be the same. Judged on the basis of intended use, the decision might
turn on whether there was evidence of intention to use the basement for a purpose
for which the flooding would have made it unsuitable. If there was such evidence,
it is hard to see why there should not be a duty to do the remedial work, although
there would be the further question of who should pay for it.
3.10 As Ralph Gibson L.J. pointed out,18 "the reasoning ... is equally applicable
whether the original defect resulted from error in design, or in workmanship, or
from deliberate parsimony or any other cause".19
3.11 Clearly, there will be cases in which a satisfactory repair - in the general sense of
works carried out to remedy a deficiency which renders property unusable - will
involve changing a state of affairs which existed before the lease was granted, and
possibly since the property was built. The present distinction, between defects in
a building as originally built and faults which develop later, will produce
anomalies. Whether or not a party has to cure a particular physical defect may
l4 Paras. 2.23-2.24 above.
Post Ofice v. Aquarius Properties Ltd. [1987] 1 All E.R. 1055.

l6
"The tenant cannot ... be under any obligation to do any work pursuant to this covenant [to
repair] unless the demised premises are at present out of repair. However, a state of disrepair,
in my judgment, connotes a deterioration from some previous physical condition": ibid., p.1065
per Slade L.J.
I7 "... if the only defect in the door was that it did not perform its primary function of keeping out
the rain, and the door was otherwise undamaged and in a condition which it or its predecessors
had been at the time of the letting then it seems to me ... this cannot amount to a defect for the
purpose of a repairing covenant even though, as it seems to me in layman's terms, that a door
which does not keep out the rain is a defective door, and one which is in need of some form of
repair or modification or replacement": Stent v. Monmouth District Council (1987) 54 P. & C.R.
193, 209, per Stocker L.J.
I*
In commenting on Quick v. Taff Ely Borough Council [1986] Q.B. 809; see paras. 3.3-3.4
above.
Post Ofice v. Aquarius Properties Ltd. 119871 1 All E.R. 1055, 1063.
32
1
depend on whether it was built into the property or it developed later, even though
the prejudicial effect of the defect is the same whatever and whenever its origin.
3.12 Liability for curing inherent defects can be linked to the more general question of
responsibility for remedying matters which existed before the lease was granted,
which will necessarily include inherent defects. To the extent that the defective
state of the property is apparent at the date of the letting, the parties can assess
their position, although this may involve taking expensive professional advice.
There may, however, be a lack of equality. Defects may be known to the
landlord which are not apparent, or which would save the tenant a great deal of
investigation if the information were volunteered. At present, the landlord has no
obligation to tell the tenant what he knows. There is an argument for requiring
him to disclose that information, so that both parties contract on an equal footing.
3.13 When considering a liability of this nature, the question arises whether a
disclosure duty should apply to all information, to what the landlord actually
knows or to both what he actually knows and what he ought to have known. To
impose liability to disclose information which the landlord does not in fact have
must necessarily mean that he cannot comply. But it is not reasonable that a
landlord can disadvantage his tenant by deliberately avoiding informing himself.
A landlord may already owe a duty under the Defective Premises Act 1972 where
he "knows (whether as a result of being notified by the tenant or otherwise) or if
he ought in all the circumstances to have known of the relevant defect",20and it
might be appropriate here to follow that formulation.
Date of Letting 3.14 The standard to which a property is to be repaired normally depends on its age
and nature at the date when it is let.21 There is apparent fairness in this, when
balancing the economic interests of the parties: if the tenant is to repair, it is
reasonable that he should give back at the end of the lease a property which is
neither better nor worse than he received at the start. However, the
appropriateness of the principle may be more apparent than real.
3.15 First, it is never possible to do more than "have regard" to the age and nature of
the property; there is no hard and fast rule. If, when the lease starts, the
property is dilapidated, that does not necessarily render any repairing obligation
nugatory. On the other hand, if the lease is lengthy some natural deterioration is
allowable, so one does not look exclusively at the condition of the property when
the lease was granted. Secondly, no account is taken of changes in the meantime
to the surrounding neighbourhood," which may make the earlier standard of
repair wholly inappropriate. Thirdly, this construction of repairing covenants can
lead to misunderstanding and inconvenience when property is sub-let. The head
lease and the sub-lease may contain identical repairing covenants, which would
appear to be appropriate when the mesne landlord wants to pass on to the sub-
tenant the duties imposed on him by the head lease. However, the two covenants
may be interpreted differently merely because of the different dates on which the
2o Section 4(2).
" Para. 2.20 above.
'' Anstruther-Gough-Calthorpe v. McOscar [ 19241 1 K.B. 716.
33
lease and the sub-lease were granted,” so that the mesne landlord is
unintentionally left with some duty to repair. Fourthly, and more fundamentally,
if the property is let for a specified period so that it may be used throughout for
a particular purpose, the state at the date of the letting may be seen as less
relevant than whether it allows the objective to be achieved. Fifthly, the
requirements of a reasonably minded class of tenant likely to take the property are
also to be judged as at the commencement of the lease.% In relation to
commercial property with a company tenant, it is not clear whether this refers to
the size and financial standing of a likely tenant, the type of business they would
conduct, the way they would conduct it or to these and other factors.
1
I Modernisation 3.16 A duty to repair does not normally carry a duty to modernise the premises. If the
only way to do satisfactory remedial work is by adopting a better, more modern
form of construction or design, the work is likely to be one of improvement.25
However, that presupposes these facts: remedial work to the building is needed
and it is possible using new techniques. It is open to question whether neglecting
the work, which may mean that the building falls into disuse, can be justified
merely because of changes in building methods.
3.17 Modernisation can involve other problems. It is easy to envisage circumstances

in which changes in statutory requirements concerning safety, hygiene or working
conditions result in the continued use of existing premises for a particular purpose
becoming unlawful. Less dramatically, changes in living habits, working practices
or market conditions might stop a property being considered suitable for a
particular purpose. Or, again, an intended use might be forbidden, or forbidden
in that location, or might fall into disfavour.
3.18 Of necessity, no duty to do remedial or improvement works can arise where it is

legally or practically impossible to carry out those works.26 Similarly, if there
was no real intention of continuing a particular use, there would be no purpose in
enforcing an associated obligation to do work. In practice it is likely that the
property would be put to a different purpose, and any linked duty to do remedial
work would then be adapted accordingly.
3.19 That leaves cases in which changes to statutory rules necessitate doing work if the
use is to continue. Such requirements can be expensive, although some leases
already impose an express duty to do work required by statute, separately from
repairing obligation^.^^ Certainly, there are serious questions to address about
where the burden of such an obligation should lie, but if the property is to
Walker v. Hatton (1842) 10 M. & W. 249.
Proudfoot v. Hart (1890) 25 Q.B.D. 42, 52.
Collins v. Flynn [1963] 2 All E.R. 1068: inadequate foundations needed to be replaced by newly-
designed ones.
E.g., Gooderhani & Worts Ltd. v. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation [1947] A.C. 66: a
covenant to modernise could not be complied with unless further land was purchased, and the
covenant did not oblige the tenant to do that.
E.g., 22 Encyclopaedia of Form and Precedents, 5th ed., (1986), p.733.
34
1
continue to be put to that use there is no escaping the cost. One option to explore,
particularly for business property where the aim is to use it for profit, is whether
the duty should be limited to cases where, taking the expenditure into account, the
business could still be profitable.
Responsibility
Part of a Building 3.20 In the absence of express or implied repairing obligations, the parties to a lease
generally have no such duties. The situation in which the property can
deteriorate, without either party being able to insist on the other repairing, is
clearly unsatisfactory. This is the more serious if the party who voluntarily wants
to repair has no right to gain access, which is the position of the landlord who has
not reserved a right of entry for the purpose,** and the position of the tenant of
part of a building where some other part of it needs repair. "Where a landlord
of a building grants a lease of part only and is in a position to insist on the lessee
taking a lease in a common form of the landlord's choice, it is not at all unusual
to find that the lease does not contain any covenant by the landlord to do repairs
to parts of the building, however important, and whether included in the demise
or not. ... It may well be objectively sensible, or reasonable, that there should
be a landlord's covenant, with a corresponding covenant by each lessee to
contribute a proportionate part of the expense, but that is not enough to warrant
implying such covenants" .29
3.21 We do not know how far it is still the case that landlords insist that they are only
prepared to let a part of a building on terms that the tenant undertakes to repair
the demised premises, but they do not accept responsibility for the rest of the
building. Certainly, it was not infrequent in the past. Landlords, particularly of
buildings where potential tenants were competing to take leases, would propose
such terms and would make much use of the argument that all lettings within one
building must, for efficient estate management, be on standard terms so that they
would not entertain any proposal to amend them. Many such leases must still be
subsisting, but how different is modern practice? We should welcome information
from those responding to this Paper.
3.22 The problems which arise when the maintenance and repair of property which is
let depend on the upkeep of other property are not limited to ensuring that one or
the other party to the tenancy has a duty relating to all parts of the demised
premises. Clearly, the stability of a flat or a suite of offices at the top of a
building depends on the repair of the lower part of the building which supports it,
and there will be many other instances of interdependence. But there are limits
on what can be done to regulate the position by intervention in the landlord and
.
tenant relationship. Clearly, if the landlord owns relevant property other than
what was let to the tenant in question, he can undertake appropriate duties; if the
property belongs to a third party, this is not the context in which any obligation
Plough Investments Ltd. v. Manchester City Council [1989] 1 E.G.L.R. 244.

29
Tennant Radiant Heat Ltd. v. Warrington Development Corporation [1988] 1 E.G.L.R. 41, 43,
per Dillon L.J.
35
can be imposed. However, even the basis of the duties which the landlord already
has is not clear.%
3.23 In relation to residential property, this problem has been recognised by two
statutory provisions. First, the statutory covenant to repair a dwelling-house let
for less than seven years3' was extended in 1988 to include, where what was let
formed part only of a building, other parts of that building in which the landlord
had an estate or Secondly, in 197433the court was given jurisdiction
to make an order for specific performance of a landlord's repairing covenant,
whether statutory or contractual,34 and that power extends to alleged breaches of
covenant relating to property other than the premises let.35
3.24 The situation where what is let is part only of a building or structure is not
confined to residential property. Although the parties to leases of business
premises and other property, falling into this category of subdivided buildings,
may be able to make satisfactory arrangements by contract, they frequently do
i Services 3.25 The extent to which a landlord undertakes to keep in good condition other
property which he owns over which the tenant obtains services necessary for
enjoyment of the demised premises is not clear.37 Lord Wilberforce3* drew a
distinction between a staircase to upstairs premises and an essential means of
access to a unit in a multi-occupied building. The precise nature of the
distinction, and the criteria for recognising the different cases, are unclear.
Fitness for Human
Para. 2.10 above.

31
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s. 11.
32 Housing Act 1988, s.116. The extension also covers service installations elsewhere in the
building, but is subject to the landlord having a right of access, or being able to obtain access,
to the other parts of the building.
33 Housing Act 1974, s.125.

34
"'Repairing covenant' means a covenant to repair, maintain, renew, construct or replace any
property": Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s. 17(2)(d).
"
36 Para. 3.20 above.
37 Paras. 2.8-2.13 above.
38 Liverpool City Council v. Irwin [1977] A.C. 239, 256; para. 2.12 above.
36
Habitation 3.26 The l ~ n g - s t a n d i n gstatutory
~~ implied obligation on landlords of houses let for
human habitation applies only within modest rent limits.40 They have not been
revised since 1957.41 Clearly, with rents generally rising, the impact of the
provision is reduced."
3.27 Even if more cases were brought within the scope of this provision, and perhaps
' I particularly if that were done, there would also be good reason for examining the
extent of the obligation it imposes. The statutory definition for other purposes of
fitness for human habitation has recently been Adopting this new
definition would, at least in part, meet the difficulty that it has been held that the
statutory duty does not extend to common parts of a building leading to the
demised premises.44 This contrasts with statutory obligations for maintenance
of common parts of some business premises4s imposed on the "owner" of the
building .
Landlords Repairing
on Notice 3.28 As we noted above,47a landlord's liability to repair does not normally arise until
he has been given notice of the defect. Although there is some logical justification
for this, it can have the effect of nullifying the landlord's duty in some
circumstances. First, if the defect is latent until the moment that the damage
occurs, there is no chance that the landlord can be given notice and he will have
39
Dating back to the Housing Town Planning etc. Act 1909, ss. 14, 15.
Para. 2.29 above.

4'
The Minister of State for the Environment gave updated values for the current rent limits, of €80
a year in London and €52 a year elsewhere, as f662 a year and E430 a year respectively: letter
following Written Answer to Parliamentary Question, Hunsurd, 19 December 1986, col. 749.
42
"... in view of inflation, the section must now have remarkably little application": Quick v. Tuf
Ely Borough Council [I9861 Q.B. 809, 817, per Dillon L.J.
43
Housing Act 1985, s.604, as substituted by Local Government and Housing Act 1989, Sched. 9,
para. 83. To be fit for human habitation, a dwelling must meet all of the following requirements:
be structurally stable, free from serious disrepair, free from dampness prejudicial to the health
of the occupants, have adequate provision for lighting, heating and ventilation, have an adequate
piped supply of wholesome water, have satisfactory facilities for preparing and cooking food,
including a sink with a satisfactory supply of hot and cold water, have, for the exclusive use of
the occupants, a suitably located W.C. and, with a satisfactory supply of hot and cold water, bath
or shower and wash hand basin, and have an effective drainage system for foul, waste and surface
water. In the case of a flat, the building of which it forms part must also be structurally stable,
free from serious disrepair and dampness, have adequate provision for ventilation and an effective
drainage system for foul, waste and surface water.
44
Dunster v. Hollis [1918] 2 K.B. 795. In some circumstances, there may be an implied duty to
repair common parts: Liverpool City Council v. Irwin [ 19771 A.C. 239; but not always: Duke
of Westminster v. Guild [1985] Q.B. 688.
45
Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963, s.42.
46 I.e., the person receiving the rack rent: ibid., s.90(1).
37
no liability to repair.48 Secondly, if by the time the landlord is given notice the
condition of the property has so far deteriorated that rectification is impossible,
he escapes re~ponsibility.~~
Crown as Landlord 3.29 The landlord’s statutory duty to repair which is implied into lettings of dwellings
for up to seven yearsM is of general application. To this, there is one major
exception: in one case it was held not to bind the Crown when landlord?’ The
report of that case does not detail the alleged breaches of covenant, but it does
record that the tenant claimed that as a result he had suffered loss or damage
amounting to E68,560.
Enforcement
Damages 3.30 The amount of damages which a landlord can recover for breach of a tenant’s
repairing covenant is limited by statute.” The limit on damages while a lease
is current, to any diminution in the value of the reversion, causes concern at two
levels. First, as it operates at present, it may not be sufficiently broad to achieve
its objective. It does not, e.g., restrict the operation of a covenant to spend a
regular specified sum on repairs,53 nor a duty to reinstate premises converted in
breach of covenant, even though the conversion increases the value of the
property.54 Secondly, the policy behind the restriction may be questioned.
3.31 Where a property is let on a long lease at a ground rent, the value of the
reversion, which may not fall in for, say, 50-100 years, will depend little, if at
all, on the state of repair of the buildings. Let us suppose that they are allowed
to fall into such disrepair that it is no longer an attractive proposition, or even no
longer possible, to use them. The tenant has failed to comply with his duty to
repair, but - effectively -is not obliged to pay damages. The situation may
become such that the landlord’s only remedy is to forfeit the lease, but he then
recovers premises which are in no fit state to use as intended. If the fear is that
landlords will unreasonably persecute tenants with trifling demands for damages
in the course of a long lease, a restriction on proceedings may be more
appropriate than a limit on damages. Or, if the policy adopted were to be that
landlords had no proper interest in the physical state of the property while a lease
has a substantial time to run, the logical approach would be to ban obligations
a O’Brien v. Robinson [1973] A.C. 912: a bedroom ceiling collapsed injuring the tenant as a result
of a latent defect of which neither landlord nor tenant was previously aware.
49
Torrens v. Walker [1906] 2 Ch. 166.
SI
Paras. 2.31 et seq above.
”
Department of Transport v. Egoroff [ 19861 1 E.G.L.R. 89.
’’ Para. 2.38 above.

53
Moss Empires Ltd. v. Olympia (Liverpool) Ltd. [1939] A.C. 544.
s4
Eyre v. Rea [1947] K.B. 567.
38
imposed on tenants, rather thm allowing obligations but removing the sanctions
from them.
Specific Performance 3.32 Specific performance can be seen as the ideal remedy for breaches of covenant to
repair. After all, it results in the work being done, so that the premises’can be
enjoyed as they should be, and that also satisfies the public interest in having
buildings satisfactorily maintained. Those objectives are not achieved by an award
of damages to compensate for failure to comply. Nevertheless, only recently has
there been any departure from the traditional assumption that specific performance
was not available.” As far as we are aware, the earlier objection that the court
cannot supervise repair work to ensure that its order has been complied with has
not proved to be a difficulty. In a case involving complex repairs, the court
referred the order to the Chief Chancery Master to give direction^.^^ If this new
practice, permitting specific performance of some repairing covenants, has proved
useful and free from problems, it is hard to see why it should not apply to all
leases, and to obligations undertaken by tenants.
Rights of Entry 3.33 Clearly, a repair can only be carried out by someone who is entitled to enter the
property where the work has to be done; no legal right of entry exists merely
because that is the only place where essential work can be carried out. A landlord
who has no duty to repair must reserve a right of entry to carry out repairs on
property which he has demised,57 a tenant has no inherent right to go onto his
landlord’s adjoining property even to do repair work on the property demised.58
3.34 In many cases, this will be an aspect of a more general problem - the need for any
property owner to have his neighbour’s authority before doing work on his
property from the adjoining one - on which there has been recent l e g i s l a t i ~ n . ~ ~
However, the possibility of a right of entry for the landlord goes beyond the
general neighbour case. He may not have adjoining property, and his interest may
rather be a purely financial one in the property he wishes to enter.
55 Paras. 2.41-2.44 above.

’‘ Gordon v. Selico Co. Ltd. 119861 1 E.G.L.R. 71.
” “Where a reversioner has granted a lease with no power of re-entry reserved on breach of a
covenant to repair, can he give himself the right to enter and do the repairs? It is a plain invasion
of the rights of property. He has no more right than any stranger has ... As a matter of law ...
there is no right in a reversioner to go in and do necessary repairs“: Stocker v. Planet Building
Society (1879) 27 W.R. 877, per James L.J.
ss John Trenberth Ltd. v. National Westminster Bank Ltd. (1979) 39 P. & C.R. 104 (not a landlord
and tenant case). A tenant may, however, have a right of entry on the landlord’s property to do
work which the landlord has defaulted in doing: Loria v. Hammer [ 19891 2 E.G.L.R. 249.
’’ Access to Neighbouring Land Act 1992. This Act was based, with amendments, on our
recommendations: Rights of Access to Neighbouring Land (1985) Law Corn. No. 151.
39
General Considerations
Clarity of Rules 3.35 There is little doubt that the law in this area, which at present is an amalgam of
common law rules and statutory variations added piecemeal, could be stated more
coherently, in a way which would make it more accessible and clearer. In some
cases, there are repetitive statutory provisions which could be replaced by general
rules,6o in others, related topics are dealt with in different Acts.61
3.36 A further example of duplication and overlap is provided by the law of waste,
which gives tortious remedies.62 As waste extends beyond the landlord and
tenant relationship,a we cannot deal with it comprehensively in the course of this
reform project. It is, however, for serious consideration whether, after the reform
of the contractual obligations of landlords and tenants, it would remain useful in
this field.
3.37 Another aspect of stating the law clearly is to eliminate examples of rules which
are not readily apparent, and which therefore constitute a hidden trap. An
example of this is the rule that a lease covenant expressed as "to repair" or "to
keep in repair" automatically includes an obligation to put the premises into
repair, even if they were out of repair at the start of the term.61
Type of Property 3.38 Much, but by far from all, of the statutory intervention in this area relates
exclusively to residential property. No doubt this proceeds on the assumption that
residential tenants require more statutory protection because, opposite their
landlords, they are in a weaker bargaining position than other tenants. As a
general proposition, this might justify distinguishing cases in which statutory rules
should be mandatory, from those which the parties are free to vary; but where
sensible general rules have been introduced by legislation, it might be thought that
they should apply, as basic propositions, to all types of property.
3.39 Most of our discussion in this Part of the Consultation Paper has related to the
repair of buildings. Although this will be the main area of concern, obligations
relating to the condition of property can extend beyond buildings. There are
many cases in which they can also relate, e.g., to fixtures,"' boundary fencesM
E.g., rights of entry to repair in different circumstances are conferred by: Rent (Agriculture)Act
1976, Sched. 5, para. 8; Rent Act 1977, s.148; Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.ll(6);
Housing Act 1988,s.16.
6' E.g., Law of Property Act 1925, s.146; Landlord and Tenant Act 1927, s.18; Leasehold
Property (Repairs) Act 1938,ss. 1, 2.
62
Para. 2.46 above.
Proudfoot v. Hart (1890)25 Q.B.D. 42.
Openshaw v. Evans (1884)50 L.T. 156.
Cheetham v. Hampson (1791)4 Term Rep. 318.
40
and access paths.67 The simplest legal rules are those which draw the fewest
distinctions. If possible, therefore, it would be desirable for re-formulated
obligations concerning the condition of property to relate to the whole of any
demised premises, whether or not a building. It would be helpful if those
responding bore this in mind, with a view to highlighting cases in which they
consider that there should be a distinction between buildings and other types of
property.
67
Brown v. LiverpooZ Corporution [1969] 3 All E.R. 1345.
41
I
I PART IV
REFORM: PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

i
1 Objectives 4.1 Clearly, in reconsidering the rules of this branch of the law, the first need is to
define the objectives which it should seek to achieve. There are a number of
possible aims, some of which it may be practical to combine, but the first question
on which we should welcome views is what should be the aims of the law here.
Encapsulating the
Parties' Bargain 4.2 At one level, the terms in a lease or tenancy agreement about the condition of the
property can be seen as satisfactory if they set out the bargain between the parties,
allocating their respective responsibilities, in a way which is clear and
comprehensive. The extent of the repairing obligations imposed cannot be
assessed in isolation and adjudged as right, or even as appropriate. "It is to be
borne in mind that the question of repairs is only one factor in the bargain, and
that generally speaking the degree of liability in this respect undertaken by one
side or the other is reflected in the amount of rent and other terms of the
letting".'
4.3 In considering the terms of leases, the circumstances in which the bargains are
made must be borne in mind. The commercial property market seems to be
cyclical, veering between extremes at which, on the one hand, property is very
difficult to let and, on the other, very difficult for potential tenants to obtain?
The state of the market for the time being will necessarily influence the terms of
a letting, which will then continue throughout the term granted. In judging the
need for a change in the law, one therefore needs to consider whether any current
practice - be it satisfactory or unsatisfactory - is likely to be permanent, or likely
to change with future variations in market conditions. One factor will, however,
probably be constant: there is a scarcity element in the market, because the
supply of property is limited. Further, there may be a degree of monopoly, where
the bulk of the land in one neighbourhood which is available for a particular use
is owned by one person or a small number of people. This has a particular effect
on some commercial lettings, where the position of property can have a great
effect on its usefulness and value.3
4.4 Another factor, which influences the terms of leases and undermines the notion
that they represent the result of a free negotiation between the parties, has been
identified. Over 40 years ago it was recognised that "in practice the extent of the
obligations undertaken by the tenant is, broadly speaking, normally determined by
I
Leasehold Committee - Final Report (1950), Cmd. 7982, para. 213.
The residential market is also cyclical, but this principally affects owner-occupied property, as
distinct from property which is let.
It has also been identified as a feature of the residential market at the time when owners of large
estates granted long building leases for residential development: Leasehold Committee - Final
Report (1950), Cmd. 7982, Minority Report by C. L. Hale and A. L. Ungoed-Thomas, para. 41.
42
reference to what has in the course of years become recognised as usual in the
case of a lease of the length, and property of the type, in question. In other
words, where there is a lease or tenancy agreement prepared with professional
assistance, the tenant generally gets something in the nature of a standard bargain
recognised as appropriate to the particular type of case, with more or less
unimportant variations depending on which of the various books of precedents is
favoured by the solicitors or counsel concerned".4 This remains true today.
4.5 If the law is to go beyond merely recording the bargain which the parties have
made, it is important to define the aims to be achieved. When doing so, it will
be useful to assess the success of earlier statutory intervention in this field, and
to consider whether it should be reduced, varied or extended.
Correcting Inequality
of Bargaining Power 4.6 Most of the statutory intervention in the field of landlord and tenant has for a very
long time been aimed at redressing the imbalance between the position and
bargaining power of the parties. "One major concern has been to protect tenants
against the oppressive use of the landlord's power. This is a classic interference
with apparent freedom of contract, in the belief that the position of the parties
when they negotiate is so unequal that the freedom is i l l ~ s o r y " . ~
4.7 There have been many examples of this intervention in relation to repairing
obligations, and the following may be cited:
(a) Tenants can claim relief against the enforcement of obligations

to do decorative repairs;6
(b) The amount of damages to which a landlord is entitled as a result

of a tenant's breach of a repairing covenant is limited;7
(c) Tenants can require their landlords to obtain the consent of the
court before enforcing a repairing covenant in many circumstances;*
(d) Landlords who let residential premises for up to seven years

undertake repairing responsibilities which they can only escape by
obtaining a consent order of the county court.g
4.8 Intervention in the free market between landlord and tenant is not new. Over 100
years ago, a distinguished commentator wrote, "The truth is ... that the law of
landlord and tenant has never, at least under any usual conditions, been a law of
Leasehold Committee - Final Report (1950), Cmd. 7982, para. 213.

' Landlord and Tenant: Reform of the Law (1987), Law Corn. No. 162, para. 2.6.
ti
Law of Property Act 1925, s.147.
' Landlord and Tenant Act 1927, s.18.
Leasehold Property (Repairs) Act 1938.
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, ss.11-13; paras. 2.31 et seq above.
43
free contract"." There is a tendency now to see this merely as an example of
consumer protection, not needed by those contracting in the course of business,
and therefore something to be confined to lettings of residential property for
individual occupation. However, this view is not supported by the way that
statute law has developed. Only one of the examples given above," the fourth
one, applies exclusively to lettings of dwelling-houses. Also, there has been
detailed intervention to regulate the repairing obligations of parties to tenancies of
agricultural holdings,I2 which are predominantly commercial lettings.
4.9 Experience suggests that the bargaining power of the two parties to any particular
lease is frequently unequal, even in relation to commercial property. The'
advantage may sometimes lie with the landlord and sometimes with the tenant.
The imbalance may result from the nature or identity of the parties,13 the current
state of the market or the monopolistic position of the land10rd.I~ Statutory
intervention may be justified in commercial cases, although in this area it should
perhaps be more evenhanded. The aim could be to establish an acceptable norm
which balances the interests of the parties, and from which, in some or in any
circumstances, the parties can depart if they so wish.
Separate Categories 4.10 It may, however, be that further legislative change in this area should be restricted
to residential property; this is a question on which we invite views, Primarily,
the question must depend on whether and where there is need for change. If there
are to be separate rules for different types of property, the division between
premises put to residential use and other premises may be the most convenient.
It is a distinction which is already well established, and it is normally easy to
recognise into which category any particular property should fall. However, there
is another general consideration, suggesting that there should be no distinction:
the law will be simpler if it is possible to apply a single rule to all properties. If
there are different sets of rules, there will always be the difficult marginal cases
falling on the dividing line between the categories as well as examples of
properties whose use changes, first falling into one class and then into another.
Eschewing the application of different rules avoids those complications.
4.11 From a technical point of view, when rules apply only to particular types of
property, it is necessary to define the limits of the class affected. This may be
better done by reference to the nature of the property, or a reference to the
lo
Pollock, The L a t ~ Laws
l (1883), pp. 143-144.
I' Para. 4.7 above.
Agriculture (Maintenance, Repair and Insurance of Fixed Equipment) Regulations 1973, regs. 5-
11. The tenancy agreement may nevertheless vary the provisions of the Regulations by making
the landlord responsible for any item which the tenant would otherwise have had to repair:
reg. 2.
13
E.g., "As tenants, carrying on a solicitor's business, they have no staff capable of performing
those tasks [inspecting a building, controlling and verifying work done to it], whereas the
landlord, as a large property company with an interest in over 200 buildings in the City of
London, has": O'May v. City of London Real Property Co. Ltd. [1983] 2 A.C. 726, 749.
I4 Para. 4.3 above.
44
purposes of the letting might be preferable; in either case, the question arises
whether the state of affairs when the lease is granted governs the position
throughout the term, or whether the application of the rules should be flexible to
take into account later changes. Again, the case of mixed-use property must be
considered: should it fall wholly within one class or the other, or should the
rules apply to different parts of the property according to their use.
Fitness for Use 4.12 The purpose of the majority of lettings is that the property should be occupied by
the tenant, or by a sub-tenant, for some purpose. Frequently, but by no means
always, that purpose will be statedI5 or will be apparent." It is obvious that in
many cases a want of repair if serious enough would render the property incapable
of occupation, and therefore useless to the tenant." Nevertheless, ensuring that
premises are or remain fit for their intended purpose is not one of the objectives
of the present law about repairing obligations.'* It is clearly a possible view that
a tenant contracting to take premises for a particular use should have a right that
they then be, or that they should throughout the term be maintained, in a state fit
for that purpose. It is for consideration whether that should at least be the starting
point for formulating new provisions.
4.13 In a limited way, the principle of a landlord's guaranteeing that the state of a
property will be suitable for its use has been introduced in this country, in relation
to lettings of houses at low rents.Ig Elsewhere, it has been applied to residential
lettings generally. "[Tlhe urban tenant is in the same position as any normal
consumer of goods. ... A tenant may reasonably expect that the product he is
purchasing is fit for the purpose for which it is obtained, that is, a living unit"."
In France, the principle is universal for residential property. "The landlord is
obliged, by the nature of the contract, and without the need for any special
provision ... to maintain the premises in the condition fit for the use for which
they are leased".''
4.14 In various United States jurisdictions there have been developments in the law
recognising repairing liabilities based on a landlord's obligation to keep premises
Albeit obliquely, by a tenant's covenant not to use the premises except for a particular purpose.
l6
Because the property is only physically adapted for one use or because planning restrictions would
make it illegal to use it in any other way.
l7 E.g., Demetriou v. Poolaction Ltd. [1991] 1 E.G.L.R. 100: the poor s i t e of premises let for
sub-letting as residential rooms prevented their being so used for ten years. Neither landlord nor
tenant had any obligation to repair.
I*
"[Dlisrepair is related to the physical condition of whatever has to be repaired, and not to
questions of lack of amenity or ineficiency": Quick v. TaffEly Borough Council [1986] Q.B.
809, 818 per Dillon L.J.; emphasis added.
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.8; para. 2.29 above.
Green v. Superior Court of San Francisco (1974) 10 Cal. 3d 616, per Tobriner J.
Code Civil, Art. 1719(2). Similar provisions apply in the civil law jurisdiction of Quebec, where
there is doubt how far a landlord may contract out of his responsibility: Williams' Canadian Law
of Landlord and Tenant, 4th ed. (1973), pp.757-761.
45
fit for the purpose for which they were let. This applied first, and still applies
most widely, to residential property. The general principle was enunciated in
1969 in the Supreme Court of New Jersey. "[Alny act or omission of the landlord
or of anyone who lets under authority or legal right for the landlord, or of
someone having superior title to that of the landlord, which renders the premises
substantially unsuitable for the purpose for which they are leased, or which
seriously interferes with the beneficial enjoyment of the premises, is a breach of
the covenant of quiet enjoyment and constitutes a constructive eviction of the
tenant".22 In 1970, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of
Colombia held that the landlord of an urban apartment house in multiple
occupation had a duty to a tenant to keep the property free from substantial
violations of the Housing Code, which included stipulations about the condition
of the property." At least forty American jurisdictions now recognise an
obligation on landlords to repair defects in premises they let.% It has been
suggested that laws enforcing fitness for habitation requirements positively raise
the standard of the housing stock. The author of a statistical study suggests that
"if we want to decrease the relative prevalence of sub-standard rental housing in
metropolitan areas, we should seek enactment and enforcement of laws that extend
the warranty of habitability in a decisive manner".25
4.15 There have been similar moves in relation to commercial property, although they
have come later and have so far been less decisive. Although the Civil Court of
the City of New York held in 1961 that "there ought to be and is an implied
warranty of fitness for commercial purposes",z that decision was doubted2' and
in 1985 a commentator wrote, "No jurisdiction has recognised an implied
warranty of fitness in commercial leases subsequent to the Reste Realtf'
However, in 1988 the Illinois Supreme Court extended the
landlord's repairing duty based on fitness for purpose to commercial landlordsm
Reste Realty Corporation v. Cooper (1969) 251 A. 2d 268, 274per Francis J.
23 Javins v. First National Realty Corporation 428 F. 2d 1071, 400 U.S. 925 (1970).
24
Rabin, The Revolution in Residential Landlord-tenant Law: Causes and Consequences (1984) 69
Cornell Law Review 517, 522.
~5 Burrows and Veljanovski (eds.), The Economic Approach to Law (1981), Hirsch, Landlord-tenant
Relations Law, p.289.
26
40 Associates Inc. v. Katz 446 N.Y.S. 2d 844, 845 per Judge Nason.
27
Bopp, The Unwarranted Implication of a Warranty of Fitness in Commercial Leases - An
Alternative Approach (1988) 41 Vanderbilt L.R. 1057.
28 See para. 4.14 above.

29
Pinto, Modernizing Commercial Lease Law: n e Casefor an Implied Warranty of Fitness (1985)
19 Suffolk U.L.R. 929, 947.
Rowe v. Lombard State Bank 125 Ill. 2d 205, 531 N.E. 2d 1358 (1988).
46
and the Texas Supreme Court applied the principle to the lease of a doctor's
4.16 A number of European countries have relevant rules.32 In Greece, there is an

implied obligation to keep commercial or industrial property which is leased in a
state fit for its intended purpose. What that purpose is can be conclusively settled
by a declaration in the lease, unless later varied by agreement, but in the absence
of any declaration is established by evidence. In Italy, the standard of repair
required for leased commercial or industrial property is to "a condition suitable
for the agreed In some cases, the obligation falls mainly on the tenant,
with the landlord being responsible only for extraordinary repairs;34 in other
cases, the landlord has to undertake all but minor maintenance. In Germany, the
landlord of any property has an obligation to hand it over to the tenant and to keep
it in a condition appropriate for the stipulated use,35 unless the parties otherwise
agree. The use in question can be stated in the lease, but if it is not, the court
will determine the parties' intention; in the absence of any intended purpose, it
is assumed that the property has been let for the normal purpose for which it is
fit. In the Netherlands also, the landlord has an obligation to keep the property
in such a state that it can serve the purpose for which it was let,36 unless the
parties otherwise agree which they frequently do. The intended purpose will
generally be stated in any written lease, but in default a court will judge the
parties' intention from other evidence.
Public Concern 4.17 The landlord and tenant have obvious interests in the property which is let. The
landlord generally expects to receive a rent and can look forward to the right to
occupy or re-let the property when it reverts to him at the end of the term. The
tenant usually expects to put the property to use for his own benefit during the
term, and may also have an interest in its capital value. Both these interests are
likely to be harmed if the state of the premises is allowed to deteriorate.
However, there are wider interests in the maintenance of buildings, and a case can
be made for taking them into account when deciding what obligations the law
should impose on landlords and tenants.
4.18 The wider interest operates at two levels. Property in the vicinity of a building
which is allowed to deteriorate may lose value, even though in different ownership
~ ~~
3'
Davidow v. Inwood North Professional Group 747 S.W. 2d 373 (1988).
32
For information about the position in their respective countries, we are indebted to Me. Sofia
Mouratidou, notary of Thessalonika, to Dr. Mario Miccoli, notary of Livomo, to
Dr. H H Hellge, notary, and Dr. Wenckstem, deputy notary, of Hamburg and to Prof.
Mr. A A van Velten, notary of Amsterdam.
33 Civil Code, art. 1575, para. 2.
34 If the landlord's default causes the tenant to sustain a loss exceeding 20% of his annual income
from the property, he is entitled to a proportionate reduction in rent: ibid., art. 1622.
3J Civil Code, art. 536.
36 Civil Code, art. 1586. It is expected that amended provisions, already in draft, will before long
replace this part of the Civil Code.
47
and not connected. The owners of that other property are therefore prejudiced.
But beyond that, it may be argued that the building stock in this country is part
of our national wealth; if it is allowed prematurely to deteriorate, that wealth is
diminished. Obviously, individual buildings will become obsolete and need to be
replaced, but if that process is accelerated by unjustified neglect, there is a greater
likelihood of creating slum housing and run down industrial and commercial areas,
to which over the years it has proved necessary to devote considerable sums from
taxation revenue.
4.19 This public interest may be at variance with what seems to be the best course to
adopt between landlord and tenant. "It is less costly and more conducive to a
peaceful existence to allow lessees to go their own way until the lease expires and
a formidable bill of dilapidations can be presented. This is a thoroughly bad
practice from the standpoint of the community's interest in preserving the stock
of houses, though it receives encouragement from some of the legislation designed
to protect lessees from oppressive use of covenant^".^^ The position may indeed
be more complicated. "There appears to be a complex conflict of interests. On
the one hand, society as a whole suffers if repairs are not actually done, since
houses decay and become slums; on the other hand, tenants, particularly poor
tenants may suffer if their repairing obligations are too onerous and are too rigidly
enforced; also many private landlords are too poor to carry out major repairs".38
Encouraging Repair 4.20 A simpler aim was adopted in the United States by those preparing a landlord and
tenant code. "The first object of landlord-tenant law, in our view, is to encourage
the making of repairs and the general maintenance of property. To accomplish
this, it was decided to (i) allocate maintenance responsibilities between the parties
in accordance with their respective abilities and probable expectations, (ii) provide
that an individual tenant can correct the landlord's default at the landlord's
expense, (iii) limit the tenant's liability when he repairs at the landlord's expense
in error, (iv) allow the tenants of an apartment building to put a grossly
deteriorated building into receivership for the purpose of correcting major defects,
(v) condition the landlord's most desirable remedies for tenant maintenance default
on his first correcting the defaults complained of, and (vi) allow the landlord to
correct such defaults at the tenant's expense''.39 To the extent that the objective
is simply to ensure that the work is done, it is necessary to consider our statutory
curbs on enforcing repairing obligations undertaken by tenants.@
.i Role of Lease Bargain 4.21 In looking at the aim of any repair which would govern the bargain between
landlord and tenant about the condition of the property, it is necessary to consider
how far it is appropriate that the obligations in question should be privately
enforced. Where the objective is a public one, the implementation of good
practice in relation to housing or in the work place, it may be that enforcement
37
Political and Economic Planning, The Future of Leasehold (1952), 18 Planning No. 338, p.205.
38
Partington, Landlord and Tenant (1975), p.262.
39
Levie and Others, Model Residential Landlord-tenant Code, American Bar Foundation Research
Project (1969), p.11.
48
should be left to public authorities taking civil or criminal proceedings. This has
been a matter of some debate.
4.22 The difference has been clearly noted. "When a private landlord fails to do
repairs a solicitor will tend to see a solution within the framework of the terms of
the tenancy, backed up by the county court. The alternative, however, is
enforcement proceedings by the Public Health Department under the Public Health
Acts and the Housing Acts. ... Within the development of a more open attitude
to rights, more stress will be placed on the value of these enforcement functions.
I [Footnote to the original: Jurisprudentially of course these functions are
concerned with the enforcement of public obligations and are not directly related
to private right^.]".^' Some see public enforcement as superior. "In theory the
covenants of a lease should be effective instruments for securing the maintenance
of the houses. The lessor has an interest in seeing that the house that will come
into his possession is well cared for ... This control should work better than
control through bye laws. In practice, repairing covenants often fail to prevent
any serious deterioration" .42
4.23 However, public enforcement can be inconsistent. Of the position in the United
States, it has been said that "the practical enforcement of building codes is another
matter. Building Inspectorates are often under-staffed, inefficient, or simply
corrupt, and the process of enforcement can be hampered or delayed beyond the
tolerance of the average tenant".43 Another commentator wrote, "[Clode
enforcement tends to oscillate wildly between passive and active phases. At times,
City officials - temporarily confident of their superior wisdom - impose their
preference for better housing upon the poor and embark on a moralistic code
enforcement 'campaign' which couples a 'massive crash enforcement program'
with an even more massive dose of invective against greedy slumlords and
'intolerable' living conditions. Unfortunately, moral indignation is difficult to
maintain for any cause, however noble".44 Although many factors may differ in
this country, some elements of these misgivings may be apparent here.
4.24 There seems no reason why private and public enforcement should be regarded as
mutually exclusive. If it is appropriate to impose an obligation, there is every
reason why it should be enforced, if not by one means then by another. The
legislation governing factories provides a well-established example of a code
imposing criminal sanctions for breach of it,45 enforceable by public
a u t h o r i t i e ~where
, ~ ~ it is also possible for individuals who suffer as a result of a
breach to bring civil proceedings to recover damages. This dual approach seems
'I 4'
Social Needs and Legal Action (1973), White, Lawyers and the Enforcement of Rights, pp.41-42.
42
Political and Economic Planning, llae Future of Leasehold (1952) 18 Planning No. 338, p.204.
43
Tiplady, Recent Developments in the Law of Landlord and tenant: The American Experience
(1981) 44 M.L.R. 129, 140.
Ackerman, Regulating Slum Housing Markets (1971) 80 Yale L.J. 1093, 1095.
4J Factories Act 1961, s.155(1).
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, ss.18, 53(1), Sched. 1.
49
I
to achieve both the possibility of ensuring compliance with standards required in
the public interest and the opportunity for an individual who is prejudiced to act
on his own initiative and obtain compensation for his personal loss.
4.25 Any extension of public enforcement would no doubt have implications for the
local authorities charged with the duty of enforcing these obligations. We should
be interested to learn from them whether they consider such an extension would
be desirable.
PART V
REFORM OPTIONS
5.1 In Part I11 of this Working Paper we identified a number of matters of concern
and we now turn attention to ways to address them. We examine, in turn, three
approaches: to do nothing, to adopt a comprehensive new approach or to make
reforms to individual points.
NO CHANGE
5.2 The first option is to make no changes. The scope of the contractual property
maintenance bargain between the parties to leases, however the obligation has
been allocated, has remained unaltered for many years, although litigation has
served to clarify aspects of it and to demonstrate how it applies to particular
circumstances. At least those who enter into a lease with professional advice and
have the implications explained to them, should be reasonably clear about the
scope and limitations of the duties undertaken. Some may consider that the
circumstances to which leases apply vary so greatly that no greater precision is
possible or should be attempted.
5.3 Indeed, some may be of the view that the matters of concern to which we have
referred occasion real difficulty only rarely and that a complex reform is not
justified. As Sir John Megaw said, after referring to difficulties arising from the
distinction between repairs and remedial work which are not repairs: "It may be,
however, that in practice - in real life as distinct from legal theory - the cases
where such difficulties would arise would be rare, since the carrying out of such
works will usually be very much in the interest of both landlord and tenant; and
an attempt to cover by legislation such rare cases where the parties have failed to
agree might lead to more problems than it would solve".'
5.4 Although our provisional conclusion is that at least some of the matters of concern
which we have identified do justify action, we should certainly wish to hear from
readers of this Paper who consider that no changes in the law should be proposed.
A NEW APPROACH
5.5 An alternative approach to the present rules could place emphasis on the purpose
for which the property was let. As we have seen, a duty to maintain premises in
a state suitable for a particular use has been adopted elsewhere: it is common in
1 civil law countries,2 and it is spreading into common law jurisdictions in the
United state^.^ It cannot therefore be dismissed as unworkable, but it would be
a considerable change in this country. The traditional imposition of repairing
obligations treats the need to maintain the condition of the property as independent
from the purpose for which the property is to be used. The standard of repair is
not dictated by what is needed for that use, and indeed the premises may be
' McDougall v. Emington District Council [1989] 1 E.G.L.R. 93, 96; see para. 3.7 above.
Para. 4.16 above.

Paras. 4.14-4.15 above.
51
unusable even though the repairing duty has been discharged. The attraction of
a duty linked to the use is that it treats the grant of the lease as an integrated
transaction, recognising that the physical state of the property can determine
whether the tenant is able to obtain the intended benefit. Such a use-based
approach would clearly be a radical change for English law, and it therefore
requires detailed exam inat i on.
Duty t o Maintain 5.6 The essence of an obligation linked to the use of a building is that the duty it
imposes is flexible, governed by that use and not simply by the nature of the
building. This is illustrated by the different standards which varying uses demand.
The same physical building could be used as a dwelling, an office or for storing
canned goods. For each of the cases, the requirements for heating, sound
insulation and decoration could be very different. Similarly varying demands
might apply to the nature of the fundamental construction. A small structure may
be a satisfactory bus shelter if its walls do not extend down to ground level and
it has no door; a tool store may conveniently be the same size, but could be
unsuitable unless fully weatherproof.
5.7 The objective of this type of obligation is that any building let will be kept in a
satisfactory state for its intended purpose. The fundamental duty might be
formulated along these lines -
To put and keep the demised property, and all parts of it, in such
state and condition that it may safely, hygienically and satisfactorily
be used, and continue in the immediate future to be used, for its
intended purpose with an appropriate degree of convenience and
comfort for the occupants.
The duty - which, for convenience, we shall refer to below as "the duty to
maintain" - would include making good all defects whether original or developed
later (and including the impact of legal requirements), by - as appropriate - repair,
replacement, improvement or renewal. The standard required would be such as
was appropriate in putting those premises to that use; that will allow the
necessary flexibility to recognise the age of a b ~ i l d i n g . ~
5.8 The duty to maintain is deliberately drawn more widely than the obligation to
repair. The object is to cover improvements, and the correction of defects which
the premises have always had, even though the result would be that at the end of
the lease the tenant would hand back to the landlord a property substantially
different from what was let. There is, however, a limit, and that is the reference
to the intended purpose.
Intended Purpose 5.9 Ascertaining the intended purpose of a letting would be crucial to defining the
scope of the duty to maintain in a particular case. Clearly, different intended
It is conceivable, e.g., that in an old office building a lower standard of heat insulation in the
exterior walls would be acceptable than in a new building. That would not be a breach of the
duty to maintain. But if the state of the wall became such that the building could not be used as
an office at all, the duty would be broken.
52
purposes could apply to different parts of a property let by a single lease.5
Again, the parties might wish to go into some detail, even though not obliged to
do so. For example, a lease might define the proposed use not merely as
“residential“, but as “a maisonette for family use on the ninth floor of a high
block”.6 For consideration, we suggest that the intended purpose of a letting
might be determined by one of the following means, in this order of priority:
(a) First, the purpose expressly stated by the parties would be the
intended purpose. This would, however, need some modification to
prevent unfair manipulation where the parties’ bargaining strength
was unequal. Accordingly, a statement of intended purpose could be
ineffective in a case where it was shown that, at the date of the
letting, there was not a reasonable prospect that the property could
physically and legally be put to the stated use.
(b) Secondly, the intended purpose would be the use to which the
premises had been last put before the letting (whether they had then
been let or had been owner-occupied). Again, some qualification
would be needed. This would not apply if, at the date of the letting,
it had not been possible, whether physically or legally, to use the
property for that purpose, and there was no reasonable prospect that
it would again be so. This limitation would be required to cope with
cases where the circumstances have changed since the property was
last used, e.g., where there had been substantial fire damage, or
where a closing order had been made.
(c) Thirdly, the intended purpose would be any use to which the
property was physically adapted. This would be subject to two
provisos: (i) it could be legally used in that way, or there was a
reasonable prospect that that would be allowed, and (ii) that it would
be reasonable to use it for that purpose.
Limits on Work 5.10 Stating the duty to maintain in such wide terms would make it necessary to impose
some practical limits on the work which had to be done. Work which it was not
legally or in practice possible to do, given reasonable diligence in seeking
permission or making practical arrangements on the part of the person liable,
would have to be outside the duty.
5.11 There would also of necessity be cases where the original intended purpose of a
letting would be ~uperseded.~ This involves two consequences: substituting a
new purpose and, in the absence of any change, deciding when the original
purpose should cease to govern the duty to maintain. Agreeing a new intended
purpose could be left to the parties, but it could well be necessary for the law to
’ There might, in effect, be two properties let together, as where a ground floor shop is let with
a flat above; or one part might have a use subsidiary to the other, as where a building is let
together with an access drive.
Liverpool City Council v. Irwin [1977] A.C. 239, 253 per Lord Wilberforce.
’ Who now needs a mews property for keeping a coach and horses?
53
define when an existing intended purpose should no longer govern the duty to
maintain. Otherwise, a party might be put under an expensive duty to carry out
inappropriate work.
5.12 There should also be some safeguard against the duty operating to require
pointless work. There would be no duty to do work required only for a purpose
which had been discontinued without reasonable prospect of being resumed, or for
one which was not reasonably likely to continue for long enough for reasonable
advantage to be taken of the work. Again, where the intended purpose was with
a view to profit, there would be no duty to do work which could not be turned to
profitable account.
Neighbouring
Property 5.13 Whatever the extent of the duty to do work, there is still the question whether the
duty should in some circumstances extend beyond the property which is let.
: I When the stability of those premises depends on other property, their satisfactory
maintenance entails taking some responsibility for that other property.' In cases
of some physical dependency, the duty applicable to the demised premises could
appropriately extend to doing work on any neighbouring property in the ownership
or control, in whatever capacity, of the party with the duty, so long as he had the
right to enter to do the work on that property or was lawfully able to do so.
5.14 Because any obligation to do work on neighbouring property must be dependent

on a right of entry, it would be open to some manipulation. The party obliged to
do the work - be he landlord or tenant - might dispose of neighbouring property,
or let it, deliberately to ensure that he had no right to enter and do the work. It
seems unlikely that anyone would go to the lengths of disposing of property for
this reason alone, except in an extreme case. The only way to counter such
moves would be for statute to impose an absolute obligation to do work on
neighbouring property. This would be an infringement of the neighbour's rights.
We do not see this as a case demanding such stringent, and perhaps impractical,
measure^.^
1 Access and
Easements 5.15 It seems unsatisfactory that it should be possible for property to be let with the
benefit of rights over other property owned by the landlord, without there being
any obligation to ensure that it is maintained so that the tenant can satisfactorily
use the facilities." Certainly, this reflects the general rule relating to easements,
where, merely as a result of granting the right, the owner of the servient tenement
undertakes no maintenance obligations." That may well be acceptable where the
easement represents an enhancement of property which the grantee already owns.
' In practice this is already sometimes the case. E.g. , a landlord who owns adjoining property may
be guilty of nuisance if he neglects it to the detriment of the demised premises: Bradburn v.
Lindsay [I9831 2 All E.R. 408.
In some cases, a party might be able to take advantage of the Access to Neighbouring Land Act
1992.
lo
The precise extent to which this is so is uncertain: paras. 2.8-2.13 above.
II Duncan v. Louch (1845) 4 L.T. O.S. 356.
54
However, in the case of easements granted where land is demised there is a
distinction: the landlord lets property and grants rights to the tenant as part of a
single package and normally for consideration. Sometimes, it will not even be
possible to use the demised premises satisfactorily without the benefit of the
easement.
5.16 In the light of these considerations, we see logic in extending the duty to maintain
to property beyond the demised premises, where the condition of that other
property affects the rights over it granted to the tenant. Again, the obligation to
do work would necessarily here depend on a right of entry."
Fitness for Human

Habitation 5.17 If the general obligation for maintenance of the fabric of property was linked to
the use to which it was put, there would be a case for ceasing to have a separate
statutory provision relating to fitness for human habitati~n.'~However, fitness
for human habitation is not simply a general standard; statute lays down specific
tests by which it should be judged. Respondents to the Department of the
Environment's con~ultation'~ clearly saw these tests as a useful tool in enforcing
the law, and they do add precision. We agree that that advantage should not be
lost, and we also feel that it would be appropriate for this legislation to adopt the
recently revised standards used for other p ~ r p o s e s . ' ~ However, the two
approaches could conveniently be combined. Landlords could have a duty to
maintain,I6 and the statutory standard of fitness for human habitation could be
expressly adopted as a minimum standard for compliance with the general duty.17
Allocation of
Responsibility 5.18 Whatever the extent of the duty to do work on premises, it is also necessary to
determine on whom the duty is to be placed. Without statutory provisions, it is
not uncommon, as we have noted,I8 for no obligation to be imposed in relation
to some or all of the premises. This is unsatisfactory. As a fall-back, statute
should imply duties to do all the work needed on the state and condition of the
property let. Normally, it could be for the parties to decide whose the
responsibility should be, although in exceptional cases it could be imposed on a
particular party. Some general exceptions would be required.
l2 Para. 5.14 above.
Is Para. 3.27 above.
l6 In a case where, with statutory authority, the landlord was relieved of the duty to maintain, it
would be appropriate for this additional obligation not to apply.
There is a parallel statutory provision which implies an undertaking of fitness for human
habitation into an agricultural worker's terms of employment where they give him a licence to
occupy housing accommodation: Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.9. The revised standard of
fitness for human habitation could also be adopted for interpreting that provision.
'* Para. 3.20 above.
55
I
1 Primary
Responsibility 5.19 Many leases divide responsibility for repairs between the parties: typically, the
landlord may be responsible for the structure and exterior' of a building and the
tenant for the interior. Legislation could take a similar approach, analysing a
series of typical situations and providing a detailed scheme of responsibilities in
different cases.
5.20 However, that is likely to prove unnecessarily and unacceptably complex. The
more sophisticated the scheme, the more unlikely it would be that the outline of
the law would be generally understood. Landlord and tenant law affects a large
number of people in many different situations. It is already criticised for its
complexity and incomprehensibility, justifiably in our view, and we should not
want to add to the difficulties. For this reason, we provisionally suggest placing
the entire burden of work on one party in the first instance. It would not matter
if it is frequently transferred, in whole or part, to the other party: any such
transfer would have to be part of the express agreement between the parties, and
there would therefore be the advantage that the provision had been expressly
drawn to both parties' attention.
5.21 In making the choice of where to place the primary responsibility, on the landlord
or on the tenant, these points need to be taken into account:
(a) For placing it on the landlord: The landlord is the permanent

owner of the property, even if his right to resume possession may be
considerably postponed, he therefore has the longest-term interest in
its preservation and some statutory obligations have already been
mandatorily placed on him.
I
(b) For placing it on the tenant: The tenant is in possession of the

property, has the immediate incentive to ensure that it is kept fit for
use and if the maintenance duty is geared to the intended use of the
letting, it is he who is using the property for that purpose.
5.22 Our provisional conclusion is that the primary responsibility should be placed on
the landlord. Two factors seem to us to be conclusive: first, his permanent
ownership,20giving him a continuing interest even if, e.g., he forfeits the lease;
secondly, the fact that in some circumstances he already has compulsory repairing
obligations would make for a most confusing statute if it were first to place a duty
on the tenant and then immediately to transfer it to the landlord. For the reasons
given above,*' we do not consider that the landlord's responsibility should be
limited to defects of which he has notice. Rather, he should have a power to
inspect and should be liable for all work which a diligent inspection would have
revealed as necessary. As we suggested previously, the landlord's responsibility
could by agreement be freely transferred to the tenant, except in specified
The Law Commission's previous proposals adopted this approach: para. 1.6 above.
Or, in the case of the owner of the reversion to a sub-lease, his interest for a term which is
longer than that which the tenant enjoys.
Para. 3.28 above.
56
. .,
I
exceptional cases. The term "responsibility" here means not merely undertaking
the physical work, but would include the liability to pay for it. So, to include a
payment for work in a service charge would, for this purpose, be to transfer
responsibility.22
5.23 To the overall rule of the landlord's duty, there could be one general exception.
It would clearly be unsatisfactory if tenants felt that they had no responsibility at
all for the property which they occupied. They should be encouraged, and indeed
obliged, to treat it properly. Accordingly, it seems appropriate that all tenants
should, as now, have a duty to use the property in a tenant-like manner.= This
obligation, like the landlord's general obligation, could be transferred if the parties
so agreed.
5.24 The parties' ability to transfer responsibility would allow of a great deal of
flexibility. The terms would be for them to agree, subject to the general rule that
between them they must have the duty to do all the work. The following
examples suggest possible variations which might be agreed:
(a) The tenant would be responsible for all the work, except any
required as a result of damage by insured risks, which the landlord
would have a duty to make good;
(b) The tenant might covenant "to repair", thereby accepting

responsibility for all the work now covered by a repairing covenant,
but leaving the landlord to do the additional work that the duty to
maintain would involve;
(c) The primary duty to do the work could be undertaken by a third

party, e.g. a service company, but in that case responsibility if the
third party defaulted would have to be accepted by the landlord or
the tenant, or be divided between them.
5.25 It is clearly important that parties to a lease should be in no doubt where the
responsibility for maintenance work lies. There is therefore a case for requiring
. I
any agreement transferring responsibility to be in writing. That would ensure that
the matter was drawn to the parties' attention, would lay some emphasis on its
importance and would provide evidence in the case of a dispute. There are,
however, many informal lettings of business premises, which can validly be
created orally and which are not subject to any implied repairing provisions. We
should welcome views on whether writing should be required by statute in cases
where the duty to maintain is to be transferred.
5.26 It seems appropriate that the cases in which the landlord is forbidden to transfer
responsibility for maintenance should correspond to the present statutory duties to
repair. These relate to short lettings of residential premisesx and to long leases
22 Campden Hill Towers Ltd. v. Gardner [1977] Q.B. 823.
57
of flats granted after the exercise of the tenant’s right to buy.= We are not
aware of suggestions that these implied duties should be extended or restricted, but
should welcome comments. Both exceptional cases could, as now, be subject to
modification by court order.%
5.27 The general rule that the landlord - or by agreement the tenant - should be
responsible for maintaining the property would need to be subject to some
flexibility. There are bound to be cases where the parties quite reasonably agree
that there is no need for such a duty to be imposed on anyone. An example would
be a temporary letting of a redundant building pending its demolition. One
possibility would be to leave the parties to decide when the statutory provision
should cease to apply; but this could be open to the objection of being likely to
defeat the purpose of the provision, by giving free rein to any inequality of
bargaining power. A possible alternative is that contracting out of responsibility
should only be effective when sanctioned by court order. Although following
well-tried precedentsJz7this could be an unwelcome burden to the parties while
at the same time adding unnecessarily to the business of the courts.
5.28 We therefore suggest this compromise for consideration. The parties could validly
exclude the duty if the lease or written tenancy agreement:
(a) Stated that the property (or that part of it to which the exclusion
applied) was redundant and of no value to the parties;
(b) Perhaps - and we seek views on whether this seems necessary -

included a prescribed statement explaining the effect of the exclusion;
(c) Contained no term inconsistent with the declaration of

, redundancy. A duty to insure a building for its rebuilding value
would, e.g., be inconsistent with its being redundant.
As an alternative, the parties would be able to apply for a court order authorising
exclusion of the duty; that would cover any unusual case.
The Crown 5.29 The Crown is party to a large number of leases, either as landlord or as tenant.
As a matter of general principle, we do not see any reason why it should not be
bound by a maintenance obligation in the same way as its subjects. As we noted
above, it is not at present bound by the provisions introduced for the protection
of residential tenants,” and this is consistent with its not being bound by other
tenant protection statutes, such as the Rent Acts. The possible duty to maintain
is, however, of more general application; it is intended to apply to the majority
of property lettings. For this reason, and while we have not yet carried out any
~~
25 Housing Act 1985, Sched. 6, para. 14.
26 Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.12; Housing Act 1985, Sched. 6, para. 14(4).
27 E.g., Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.12.
58
consultation, we provisionally consider that any resulting legislation should bind
the Crown.
Sub-tenants 5.30 If such a scheme as this is adopted, it should apply in relation to sub-leases in the
same way as it does to head leases. Necessarily, a head tenant has the position
of landlord under a sub-lease, but this should cause no difficulty. Normally, any
obligation of that intermediate party would either be passed on to his head
landlord or to his sub-tenant, but this is subject to the bargain which the parties
make. As the nature of the duty would not depend on the age and condition of
the premises when letYz9this should cause no difficulty. Should others foresee
problems in this area, we hope they will express their reservations to us.
Transitional Provisions
Leases 5.31 There is always a problem in introducing changes to landlord and tenant law
where the question is whether the new provisions should affect existing leases.
To impose the new rules on the parties to those leases may be to change their
bargain drastically and unfairly. Retrospective legislation is unpalatable to many,
particularly when it alters the nature of existing bargains. On the other hand,
some earlier statutes in this field have had retrospective effect.% To leave
existing leases untouched may mean that not until, say, 75 years have passed can
one be confident that the overwhelming majority of leases are covered by the new
rules; and throughout, two sets of rules apply in parallel. It might be thought
that such additional complexity should be avoided.
5.32 The introduction of a duty to maintain would undoubtedly have a considerable

effect on the bargains incorporated into most leases. We invite those who
comment to say if they favour either immediate universal introduction of the new
rules or no change at all to existing leases, but also to consider and comment on
the following compromise suggestion. First, existing leases granted at a premium
or in consideration of the tenant erecting a building would be excluded. Secondly,
other existing leases could be covered from, say, five years after legislation was
introduced. This could generally allow for at least one rent review, at which the
impact of the new rules could be taken into account. In the case of a lease which
did not provide for a review during those five years, the Act would give a right
of review exclusively to take account of the impact of the change, with the new
rent becoming payable at the end of the five years. In the absence of agreement
on the amount of the new rent, there would be a right to arbitration.
5.33 It would also be possible to cope with exceptional cases by giving a right of
recourse to the court, which could have a discretion to vary the terms of a lease
or to bring it to an end where a party would otherwise suffer hardship.
Statutes 5.34 Many statutes at present refer to repairing obligations. Clearly, if the fundamental
obligation of the parties to leases became a duty to maintain, many of these
29 Paras. 3.14-3.15 above.
E.g., Common Law Procedure Act 1852, s.210; Law of Distress Amendment Act 1908, s.3;
Leasehold Property (Repairs) Act 1938; Landlord and Tenant Act 1988.
59
provisions would need amending. We have not considered precisely what these
changes should be, as such detailed consideration seems premature. we suggest,
however, that the approach might be as follows:
(a) Provisions imposing a duty to repair31 should become a duty to

maintain;
(b) Provisions regulating the consequences of breaches of a repairing

should be extended to apply to the consequences of breaches
of a duty to maintain.
It may well be that there are cases to which special considerations should apply,
and we invite those who comment on this paper to identify any of particular
concern to them.
Waste 5.35 We make suggestions below for the abolition of the doctrine of waste in this
and they could apply equally on the introduction of a duty to maintain.
INDIVIDUAL REFORMS
5.36 In this section we set out a number of possible individual reforms, as an
alternative to a comprehensive approach. These suggestions are not presented on
the basis that if any is adopted all must be, but rather as a collection from which
one, some or all may be selected. Those responding to this Paper should
therefore consider each individually, indicating their views as appropriate.
Meaning of "Repair" 5.37 An overwhelming number of duties undertaken in relation to the fabric of property
which is let, whether they be contractual or statutory duties, are expressed in
terms of an obligation to repair. The meaning of the term "repair" is therefore
fundamental in defining the extent of the obligation undertaken by parties to
leases. How far the obligation extends has given rise to many disputes; in some
cases the work which has to be done has been seen to be inadequate. It is
therefore for consideration whether reform should take the direction of re-defining
or extending the meaning of "repair" when used in leases.
I m provement 5.38 The distinction which is probably most frequently drawn is between work which
constitutes repair on the one hand and improvement work on the other. The
justification is clear enough: neither party should, merely because the tenant is
authorised to occupy the property, be obliged to make a further investment in it.
Although that seems reasonable, the result can be unsatisfactory: work is required
3'
E.g., the implied duty of landlords of residential premises let on short leases: Landlord and
Tenant Act 1985, ss.11-13.
32 E.g., the requirements for serving notices: Law of Property Act 1925, s.146; Landlord and
Tenant Act 1927, s. 18(2); Leasehold Property (Repairs) Act 1938.
33
60
to cure the symptoms of defects but need not tackle the cause,% and similar work
may in one case be a repair and in another an impr~vement.~’
5.39 Nevertheless, there can surely be no question of extending the duty to repair to
cover all improvements. Without some limitation it would be quite impossible to
define and limit the work covered, and no one could be advised to undertake such
an unlimited obligation.
5.40 The difficulty some see is that work needed to rectify defects, which they consider
should therefore be regarded as a repair, is classified as an improvement. An
apparent way to tackle that would be to provide that “repair” would cover work
which would, if not also an improvement, constitute a repair. However, put in
that way, we doubt whether a formulation would be successful; the analysis of
the position until now treats repairs and improvements as alternatives.
Accordingly one cannot sensibly refer to repair work which has been excluded
from the obligation because it was also an improvement; work has been in one
category or the other, but not both.
5.41 Where improvement is the only way to cure a defect - say, by replacing wholly
inadequate foundations - a provision could extend the meaning of a repairing duty
to include a requirement to do whatever work is necessary to allow a part of a
building to perform its intended function, notwithstanding that the result is to
make an improvement.
5.42 However, a satisfactory formula might well have to go further. In some cases,
a necessary constituent part of a building might be entirely missing, so to talk of
it performing its intended function would be meaningless. Would it be satisfactory
to talk in terms of the intended function of the building? There would also be
difficult definition problems. Say, the outside wall of a building was without a
damp proof course: would that be a wall with a defect, or a completely absent
damp proof course? If the duty were to extend to remedying deficiencies, as well
as defects, strict limits would be needed: would necessity provide an adequate and
satisfactory test?
I
5.43 We entertain doubts about this approach, but we invite any respondent to this
Paper who favours this approach to consider in some detail how this type of
extension to the repairing duty might be formulated.
I
I 5.44 Even to extend the scope of repairs to work required to make parts of the building
i
perform as was originally intended does not tackle cases where at present the duty
requires symptoms to be cured while ignoring the cause. However, this does not
seem to us to be a problem of the same nature. In one case, the present position
means that no work is done at all, but in the other a temporary solution is found.
It is already established that the person who has to do repairs, albeit at the expense
of the other party, may choose whether he does a cheap temporary job or an
35 Para. 2.21 above, footnote.
61
expensive long-term There seems to be no reason why that principle
should not apply generally. If appropriate work is satisfactorily done, it should
be open to the person doing it to choose what he does.
5.45 We referred earlier to another issue concerning improvements: whether, once

they have been done, the duty to repair should apply to the resulting altered
property.37 There seems to be only one case in which a duty to repair
improvements to a property could be unduly onerous: if one party (say, the
landlord) voluntarily improves the property, without the tenant’s concurrence, but
it is the tenant who has the repairing obligation. That could increase the cost to
the tenant of performing his duty. It cannot be justifiable that the landlord can
unilaterally increase the burden of the tenant’s obligation.
5.46 However, in other cases we see no reason why any repairing duty which applies
to the whole of the property should not extend to any improvements made after
the date of the lease. This would apply to cases of improvements made pursuant
to statutory obligations, those required or authorised by the terms of the lease and
any made by the party who was obliged to repair or with his consent.
Inherent Defects 5.47 An inherent defect is a state of affairs in relation to the design or construction of
the building or the materials employed in it, which has existed since it was
erected. To put right an inherent defect will necessarily be to make an
improvement to the property; any proposal to extend the repairing obligation to
cover such defects is accordingly an aspect of the move to extend it to
improvements. If repairing duties were to be extended to cover defects in
existence when the property was originally built, there would be a problem similar
to the one we identified in relation to improvement~,~~ that it is neither practical
nor desirable that the obligation be unlimited. However, if some degree of
improvement is to be included within the duty to repair, there seems no reason
why any distinction should be drawn between work resulting from inherent defects
and other improvements.
5.48 Necessarily, an inherent defect will pre-date the grant of the lease. We now turn
to discussing how far liabilities should extend to rectifying defects which existed
when the lease was granted.
Existing Defects 5.49 The property may be defective when the lease is granted. This raises the question
how far it is appropriate that a duty to repair - whether cast on landlord or tenant -
should relate to those existing defects. The answer may not be straightforward.
Bearing in mind that a repairing covenant is normally interpreted to include an
obligation to put the premises into initial repairY3’there should be no valid
distinction between the rectification of defects which occur during the lease term
36 Manor House Drive Ltd. v. Shahbazian (1965) 195 E.G. 283.
37 Para. 3.8 above.
62
and those originating before the lease begins. On that view, if repair is extended
to cover appropriate improvement work, the duty to do those improvements would
apply whenever the defects occurred and even if they were in the premises as
originally constructed, i.e. inherent defects.
5.50 But the apparent fairness of requiring the tenant who has a duty to repair, to
rectify a state of affairs which existed when the lease was granted - which, to an
extent, it already does - may be influenced by what information he is given in
advance. Where an existing defect is known to the landlord, but is not readily
apparent to the tenant, should the landlord be able, once the lease has been
granted, to require the tenant to rectify it? Some may see that as unconscionable.
5.51 The Commission's earlier proposal to impose liability on landlords for injury or
damage resulting from pre-existing defectsa extended far beyond the need simply
to give information. It involved imposing a liability on the landlord41 not only
to the tenant but to other future users of the property. A less far-reaching
proposal may be more generally acceptable. Looking only at the position between
landlord and tenant, a new provision could give an incentive to landlords to give
tenants preliminary information. All tenants' repairing could exclude
liability to remedy any defect known to the landlord when the lease was granted
unless it was notified to the tenant in advance. A more stringent restriction, from
the landlord's point of view, would extend the exclusion to cover not only defects
known to the landlord, but also those which ought to have been known to him."
Standard at Date of
Letting 5.52 We noted above doubts which arise about using the date of the letting as a
criterion to judge the standard of repair." An alternative would be a standard
which looks for guidance to the age and nature of the premises and the character
of surrounding property at the date when the state of repair is being judged. We
recognise that this would not give certainty in advance as to what would be
required to comply with the repairing covenant and it would not give a guarantee
to the landlord that he would receive back a property in the state in which he let
it. However, to the extent that what is being assessed is not what has to be done,
but how far the work should go, and taking into account the necessary changes
with the passing years, the alternative could be more appropriate. The passage
of time may make repair to the building's former standard impracticable. If a
neighbourhood has deteriorated, repair to a standard no longer locally regarded
as necessary will often add nothing to a property's value. An alternative view
may be that this additional test, relating the standard of repair to the date of the
4o See para. 2.25 above.

4'
And also on sellers of property.
42 If appropriate, as extended by the provisions suggested above concerning improvements.
43 This would reflect the Defective Premises Act 1972, s.4 which imposes a duty on the landlord
if he "knows(whether as the result of being notified by the tenant or otherwise) or if he ought
in all the circumstances to have known": s.4(2).
Paras. 3.14-3.15 above.
63
letting or to some other date, is simply not needed at all. We invite those who
respond to this Paper to comment.
Fitness for Human

Habitation 5.53 Until now, direct statutory intervention to require that the state of premises let be
suitable for the use to which they are put has been confined to residential
property.45 But this statutory undertaking as to fitness for human habitation is
not wholly satisfactory: there is a case for extending the implied repairing
covenants which can be criticised for not being comprehensive enough.&
5.54 The present rules47could, we suggest, be changed in two ways:
(a) The rent limits for implying a statutory duty should no longer
apply;
(b) The new statutory definition of fitness for human habitation4*

should apply to govern the standard required for compliance by
landlords.
5.55 There are, of course, many residential properties let on the basis that the tenant
undertakes all repairs and maintenance obligations. Most of those let by leases for
99 years or more are, effectively, sales to the tenants and the ground landlords
have little or no continuing interest in or responsibility for the property. We see
no need to interfere with this method of home ownership, and to bring those cases
within this implied undertaking would be a substantial change. It seems to us that
lettings of this nature should be excluded and that a classification by the length of
lease would be satisfactory. We suggest these possible alternatives, and would ask
those who support this reform option to indicate which they prefer, or to suggest
some other limit:
(a) The undertaking could apply to all lettings for less than seven
years. This would make it cover the same tenancies as are within the
scope of the landlord’s repairing ~ovenant.~’
(b) The undertaking could apply to all lettings for up to 21 years.

This is the division which has come generally to be adopted by
statute for distinguishing between short and long leases.% In this
case it would be necessary to make provision for the statutory
obligations to override any conflicting tenant’s covenants in the lease.
45
46
Quick v. TaffEly Borough Council [1986] Q.B. 809; paras. 3.3-3.4 above.
47 Paras. 2.29-2.30 above.
Para. 3.27 above.

49
E.g., Landlord and Tenant Act 1954, s.2(4); Leasehold Reform Act 1967, s.3.
64
Property to be
Repaired 5.56 We have drawn attention to the need, in certain circumstances, to extend the duty
to repair beyond the premises which are demised.’l The stability of what is let
to the tenant, or the maintenance of services which he enjoys, may depend upon
other neighbouring property being properly maintained. The question here is not
what work should be done, but to what premises it should be done. Whatever
standard of work is adopted could appropriately be required not only to the
property let, but to whatever other property was included in the repairing duty.
5.57 We suggest for consideration that the two following extensions to the property to
be repaired should apply, unless expressly excluded:
(a) Any obligation to repair the property demised should include an

obligation to repair other property on which the party with the duty
was entitled to do work, to the extent that the state of the other
property affected the repair of the demised premises.
(b) A landlord’s repairing obligation should similarly extend to other

property, over which the tenant had an express easement or an
easement of necessity, and on which the landlord was entitled to do
work.
Waste 5.58 The role of the law of waste in relations between landlord and tenant?’ can be
seen as supplementing inadequate contractual provisions, whether express or
implied. Once those provisions have been reviewed, and reformed where
necessary, there should be no need for this back-up, which serves to complicate
the law by providing a second and separate code of obligations covering the same
situation. We therefore suggest that as between landlord and tenant, but not in
other situations which we are not considering in this Paper, the doctrine of waste
should be abolished.
5.59 The one circumstance in which the law of waste might continue to have a role to
play is where the lease has expired, but the tenant is still in possession. If the
need for this can be avoided, the simplification will be more complete.
Accordingly, we suggest for consideration the two following alternatives. Both
are put forward on this basis: that the lease has come to an end, and has not been
extended by agreement or statute; that the tenant continues in possession; and
that the doctrine of waste no longer applies.
(a) The lease provisions as to the duty to maintain, including any

implied obligations, should continue to apply between the owner of
the property and the former tenant in possession; or
(b) Any duty to maintain which, expressly or by implication, was,

while the lease subsisted, cast on the tenant - but not on the landlord
- should continue to bind the former tenant in possession. This one-
s’ Paras. 3.20 et seq above.
52
65
sided provision would recognise that the tenant was wrongfully
continuing in possession.
Enforcement
0bjective 5.60 It is perhaps in the enforcement of repairing duties that the view taken of the
underlying purpose of these obligations is most important. The emphasis of the
law until now has been on the economic view of leases: damages are payable for
loss of value to the party with the benefit of the covenant, rather than for the cost
of work not done, although in many cases the resulting figure may be the same.
This seems to us inconsistent with an approach which places the emphasis on
ensuring that necessary work be done, and alternatives based on that view should
be considered.
Specific Performance 5.61 That objective would be better served if specific performance became the primary
method of enforcing property maintenance duties. It is not appropriate to dictate
to parties what remedies they should choose, but this remedy can be made
available for all cases of default. As we pointed out earlier,53 the statutory
extension of the remedy in the case of residential property does not appear to have
caused difficulties. In these circumstances, it is for consideration that that
provision should be extended to all types of property.
Damages 5.62 When discussing damages above,54 we identified the concern with the statutory
limitation on the sum recoverable by the landlord, which cannot exceed the
reduction in the value of his interest. This places the emphasis on compensation
rather than performance, but is of course consistent with principle. "The general
object underlying the rules for the assessment of damages is, so far as is possible
by means of a monetary award, to place the plaintiff in the position which he
would have occupied if he had not suffered the wrong complained of".55
However, the cost of repair is already the starting point for assessing such
damages, or, in the words of Dillon L.J., "a guide to the diminution in value of
the r e v e r s i ~ n " . It
~ ~is true that there are cases in which the cost of repairs
exceeds the fall in the value of the landlord's interest. The same may well be true
in reverse, when the landlord has the duty to do the work. Nevertheless, there is
a danger that damages, even if related to the cost of works, will not ensure that
the building is repaired. The cost of building work generally rises, and by the
time damages are recovered, the cost of the work when it should have been done
will not then be enough to pay for it. It is also a concern that a successful
plaintiff may walk away with the damages and leave the property in its
unsatisfactory state. We therefore suggest, for comment, two provisions:
(a) Damages for breach of a duty to maintain property, whether

payable by landlord or tenant, should, while the lease continues, be
53 Para. 3 . 3 2 above.
54 Paras. 3 . 3 0 - 3 . 3 1 above.
"
Dodd Properties Ltd. v. Canterbury City Council [ 19801 1 W.L.R. 4 3 3 , 4 5 6 , per Donaldson L.J.
56
Culworth Estates L d . v. Society of Licensed Victuallers (1991) 62 P. & C.R. 2 1 1 , 214.
66
the sum required to pay for the work needed when the damages are
awarded.
(b) It should be open to the court, on the application of the

defendant, to impose a condition on an award of damages that it be
spent on doing the work.
The Crown 5.63 The position of the Crown under legislation regulating repairing responsibilities
is not at present consistent. This may be illustrated by taking the four major cases
of statutory intervention cited a b ~ v e : ’ ~
(a) Relief for tenants against enforcement of obligations to do

decorative repairs:’* this provision binds the Crown.59
(b) Limit on the amount of damages payable on a breach of a

tenant’s repairing covenant? this provision binds the Crown.61
(c) Landlords sometimes require consent of the court before

enforcing a tenant’s repairing covenant:62 this provision binds the
Crown.63
(d) Implied repairing covenants by landlords of residential premises

I let for up to seven years? this provision does not bind the
5.64 Although rent restriction legislation affecting residential property has not generally
I bound the Crown, we do not see why, in relation to repairs, it should not be put
I in the same position as ordinary citizens when it is a party to a lease, whether as
landlord or as tenant. Statutory intervention in this field is intended to provide an
equitable framework for property ownership and enjoyment, and there seems no
reason why different considerations should apply to the Crown. We provisionally
suggest, therefore, for comment by others, that all legislation in this field should
bind the Crown.
57
Para. 4.1 above.
58
Law of Property Act 1925, s.147.
’9
Ibid., s.208(3).
60
61
Ibid., s.24(1).
62
Leasehold Property (Repairs) Act 1938.
63 Landlord and Tenant Act 1954, sSl(3). Until the enactment of the 1954 Act, the 1938 Act did
not bind the Crown.
64
Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, ss.11-13.
65
Department of Tramport v. Egoroff [1986] 1 E.G.L.R. 89; para. 3.29 above.
67
PART VI
SUMMARY OF ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION

i
6.1 In this Consultation Paper we are seeking views on all the issues we have raised.
These range from the analysis and criticisms of the present law to whether any
change is necessary or desirable and if so what changes there should be. For
convenience, we set out below a summary of the issues raised in the Paper. We
welcome comments on individual topics as well as on the whole Paper, and
comments on any related matters on which we did not touch.
The Present Law 6.2 After summarising the present law in Part I1 of this Paper, we set out, in Part 111,
a number of criticisms of it. We invited those responding to consider whether
they agreed with the criticisms and whether there were other unsatisfactory
features in the present law which should be addressed.
Repair 6.3 The following issues arise from the definition of the obligation to repair:
(a) Disrepair is limited to deterioration in physical condition, and

ignores lack of amenity or inefficiency; [paras. 3.3-3.41
(b) Improvement work is excluded, so that work to remedy a serious

defect may not be required. Does the distinction between repair and
improvement work give rise to problems in practice? [paras. 3.6-
3.81
(c) Curing inherent defects and responsibility for matters existing

before a lease is granted can raise difficulties. Should landlords have
a duty of disclosure to prospective tenants? [paras. 3.9-3.131
(d) The standard of repair governed by' the age and nature of the
property at the time let is unsatisfactory because: it is not wholly
judged at that date, initial dilapidation may be ignored and allowance
is made for subsequent natural deterioration; changes in the
surrounding neighbourhood are ignored; there are difficulties on
sub-letting; [paras. 3.14-3.151
(e) A duty to repair does not usually extend to modernisation.

[paras, 3.16-3.191
Responsibility 6.4 The issues arising from the duties imposed on parties to leases are:
(a) When only part of a building is let, it may be that neither party
has a repairing obligation. Do landlords still decline to take
68
responsibility for the parts of the property they retain? [paras. 3.20-
3.241
(b) The extent of the landlord’s obligation to repair retained property

over which the tenant obtains services is unclear; [para. 3.251
(c) The statutory implied obligation on landlords to provide and keep

residential premises fit for human habitation has been reduced in
scope; [paras. 3.26-3.271
(d) The requirement that the landlord has notice of a defect before
incurring liability to repair can result in his escaping responsibility;
[para. 3.281
(e) The Crown is not bound by the statutory implied landlord’s

covenant to repair residential premises let for up to seven years.
[para. 3.291
Enforcement 6.5 In relation to the enforcement of repairing covenants, there are the following
issues:
(a) The statutory limit on damages for breach of a tenant’s repairing

covenant does not always achieve its present objective, but it may
nullify the aim of keeping premises in repair; [paras. 3.30-3.311
(b) Restrictions on specific performance may be unjustified; [para.

3.321
(c) Landlords do not have automatic rights of entry. [paras. 3.33-

3.341
General 6.6 In addition, there are these general points:
(a) The law in this area is not clearly stated, nor is it easily
accessible; [paras. 3.35-3.371
(b) Although most statutory rules have until now applied only to
residential tenancies, sensible general rules should perhaps apply to
all types of property. What rules applying to buildings could
satisfactorily extend to other types of property? [paras. 3.38-3.391
Reform
0bjectives 6.7 Before commenting on possible reform options, we invite views on what the aims
of the law should be in this area. The possibilities discussed earlier in the Paper
are:
69
(a) Limiting leases to encapsulating the parties' bargain; [paras.
4.2-4.51
(b) Correcting the inequality of bargaining power between the

parties; [paras. 4.6-4.91
(c) Restricting further legislative change to residential property;

[paras. 4.10-4.111
(d) Ensuring that premises are or remain fit for their intended use;
[paras. 4.12-4.161
(e) Recognising a public interest in the satisfactory maintenance of

buildings; [paras. 4.17-4.191
(f) Encouraging repair; [para. 4.201
(g) Choosing between public and private enforcement. [paras. 4.21-

4.251
First Option:
No Change 6.8 We provisionally conclude that at least some of the matters of concern justify
action; those who disagree will favour making no changes. [paras. 5.2-5.41
Second Option:
A New Approach 6.9 Our second option would replace the duty to repair with an obligation linked to
the use of the property, ensuring that the tenant was able to obtain the intended
benefit from the lease. The following features need to be considered:
(a) The formulation of "the duty to maintain" would refer to the

safe, hygienic and satisfactory use of the property for its intended
purpose. This would include making improvements and correcting
inherent defects; [paras. 5.6-5.81
(b) The intended purpose would be: expressly stated in the lease;
or, if not, the purpose to which the premises were last put; but, if
not, the purpose to which they were physically adapted; [para. 5.91
(c) The work required by the duty to maintain would be limited to

exclude matters which were illegal or impractical. Provision would
be made for changes in the intended use; [paras. 5.10-5.121
(d) The duty could extend to neighbouring property on which the

demised premises depended, subject to rights of entry; [paras. 5.13-
5.161
70
(e) The duty to maintain could be combined with the statutory
obligation relating to fitness for human habitation; [para. 5.171
(0 The duty to maintain would in the first instance be placed on the

landlord. But, except in cases where statute at present obliges the
landlord to repair, the parties would be free to transfer it, in whole
or part, to the tenant; [paras. 5.18-5.261
(g) The duty could be excluded altogether in the case of a redundant

building. Should a prescribed statement be required in leases
explaining the effect of the exclusion? [paras. 5.27-5.281
(h) The legislation would bind the Crown and sub-tenants; [paras.
5.29-5.301
(i) Transitional provisions need to be considered. Should existing

leases be affected? Would it be satisfactory to apply the new rules
to existing leases, other than those granted at a premium or in
consideration of the tenant erecting a building, five years after the
legislation is introduced? [paras. 5.31-5.331
(i) Statutes would be amended to convert references to a duty to

repair to references to a duty to maintain. Are there cases to which
special considerations would apply? [para. 5.341
(k) Proposals in relation to the doctrine of waste, see below,' would

apply. [para. 5.351
Third Option:
Individual Reforms 6.10 Possible individual reforms are for consideration on the basis that one, some or
all might be implemented. We therefore invite comments on them individually.
Meaning of "Repair" 6.11 The definition of repair could be adjusted in a number of ways:
(a) Some improvements might be included. Would it be satisfactory

to extend the repairing duty to include improvements which enable
a building to perform its intended function? Should an obligation to
repair a whole building include the obligation to repair
improvements? [paras. 5.38-5.461
(b) In relation to defects in the property existing at the date of the

lease, a tenant's repairing liability might not extend to any known to
I Para. 6.12 below.
71
the landlord, or possibly any which ought to have been known to
him, unless the tenant was notified; [paras. 5.49-5.511
(c) The standard of repair could be judged at the date it was being
considered, rather than as at the date of the lease, or perhaps no date
is relevant; [para. 5.521
(d) The statutory obligation in relation to fitness for human

habitation could be amended to dispense with the rent limits and to
apply the new statutory definition of fitness. Possible alternative
limits on the application of the duty are: to apply it only to lettings
for less than seven years or only to those for up to twenty-one years;
[paras. 5.53-5.551
(e) Repairing obligations could extend to neighbouring property on

which the demised premises are dependent, if the party responsible
for repair had a right of entry. A landlord’s duty could extend to
property over which the tenant had an easement, where the landlord
was entitled to do the work. [paras. 5.56-5.571
Waste 6.12 The doctrine of waste could cease to apply between landlord and tenant, but a new
rule should be introduced. This would be either that lease provisions would
continue for so long as the former tenant remained in possession, or, in those
circumstances, that only the former tenant’s obligations would continue. [Paras.
5.58-5.591
Enforcement 6.13 The objective of enforcement should be to place an emphasis on ensuring that
necessary work is done. The following possibilities arise:
(a) Specific performance should be the primary method of enforcing

property maintenance duties. The statutory provisions facilitating this
in the case of residential property should extend to all types of
property; [para. 5.611
(b) Damages for breach of a duty to maintain property awarded

while the lease continues should be of the amount required to pay for
the work when damages are awarded. The court should be able to
impose a condition that the money be spent on the work; [para.
5.621
(c) Legislation in this field should bind the Crown. [paras. 5.63-
5.641
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The Law Commission

Consultation Paper No. 123

Landlord and Tenant

The Law Commissioners are:

The Honourable Mr. Justice Peter Gibson, Chairman

(Tel: 07 '1-41 1 1265

Landlord and Tenant

LANDLORD AND TENANT

PART I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 1

PART 11: THE PRESENT LAW 2.1 5

Categories of Waste 2.47 21

PART 111: NEED FOR REFORM 3.1 29

General Considerations 3.35 40

PART IV: REFORM: PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 4.1 42

PART V: REFORM OPTIONS 5.1 51

INDIVIDUAL REFORMS 5.36 60

PART VI: SUMMARY OF ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION 6.1 68

LANDLORD AND TENANT

1.5 In 1970 the Commission published a Report4 which included two

1.6 In 1975 the Commission reported on a wide range of obligations undertaken by

Generally Tenant to take proper care of

Furnished dwelling let for up Landlord to repair the whole

Other dwellings let for up to Landlord to repair structure and

Lettings of part of a building Landlord to repair structure and

Ibid., para. 70(3), (4).

See para. 2.26 below.

Section 4; para. 2.52 below.

Ibid., paras. 136-152.

1.8 The Commission's Report on Forfeiture of Tenancies" touched on certain issues

I2 Ibid., paras. 8.39-8.62.

l4 First Annual Report (1966) Law Corn. No. 4, paras. 62-64.

Paras. 2.50 et seq below.

THE PRESENT LAW

(a) There is an implied condition that furnished premises are let in

’ Paras. 2.3 et seq below.

Paras. 2.18 et seq below.

Paras. 2.29 et seq below.

Standen v. Christmas (1847) 10 Q.B. 135.

Paras. 2.50 et seq below.

Smith v. Marrable (1843) 11 M. & W. 5.

(b) When a landlord agrees to let a house which is in the course of

Sarson v. Roberts [1895] 2 Q.B. 395.

Hart v. Windsor (1844) 12 M. & W. 6 8 .

"Where the lessor retains in his possession and control something

l7 Demetriou v. Poolaction Ltd. [1991] 1 E.G.L.R. 100.

Gordon v. Selico Co. Ltd. [1985] 2 E.G.L.R. 79, 84.

Edmonton Corporation v. W. M. Knowles & Son Ltd. (1961) 60 L.G.R. 124.

Liverpool City Council v. Irwin [1977] A.C. 239.

36 Arden v. Pullen (1842) 10 M. & W. 321.

31 Para. 2.6 above.

Hill v. Harris [I9651 2 Q.B. 601.

Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed., revised (1959).

46 Anstruther-Gough-Calthorpe v. McOscar [1924]1 K.B. 716,734,per Atkin L.J.

“A person who disposes of premises, knowing at the material time

Fitness for Human

65 Hansard, 11 February 1972, col. 1823.

Harris v. Jones (1832) 1 Moo. & R. 173.

Proudfoot v. Hart (1890) 25 Q.B.D. 42, 55, per Lopes L.J.

70 Proudfoot v. Hart (1890) 25 Q.B.D. 42.

7' Monk v. Noyes (1824) 1 C . & P. 265.

72 Which includes part of a house.

2.30 There is statutory guidance as to the standard of fitness to be applied. A house

79 Ibid., s. 14(4), (5).