Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities: Current Distribution and Future Vulnerability Under Climate Change Scenarios
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities: Current Distribution and Future Vulnerability Under Climate Change Scenarios
1. Introduction
Scientific data collections and databases are exponentially growing. Modeling techniques
and data analysis procedures have also been evolving rapidly in the lasts decades. Specific
scientific domains such as medical and biological sciences have adopted a routine of
scientific dissemination where datasets and analytical methods are visible and usable for the
researchers.
This means publishing results and giving access to data and algorithms in order to allows
the reproducibility (i.e. reproduce the same techniques by applying different input data) and
repeatability (i.e. same technique and input data) of scientific experiments. The accessibility
and possibility of sharing algorithms and programming routines is getting more important,
because of the complexity of experiments. As a matter of fact, even if a methodology is
explained in a very precise and detailed scientific text, the reproducibility of an experiment is
highly challenging for scientists that try to implement the same method without the access to
data and codes.
The global warming and climate change issues are approached by different scientific
domains (climatologist, ecologists, economists as an example). This book illustrates such
differentiation. The research areas of spatial ecology and ecological modeling are strongly
linked to climate change applications and are continuously producing a huge amount of
scientific publications and results in this domain. In comparison to biomedical studies, access
to data and source codes are most of the time not available in the field of spatial ecological
modelling. Recent works have been changing this routine and scientific papers in ecology are
starting to include sample data and open source programming codes (Elith et al., 2008).
This chapter approaches the impact of global worming on urban greening in European cities.
At the FBK foundation we highlight the importance of the accessibility of data and codes,
and on the reproducibility and repeatability of our methods. The uncertainties related to
predictions of global warming can be minimized or quantified only by a complete scientific
transparency. Transparency is also important for the transfer of scientific knowledge to the
policy macking process. The main objective of this study is to focus next to the results on the
visibility and reproducibility of the method. Transparency allows further studies to improve
data processing routines and produce more accurate and precise informations.
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts – Case Studies on
94
2 the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and NaturalWill-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Environments
In this book chapter are analysed the impacts of global warming in urban greening. There is a
wide interest in urban greening because urban greening and peri-urban forests have a strong
positive effect on the physical environment of urban areas and in people life quality.
Urban greening comprises recreational and social value (Tarrant & Cordell, 2002), affect the
economic value of housing (Kong et al., 2007), preserves biodiversity and wildlife corridors
between urban and non-urban habitat islands (Blair, 1996; Zipper et al., 1997), reduces noise
(Fang & Ling, 2003), sequester CO2 and produce O2 (McHale et al., 2007; Nowak & Crane,
2002; Nowak et al., 2007), reduces air pollution (Cavanagh et al., 2009; Escobedo & Nowak,
2009; McDonald et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2005), regulates the micro-climate and reduces effects
of heat island in cities (Akbari et al., 2001; Shin & Lee, 2005).
Due to climate change, a degradation of air quality is expected to occurs predominantly in
urban-industrial areas as well as an urban climate warming (McCarthy et al., 2010). With
a proactive management strategy, vegetation greening and belts of peri-urban forests have
strong potentials to mitigate the impact of global warming such as extreme heat waves.
Besides the mitigation potentials of urban greening, climate change will possibly increase
the vulnerability of urban vegetation. For this reason proactive planning of urban greening
is important to mitigate the impact of climate change on humans and to prevent urban
vegetation vulnerability.
Proactive planning of forested urban areas require an integration of ecological information
such as output of niche models in a general landscape and urban sprawl planning framework.
Because of the high uncertainty of ecological changes in the future and our potential choice
of development strategies, the analysis of various scenarios and the possibility to compare
different mitigation strategies are interesting for scientists, decision makers and informed
citizens.
In the last decades scientists have proposed several ecological niche models (ECONM)
(Bolliger et al., 2000; Elith et al., 2006) and developed related habitat distribution maps.
Such models are empirical statistical models relating climatic conditions to the distribution of
living organisms. ECONM relate current climatic conditions to the distribution of plants and
predicts vegetation vulnerability under changing climatic conditions.The output prediction
maps do not provide information on a certain extinction of a specie under climate change
(CC), but they will rather inform us on it’s suitability. We assume the more a species grows in
its fitted climate the more the ecosystem will be homeostatic. This means that the ecosystem
will be more stable, resistant and resilient despite natural disturbances. In the last years,
ECONM have been mainly applied to the analysis of natural reserved areas for proactive
planning of landscape management, biodiversity conservation and risk assessment of species
extinction. There is a lack of applied studies in the context of ECONM and vulnerability of
urban and peri-urban greening (UPUG). Results of such applications could help to highlight
the potential impact of CC on UPUG and to provide feed- back on effects of greening to urban
micro-climate, human health and well-being. Additionally, the findings could help landscape
planners to select those tree species which are best adapted to specific urban areas coinciding
to current and future expected climate conditions and limit UPUG management costs.
Before analysing the potential future trends of changes for UPUG, the current distribution
traits need to be defined in order to be able to interpret and evaluate scenarios of future
changes. This chapter presents an automatic open access and open source procedure for the
analysis of 15 urban areas in Europe. Key aspects are:
1) the visualization of the current urban greening and estimations on the extent of tree cover
in urban and peri-urban areas.
2) The analysis of climate change impact on two common tree species: The Mediterranean
www.intechopen.com
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities:
Current Distribution
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover and Future
in European Cities: Vulnerability Under
Current Distribution and ClimateUnder
Future Vulnerability Change Scenarios
Climate Change Scenarios 953
evergreen Holm Oak Quercus ilex (L.) and the Scots pine Pinus Sylvestris. An example analysis
is applied in two different city.
2. Method
For this study the available data needs to be selected as well as the urban and peri-urban
areas that will be used for the case studies. Further, the method for the data processing and
its computational implementation needs to be defined.
1 http://forest.jrc.ec.europa.eu/forestmap-download
2 Image2000: Joint Research Centre of the European Commission http://image2000.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ -
The Spatial Reference for Europe, based on Landsat 7 ETM+ data
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts – Case Studies on
96
4 the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and NaturalWill-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Environments
urban zones from CLC data. The latter focuses on cities with more 100.000 inhabitants (see
GMES Urban Atlas GMES ) while the first is not restricted to any city size. Both data are
also not open access data therefore, only a low resolution map or low resolution statistics
for percentage green cover can be visualized This is the main reason to use the UMZ and
FNFMAP maps for this research project.
Once defined the urban tree cover distribution (refer to sub-chapter "spatial analysis
and computational implementation"), the ECONM can help to understand vegetation
vulnerability under climate change scenarios (Casalegno et al., 2010). ECONM are based on
field data locally sampled. The harmonization of such data at continental scale is technically
difficult and implies the use of rigorous scientific methodology to limit inaccuracy and
imprecision. An example of integrated efforts to collect harmonized data in the forest sector
on the European scale is the forest Focus regulation (EC, 2003). The Forest focus database
was implemented in 1994 for a better understanding of the impact of air pollution and
other biotic factors concerning European forest ecosystems. It is a Pan European Programme
for Intensive and Continuous Monitoring of Forest Ecosystems. Results of the programme
and datasets contribute to the assessment of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest
management. Other results from the forest Focus regulation are ECONM models of main
dominant European tree species and forest categories, which is on-line available (Casalegno
et al., 2011; 2010; EFDAC, 2011).
In this application, ECONM map derived from forest focus datasets are used as the only open
access prediction maps at high resolution of 1 km and continental extent for European tree
species. Summarized, the CC impact assessment is build on urban and peri-urban European
areas using the forest non-forest Pan European map, the Urban Morphological Zones map
and the ecological niche models of tree species available at JRC - EFDAC website.
www.intechopen.com
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities:
Current Distribution
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover and Future
in European Cities: Vulnerability Under
Current Distribution and ClimateUnder
Future Vulnerability Change Scenarios
Climate Change Scenarios 975
3. Results
After downloading all required input data, the overall computational time on a 2CPU
computer and 4GB memory is relatively fast (30min). This allows the reproducibility of the
research project using the selection of different city or the city extent bounding box. The
analysis of other tree species is also feasible changing the ECONM suitability maps imported
within the scripting routine.
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts – Case Studies on
98
6 the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and NaturalWill-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Environments
www.intechopen.com
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities:
Current Distribution
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover and Future
in European Cities: Vulnerability Under
Current Distribution and ClimateUnder
Future Vulnerability Change Scenarios
Climate Change Scenarios 997
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts – Case Studies on
100
8 the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and NaturalWill-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Environments
www.intechopen.com
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities:
Current Distribution
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover and Future
in European Cities: Vulnerability Under
Current Distribution and ClimateUnder
Future Vulnerability Change Scenarios
Climate Change Scenarios 1019
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts – Case Studies on
102
10 the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and NaturalWill-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Environments
Fig. 5. Urban and peri-urban tree cover proportions in 15 selected European City capitals.
The size of circles is proportional to the study area considered for the analysis.
www.intechopen.com
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities:
Current Distribution
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover and Future
in European Cities: Vulnerability Under
Current Distribution and ClimateUnder
Future Vulnerability Change Scenarios
Climate Change Scenarios 103
11
2020 ECONM maps. Difference maps between year 2000-2050 and 2000-2080 also predict an
increased suitability but in different areas.
4. Discussion
Global change studies and analysis of climate change impact need transparency of data
processing routines and their methodology. This study proposes a spatial ecological analysis
of UPUG zones using open source codes and open access data. The main objective is
the reproducibility and repeatability to target and improve the understanding of high
uncertainties of studies on future projections and predictive model. This is important for
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts – Case Studies on
104
12 the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and NaturalWill-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Environments
www.intechopen.com
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities:
Current Distribution
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover and Future
in European Cities: Vulnerability Under
Current Distribution and ClimateUnder
Future Vulnerability Change Scenarios
Climate Change Scenarios 105
13
improving our knowledge on the impact of climate change and the capacity to react and
eventually mitigate the consequences.
Regional data may be more accurate and of higher resolution compared to the data applied in
this project. However, the local data is facing the problem that level of accuracy and detail is
varying for different regions. Local data are frequently not freely available and divers sources
of information are used to produce them standing upon different definitions. In this study
the UPUG maps are based on the same tree cover definition allowing inter and intra-city
comparison. Therefore, local data are not appropriate in applications like the one which is
proposed here targeting international comparison for policy and reporting purposes.
Besides the subject matter of data accuracy, harmonization and accessibility the major
proposal of the present data analysis study is to share the underlying scripting routines. We
believe open source codes should be compulsory in spatial ecological science and in climate
change applications. The scripting routines produced for this application are available to be
used, improved and reused. Whichever future climate data or improved vegetation map will
be available in future, the script can be changed and adapted for reproducing the analysis.
Tables and figures are directly produced by the coding routines, changing parameters such
as the number of cities or the extent of the bounding box area will directly modify graphs
and reproduce maps and tables. Another benefit of the scripting routine is the potential to
use them in virtual machines for cloud computing or in stand alone computation for cluster
processing when computational time is a limiting factor in research.
One drawback of this application is the "black box" represented by the ECONM and their
input data used for modelling and mapping species suitability, due to the fact that the forest
Focus database is not open access yet. In order to open the "black box" for more transparency
and shared knowledge, we strongly recommend to rebuilt a set of ecological niche models for
tree species using as inputs open access database such as the Global Biodiversity Information
Facility 4 .
This study demonstrates two examples of future trends projections: the increased
vulnerability of Scots pine in Helsinki and the increased suitability area of the Mediterranean
oak in Paris. In many cases the trends of changes are not so pronounced as in the described
example. More details such as probability maps instead of or in addition to the binary
suitability maps would help to interpret the results and to understand model limits. As
an example we could be able to clarify the discrepancy of future projections found for the
Holm oak in Paris. Instead of the different trends of suitability changes in time according to
sub-areas of Paris (figure 6), probability map could eventually highlight a common trend of
suitability increase with different probability of increase according to city sub-areas.
5. Conclusion
Due to the negative future prospects for the urban environment caused by global warming,
there is a need to monitor and manage pro-actively urban greening and peri-urban forests.
They have strong potential in mitigating the impact of climate change. Vegetation is necessary
for urban environmental sustainability, human health and well-being.
When investigating complex systems such as the urban ecosystem, predictive modeling and
spatial ecological analysis like the one presented in this chapter are some elements of many
that are required to simulate the dynamics of urban ecosystems in space and time. This
knowledge is prior and can be used for promoting urban sustainability and managing urban
greening.
4 http://www.gbif.org
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts – Case Studies on
106
14 the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and NaturalWill-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Environments
The exponential increase in data availability concerning urban areas, urban greening, climate
and human health has to be followed by an improved ability to make full usage of those
data. We believe this can be done by increasing the transparency of scientific applications and
by the use of open access data and open source codes as proposed in this application. This
will exponentially improve quality and accuracy of scientific applications allowing a better
transfer from knowledge to policy and implementation.
6. Acknowledgments
I warmly thank the whole MPBA unit at Bruno Kessler foundation and in particular
Cesare Furlanello, Riccardo De Filippi, Claudia Dolci, Shamar Droghetti, Gabriele Franc and
Giuseppe Jurman. I am also very gratefull to the forest action at JRC, to Victoria O’Brien, Anssi
Pekkarinen at FAO and Giuseppe Amatulli at www.spatial-ecology.net. This study was carried
out in the frame of the project ENVIROCHANGE, funded by the Autonomous Province of
Trento.
7. References
Akbari, H., Pomerantz, M. & Taha, H. (2001). Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce energy
use and improve air quality in urban areas, Solar Energy 70(3): 295 – 310. Urban
Environment.
URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X0000089X
Bartholome, E. & Belward, A. S. (2005). Glc2000: A new approach to global land
cover mapping from earth observation data, International Journal of Remote Sensing
26(9-10): 1959–1977.
Blair, R. (1996). Land use and avian species diversity along an urban gradient, Ecological
Applications 6: 506–519.
Bolliger, J., Kienast, F. & Bugmann, H. (2000). Comparing models for tree distributions:
concept, structures, and behavior, Ecological Modelling 134(1): 89–102.
Casalegno, S., Amatulli, G., Bastrup-Birk, A., Durrant, T. & Pekkarinen, A. (2011). Modelling
and mapping the suitability of european forest formations at 1-km resolution,
European Journal of Forest Research pp. 1–11. 10.1007/s10342-011-0480-x.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10342-011-0480-x
Casalegno, S., Amatulli, G., Camia, A., Nelson, A. & Pekkarinen, A. (2010). Vulnerability of
pinus cembra l. in the alps and the carpathian mountains under present and future
climates, Forest Ecology and Management 259(4): 750 – 761. Adaptation of Forests and
Forest Management to Changing Climate - Selected papers from the conference on
Adaptation of Forests and Forest Management to Changing Climate with Emphasis
on Forest Health: A Review of Science, Policies and Practices, Umeå, Sweden, August
25-28, 2008.
URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112709007257
Cavanagh, J.-A. E., Zawar-Reza, P. & Wilson, J. G. (2009). Spatial attenuation of ambient
particulate matter air pollution within an urbanised native forest patch, Urban
Forestry & Urban Greening 8(1): 21 – 30.
URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1618866708000563
Collins, M., Tett, S. & Cooper, C. (2001). The internal climate variability of hadcm3, a version
of the hadley centre coupled model without flux adjustments, Climate Dynamics
17: 61–68.
www.intechopen.com
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities:
Current Distribution
Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover and Future
in European Cities: Vulnerability Under
Current Distribution and ClimateUnder
Future Vulnerability Change Scenarios
Climate Change Scenarios 107
15
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts – Case Studies on
108
16 the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and NaturalWill-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Environments
www.intechopen.com
Global Warming Impacts - Case Studies on the Economy, Human
Health, and on Urban and Natural Environments
Edited by Dr. Stefano Casalegno
ISBN 978-953-307-785-7
Hard cover, 290 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 03, October, 2011
Published in print edition October, 2011
This book addresses the theme of the impacts of global warming on different specific fields, ranging from the
regional and global economy, to agriculture, human health, urban areas, land vegetation, marine areas and
mangroves. Despite the volume of scientific work that has been undertaken in relation to each of each of these
issues, the study of the impacts of global warming upon them is a relatively recent and unexplored topic. The
chapters of this book offer a broad overview of potential applications of global warming science. As this
science continues to evolve, confirm and reject study hypotheses, it is hoped that this book will stimulate
further developments in relation to the impacts of changes in the global climate.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Stefano Casalegno (2011). Urban and Peri-Urban Tree Cover in European Cities: Current Distribution and
Future Vulnerability Under Climate Change Scenarios, Global Warming Impacts - Case Studies on the
Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and Natural Environments, Dr. Stefano Casalegno (Ed.), ISBN: 978-
953-307-785-7, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/global-warming-impacts-case-
studies-on-the-economy-human-health-and-on-urban-and-natural-environments/urban-and-peri-urban-tree-
cover-in-european-cities-current-distribution-and-future-vulnerability-und