(I) Short-Day Plants (SDP)

(i) Short-Day Plants
(ii) Long-Day Plants and
(iii) Day-Neutral Plants
(i) Short-Day Plants (SDP):

These plants flower when exposed to day lengths shorter than or below a certain critical
maximum. The critical photoperiod, however, varies from species to species. If these plants
are exposed to day lengths in excess of this critical point, they continue growing vegetatively
(Fig. 5.2 A) Common examples of short-day plants are chrysanthemums, cock-lebur
(Xanthium strumarium), tobacco (mutant. ‘Maryland mammoth’, Nicotiana, tabaccum),
soyabean (Glycine max), and sugarcane (Sacchamm officinarum), etc. They normally flower
in the early spring or autumn.
(ii) Long-Day Plants (LDP):
These plants begin flowering when exposed to day lengths longer than or above a certain
critical minimum. Below the critical photoperiod, these plants continue their vegetative
growth (Fig. 5.2 B). The critical photoperiod, in such plants also, varies from species to
species. Some common examples of long day plants (LDP) are barley (Hordeum vulgare),
spinach (Spinacea olemcea), radish (Raphanus sativus), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), onion
(Allium cepa) and carrot (Daucus carota), etc. They normally flower in late spring or early
summer.
(iii) Day-Neutral Plants (DNP):

These plants flower after a period of vegetative growth, regardless of the photoperiod. In
other words, they are unaffected by the day or night lengths, and flower around the year (Fig.
5.2-C). Some common examples of day-neutral plants are cucumber (Cucumis sativus),
cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum), sunflower (Helianthus
annuus), Maize (Zea mays) and some varieties of pea, etc.
Photoperiodic Responses are Under the Control of Genes:

It is a matter of common observation that the critical day length of both long-day and short-
day plants tends to fall within a range of 12—14 hours. Commercial flower growers can
induce or delay flowering by controlling the photoperiodic and temperature conditions in
glasshouses to meet the demands of the market. The photoperiodic responses of plant are now
considered to the under the control of genes.
These can be modified by various methods to yield varieties responding to required day
lengths. For instance, scientists at the National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow have
been able to develop varieties of Chrysanthemum which can bloom in different months of the
year including summer.
Critical Photoperiod:
The critical photoperiod for long and short day plants greatly varies from species to species.
For instance. Chrysanthemum and Poinseltias are both short-day plants, but Chrysanthemum
form flowers when the days are shorter than 14.5 hours, whereas Poinsettias produce flower
buds only when the days are less than 12.5 hours.
Spinach and rose mallow are long-day plants, but spinach flowers when the days are longer
than 14 hours, the rose mallow flowers when they are longer than 13 hours. In other words,
the short-day plants flower only when the days are shorter than a critical photoperiod, and the
long-day plants flower only when the days are longer than the critical duration.
Induction Period:
Induction period is the minimum period of exposure to a long day or a short day which is
required to induce flowering. Induction period differs in different plants. For instance,
Xanthium requires only one cycle of day plus night, but most plants require about ten such
cycles.
Long-Night and Short-Night Plants:

The Terms Long-Day and Short-Day Plants are actually misnomers. Earlier when the
photoperiodism was discovered, the duration of the light period i.e. photoperiod was thought
to be critical for flowering. However, later researches, noted that in short-day plants (SOP),
when the long night period was interrupted by a brief exposure to light, the plants failed to
flower
these plants to flower is long and un-interrupted dark period rather than a short day length. A
brief interruption of the dark period with light nullified the effect of long night. So to be more
precise and appropriate, short day plants may be regarded as long-night plants.
Similarly long-day plants (LDP) respond to nights shorter than the critical dark period.
Curiously long day plants do not need an uninterrupted dark night. Long-day plants are also
regarded as short-night plants.
Theory of Photoperiodic Action:

Attempts have been made to understand as to how day (or night) length affects the plant so as
to change the normal leaf primordia of the stem apex into flowering primordia? As written
above, in short-day plants it is the dark period rather than the light period which affects
induction of flowering, but in long-day plants, dark period is not at all important and they can
flower even in continuous day light. This clearly indicates that there must be two different
systems operating in two groups of plants for the induction of flowering.
Role of Phytochrome, Florigen and Phytohormones in Flowering:

There are experimental evidence (Hendricks and Borthwick) that only red light (wavelength
660 mμ) is effective in inhibiting flower initiation in short-day plants, when the dark period
towards midnight is interrupted with this illumination. This wave length of light at the same
time accelerates the growth of stem and root and formation of anthocyanin pigment.
It is more interesting to note that this inhibition of flowering in short day plants can be
reversed by treating the plants with far-red light (wave length 730 mμ) (Fig. 5.4). This
suggests the existence of a single compound, phytochrome, responsible for photoperiodic
action. The phytochrome (probably) exists in two inter convertable forms P730 and P660.
When P660 is illuminated with red light (660 mμ) it is transformed to the P730 form.
The P730 form can be converted into the P660 form by far red light (730 mμ). During night
P730 is converted into P660 form and hence at the end of day period the predominent form of
phytochrome is P730 because sun light contains more red light of 660 mμ) wavelength.
In short day plants flowering is initiated when there is sufficient accumulation of P660 and
that is the reason why flowering is inhibited in these plants when dark period is interrupted by
red light of 660 mμ wavelength which converts P660 form into P730 form (Fig. 5.4). But the
manner in which the flowering is initiated by the phytochrome is not yet well understood.
The only facts known about this flowering substance are that it is proteinaceous in nature and
most likely acts as an enzyme which initiates the formation of certain hormone or hormones
which ultimately bring about the conversion of vegetative primordia into flowering
primordia.
Florigen—A Hypothetical Flowering Hormone:

Evidence that a flowering hormone “florigen” exists in plants comes from the work of Naylor
(1952), who states that a plant can be made to bloom by grafting on it a leaf from another
variety, species, genus, or even from another family. A certain parasitic plant which grows on
the roots of red clover is probably never exposed to light and yet it blooms. It is assumed that
this parasite obtains its stimulus for flowering from its host.
1. The metabolism of florigen is believed to be phytochrome-mediated.
2. Florigen has never been isolated. It is a hypothetical hormone.
3. The florigen is translocated to the vegetative bud through phloem, where it transforms
vegetative but into flower bud.
4. Florigen is a sort of stimulus. Unlike other phytohomones, it is neither growth promoter

nor a growth inhibitor.
5. The seat of synthesis and the seat of action of florigen are leaf and shoot tip respectively.
Photoperiodic induction received by a single leaf or its part in a plant is considered enough to
induce flowering. Further, a floral stimulus from an induced leaf in a long or short-day plant
can be transmitted or trans-located to another non-induced plant by grafting. Besides, the
floral stimulus is not species-specific because grafting an induced twig of Xanthium on to a
vegetative soya bean plant can induce the latter to flower.
The nature of the flower-producing stimulus has been widely debated. Some plant
physiologists have proposed the existence of a flower-inducing growth hormone, the florigen
(Naylor 1952 and Chailakhyan 1968). The metabolism of florigen is believed to be
phytochrome-mediated. Unfortunately, the florigen has never been isolated.
The florigen is trans-located via phloem to the vegetative bud primordia which undergo
transformation (morphological changes) leading to the production of floral buds.
Four steps are involved in this transformation:

(i) Perception of the stimulus by phytochrome in the leaves (induction);
(ii) Change to new pattern of metabolism in the leaves leading to the production of flowering
hormone, the florigen;
(iii) Translocation of florigen (the stimulus) to the bud primordia; and
(iv) Transformation of vegetative bud primordia into floral buds (the response).
Role of Phytohormones in Flowering:

Researchers have indicated that flowering is also regulated by the interplay of the
phytohormones, the auxins, gbberellins, cytokinins and ethylene. Application of hormones
can substitute for the necessary photoperiod and can initiate floral development in certain
plants. It is interesting to note that IAA (auxin) inhibits flowering in most of the plants. An
exception, however, is pineapple (Ananas). Gibbereuic acid (GA) can substitute
photoperiodic induction in many long day plants. It, however, is almost ineffective in short-
day plants except a few such as Impatiens balsamia (Balsam plant)

(I) Short-Day Plants (SDP)

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(I) Short-Day Plants (SDP)

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(i) Short-Day Plants

(ii) Long-Day Plants and

(iii) Day-Neutral Plants

(i) Short-Day Plants (SDP):

(ii) Long-Day Plants (LDP):

(iii) Day-Neutral Plants (DNP):

Photoperiodic Responses are Under the Control of Genes:

Long-Night and Short-Night Plants:

Theory of Photoperiodic Action:

Role of Phytochrome, Florigen and Phytohormones in Flowering:

Florigen—A Hypothetical Flowering Hormone:

1. The metabolism of florigen is believed to be phytochrome-mediated.

2. Florigen has never been isolated. It is a hypothetical hormone.

4. Florigen is a sort of stimulus. Unlike other phytohomones, it is neither growth promoter

Four steps are involved in this transformation:

(iii) Translocation of florigen (the stimulus) to the bud primordia; and

Role of Phytohormones in Flowering:

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