KINGSTON SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT

& SCIENCE

STUDENT NAME : MAINAK MONDAL

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO: 17303319029
ACADEMIC STREAM : BBA IN HOSPITAL
MANAGEMENT(1ST
YR)

SUBJECT : MEDICAL
TERMINOLOGY-II
YEAR : 2020

___________ ________ ____

student’s signature Teacher’s signature
 PePtic Ulcer
What are peptic ulcers?
Peptic ulcers are sores that develop in the lining of the stomach, lower esophagus,
or small intestine. They’re usually formed as a result of inflammation caused by
the bacteria H. pylori, as well as from erosion from stomach acids. Peptic ulcers
are a fairly common health problem.

There are three types of peptic ulcers:

 gastric ulcers: ulcers that develop inside the stomach

 esophageal ulcers: ulcers that develop inside the esophagus
 duodenal ulcers: ulcers that develop in the upper section of the small
intestines, called the duodenum

Causes of peptic ulcers

Different factors can cause the lining of the stomach, the esophagus, and the small
intestine to break down. These include:

 Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), a type of bacteria that can cause a stomach
infection and inflammation
 frequent use of aspirin (Bayer), ibuprofen (Advil), and other anti-
inflammatory drugs (risk associated with this behavior increases in women
and people over the age of 60)
 smoking
 drinking too much alcohol
 radiation therapy
 stomach cancer
Causes of peptic ulcers
Different factors can cause the lining of the stomach, the esophagus, and the small
intestine to break down. These include:

 Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), a type of bacteria that can cause a stomach
infection and inflammation
 frequent use of aspirin (Bayer), ibuprofen (Advil), and other anti-
inflammatory drugs (risk associated with this behavior increases in women
and people over the age of 60)
 smoking
 drinking too much alcohol
 radiation therapy
 stomach cancer

Symptoms of peptic ulcers

The most common symptom of a peptic ulcer is burning abdominal pain that
extends from the navel to the chest, which can range from mild to severe. In some
cases, the pain may wake you up at night. Small peptic ulcers may not produce any
symptoms in the early phases.

Other common signs of a peptic ulcer include:

 changes in appetite
 nausea
 bloody or dark stools
 unexplained weight loss
 indigestion
 vomiting
  Chest pain

Tests and exams for peptic ulcers

Two types of tests are available to diagnose a peptic ulcer. They are called
upper endoscopy and upper gastrointestinal (GI) series.

Upper endoscopy
In this procedure, your doctor inserts a long tube with a camera down your throat
and into your stomach and small intestine to examine the area for ulcers. This
instrument also allows your doctor to remove tissue samples for examination.

Not all cases require an upper endoscopy. However, this procedure is

recommended for people with a higher risk of stomach cancer. This includes
people over the age of 45, as well as people who experience:

 anemia
 weight loss
 gastrointestinal bleeding
 difficulty swallowing

Upper GI
If you don’t have difficulty swallowing and have a low risk of stomach cancer,
your doctor may recommend an upper GI test instead. For this procedure, you’ll
drink a thick liquid called barium (barium swallow). Then a technician will take .
an X-ray of your stomach, esophagus, and small intestine. The liquid will make it
possible for your doctor to view and treat the ulcer.
Because H. pylori is a cause of peptic ulcers, your doctor will also run a test to
check for this infection in your stomach.

an X-ray of your stomach, esophagus, and small intestine. The liquid will
make it possible for your doctor to view and treat the ulcer.

Because H. pylori is a cause of peptic ulcers, your doctor will also run a test to
check for this infection in your stomach.

How to treat a peptic ulcer

Treatment will depend on the underlying cause of your ulcer. If tests show that you
have an H. pylori infection, your doctor will prescribe a combination of
medication. You’ll have to take the medications for up to two weeks. The
medications include antibiotics to help kill infections and proton pump
inhibitors(PPIs) to help reduce stomach acid.

You may experience minor side effects like diarrhea or an upset stomach from
antibiotic regimens. If these side effects cause significant discomfort or don’t get
better over time, talk to your doctor.

If your doctor determines that you don’t have an H. pylori infection, they may
recommend a prescription or over-the-counter PPI (such as Prilosec or Prevacid)
for up to eight weeks to reduce stomach acid and help your ulcer heal.

Acid blockers like ranitidine (Zantac) or famotidine (Pepcid) can also reduce
stomach acid and ulcer pain. These medications are available as a prescription and
also over the counter in lower doses.

Your doctor may also prescribe sucralfate (Carafate) which will coat your stomach
and reduce symptoms of peptic ulcer.
ASK A DOCTOR NOW

Complications of a peptic ulcer

Untreated ulcers can become worse over time. They can lead to other more serious
health complications such as:

 Perforation: A hole develops in the lining of the stomach or small intestine

and causes an infection. A sign of a perforated ulcer is sudden, severe
abdominal pain.
 Internal bleeding: Bleeding ulcers can result in significant blood loss and
thus require hospitalization. Signs of a bleeding ulcer
include lightheadedness, dizziness, and black stools.
 Scar tissue: This is thick tissue that develops after an injury. This tissue
makes it difficult for food to pass through your digestive tract. Signs of scar
tissue include vomiting and weight loss.

All three complications are serious and may require surgery. Seek urgent medical
attention if you experience the following symptoms:

 sudden, sharp abdominal pain

 fainting, excessive sweating, or confusion, as these may be signs of shock
 blood in vomit or stool
 abdomen that’s hard to the touch
 abdominal pain that worsens with movement but improves with lying
completely still
Outlook for peptic ulcers
With proper treatment, most peptic ulcers heal. However, you may not heal if you
stop taking your medication early or continue to use tobacco, alcohol, and
nonsteroidal pain relievers during treatment. Your doctor will schedule a follow-up
appointment after your initial treatment to evaluate your recovery.

Some ulcers, called refractory ulcers, don’t heal with treatment. If your ulcer
doesn’t heal with the initial treatment, this can indicate:

 an excessive production of stomach acid

 presence of bacteria other than H. pylori in the stomach
 another disease, such as stomach cancer or Crohn’s disease

Your doctor may offer a different method of treatment or run additional tests to
rule out stomach cancer and other gastrointestinal diseases.

How to prevent peptic ulcers

Certain lifestyle choices and habits can reduce your risk of developing peptic
ulcers. These include:

 not drinking more than two alcoholic beverages a day

 not mixing alcohol with medication
 washing your hands frequently to avoid infections
 limiting your use of ibuprofen, aspirin, and naproxen (Aleve)

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle by quitting smoking cigarettes and other tobacco

use and eating a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains will help
you prevent developing a peptic ulcer.
 Thalassemia

What is Thalassemia?
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder in which the body makes an
abnormal form of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule in red
blood cells that carries oxygen.

The disorder results in excessive destruction of red blood cells, which leads
to anemia. Anemia is a condition in which your body doesn’t have enough
normal, healthy red blood cells.

Thalassemia is inherited, meaning that at least one of your parents must be

a carrier of the disorder. It’s caused by either a genetic mutation or a
deletion of certain key gene fragments.

Thalassemia minor is a less serious form of the disorder. There are two
main forms of thalassemia that are more serious. In alpha thalassemia, at
least one of the alpha globin genes has a mutation or abnormality. In beta
thalassemia, the beta globin genes are affected.

Each of these forms of thalassemia has different subtypes. The exact form
you have will affect the severity of your symptoms and your outlook.
Symptoms of thalassemia
The symptoms of thalassemia can vary. Some of the most common ones
include:

 bone deformities, especially in the face

 dark urine
 delayed growth and development
 excessive tiredness and fatigue
 yellow or pale skin

Not everyone has visible symptoms of thalassemia. Signs of the disorder

also tend to show up later in childhood or adolescence.

Causes of thalassemia
Thalassemia occurs when there’s an abnormality or mutation in one of the
genes involved in hemoglobin production. You inherit this genetic
abnormality from your parents.

If only one of your parents is a carrier for thalassemia, you may develop a
form of the disease known as thalassemia minor. If this occurs, you
probably won’t have symptoms, but you’ll be a carrier. Some people with
thalassemia minor do develop minor symptoms.

If both of your parents are carriers of thalassemia, you have a greater

chance of inheriting a more serious form of the disease.

Thalassemia is most common. Trusted Source in people from Asia, the

Middle East, Africa, and Mediterranean countries such as Greece and
Turkey
Different types of thalassemia
There are three main types of thalassemia (and four subtypes):

 beta thalassemia, which includes the subtypes major and intermedia

 alpha thalassemia, which include the subtypes hemoglobin H and
hydrops fetalis
 thalassemia minor

All of these types and subtypes vary in symptoms and severity. The onset
may also vary slightly.

Treatment options for thalassemia

The treatment for thalassemia depends on the type and severity of disease
involved. Your doctor will give you a course of treatment that will work best
for your particular case.

Some of the treatments include:

 blood transfusions
 bone marrow transplant
 medications and supplements
 possible surgery to remove the spleen or gallbladder

 Your doctor may instruct you not to take vitamins or supplements

containing iron. This is especially true if you need blood transfusions
because people who receive them accumulate extra iron that the
body can’t easily get rid of. Iron can build up in tissues, which can be
potentially fatal.
  If you’re receiving a blood transfusion, you may also need chelation
therapy. This generally involves receiving an injection of a chemical
that binds with iron and other heavy metals. This helps remove extra
iron from your body.

Coronary Artery Disease

Overview
Coronary artery disease (CAD) causes impaired blood flow in the arteries that
supply blood to the heart. Also called coronary heart disease (CHD), CAD is the
most common form of heart disease and affects approximately 16.5
million Americans over the age of 20.

It’s also the leading cause of death for both men and women in the United States.
It’s estimated that every 40 seconds, someone in the United States has a heart
attack.

A heart attack can come from uncontrolled CAD.

Causes of coronary artery disease

The most common cause of CAD is vascular injury with cholesterol plaque
buildup in the arteries, known as atherosclerosis. Reduced blood flow occurs when
one or more of these arteries becomes partially or completely blocked.

The four primary coronary arteries are located on the surface of the heart:

 right main coronary artery

 left main coronary artery
  left circumflex artery
 left anterior descending artery

These arteries bring oxygen and nutrient-rich blood to your heart. Your heart is a
muscle that’s responsible for pumping blood throughout your body. According to
the Cleveland Clinic, a healthy heart moves approximately 3,000 gallons of blood
through your body every day.

Like any other organ or muscle, your heart must receive an adequate, dependable
supply of blood in order to carry out its work. Reduced blood flow to your heart
can cause symptoms of CAD.

Other rare causes of damage or blockage to a coronary artery also limit blood flow
to the heart.

Symptoms of CAD
When your heart doesn’t get enough arterial blood, you may experience a variety
of symptoms. Angina (chest discomfort) is the most common symptom of CAD.
Some people describe this discomfort as:

 chest pain
 heaviness
 tightness
 burning
 squeezing
These symptoms can also be mistaken for heartburn or indigestion.

Other symptoms of CAD include:

 pain in the arms or shoulders

 shortness of breath
 sweating
 dizziness

You may experience more symptoms when your blood flow is more restricted. If a
blockage cuts off blood flow completely or almost completely, your heart muscle
will start to die if not restored. This is a heart attack.

Don’t ignore any of these symptoms, especially if they are excruciating or last
longer than five minutes. Immediate medical treatment is necessary.

Symptoms of CAD for women

Women may also experience the above symptoms, but they’re also more likely to
have:

 nausea
 vomiting
 back pain
 jaw pain
 shortness of breath without feeling chest pain

Men have a higher risk of developing heart disease

than premenopausal women. Postmenopausal women by age 70 have the same risk
as men.

Due to decreased blood flow, your heart may also:

  become weak
 develop abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia) or rates
 fail to pump as much blood as your body needs

Your doctor will detect these heart abnormalities during diagnosis.

Risk factors for CAD

Understanding the risk factors for CAD can help with your plan to prevent or
decrease the likelihood of developing the disease.

Risk factors include:

 high blood pressure

 high blood cholesterol levels
 tobacco smoking
 insulin resistance/hyperglycemia/diabetes mellitus
 obesity
 inactivity
 unhealthy eating habits
 obstructive sleep apnea
 emotional stress
 excessive alcohol consumption
 history of preeclampsia during pregnancy

The risk for CAD also increases with age. Based on age alone as a risk factor, men
have a greater risk for the disease beginning at age 45 and women have a greater
risk beginning at age 55. The risk for coronary artery disease is also higher if you
have a family history of the disease.
. Diagnosing CAD
Diagnosing CAD requires a review of your medical history, a physical
examination, and other medical testing. These tests include:

 Electrocardiogram: This test monitors electrical signals that travel through

your heart. It may help your doctor determine whether you’ve had a heart
attack.

 Echocardiogram: This imaging test uses ultrasound waves to create a

picture of your heart. The results of this test reveal whether certain things
in your heart are functioning properly.

 Stress test: This particular test measures the stress on your heart during
physical activity and while at rest. The test monitors your heart’s electrical
activity while you walk on a treadmill or ride a stationary bike. Nuclear
imaging may also be performed for a portion of this test. For those unable
to perform physical exercise, certain medications can be used instead for
stress testing.

 Cardiac catheterization (left heart catheterization): During this procedure,

your doctor injects a special dye into your coronary arteries through a
catheter inserted through an artery in your groin or forearm. The dye helps
enhance the radiographic image of your coronary arteries to identify any
blockages.

 Heart CT scan: Your doctor may use this imaging test to check for calcium
deposits in your arteries.
treAtMeNt
It’s important to reduce or control your risk factors and seek treatment to lower the
chance of a heart attack or stroke, if you’re diagnosed with CAD. Treatment also
depends on your current health condition, risk factors, and overall wellbeing. For
example, your doctor may prescribe medication therapy to treat high cholesterol or
high blood pressure, or you may receive medication to control blood sugar if you
have diabetes.

Lifestyle changes can also reduce your risk of heart disease and stroke. For
example:

 quit smoking tobacco

 reduce or stop your consumption of alcohol
 exercise regularly
 lose weight to a healthy level
 eat a healthy diet (low in fat, low in sodium)

If your condition doesn’t improve with lifestyle changes and medication, your
doctor may recommend a procedure to increase blood flow to your heart. These
procedures may be:

 balloon angioplasty: to widen blocked arteries and smoosh down the

plaque buildup, usually performed with insertion of a stent to help keep
the lumen open after the procedure

 coronary artery bypass graft surgery: to restore blood flow to the heart in
open chest surgery

 enhanced external counterpulsation: to stimulate the formation of new

small blood vessels to naturally bypass clogged arteries in a noninvasive
procedure