A Persistent Emotional Issue

CIEs Support to the Nazi War Criminal Investigations

Kevin C. Ruffner

The story of escaped Nazis after the and placed the names
investigations
collapse of the Third Reich in 1945 of some 60,000 individuals on a
has long gripped novelists and Holly watch list that alerts US immigra
wood screenwriters and provided the tion officials to prevent their entry
grist for such box office hits as The into the United States.2
Boys From Brazil and The ODESSA
File. Since the 1970s, the topic has
also provided steady fare for histori
Continuing Suspicions
ans and
journalists anxious to
explore supposed cabals between Despite these efforts, doubts persist
American intelligence agencies and
in some circles as to whether the
such personalities as Josef Mengele,
United States Government has been
Separating fact from fiction the Angel of Death at Auschwitz,
fully honest about this emotion-
about the alleged postwar and former Austrian President Kurt
charged issue. For example, Christo
Waldheim, a German intelligence
in his 1988 book,
relationships between pher Simpson,
officer in the Balkans during World
Blowback: America ~c Recruitment of
American intelligence and War II.
Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War,
its former German enemies that US intelligence agencies
asserts

Separating fact from fiction about did knowor had good reason to
and collaborators is both the alleged postwar relationships suspectthat many contract agents
difficult and confusing. between American intelligence and they hired during the Cold War had
its former German enemies and col committed crimes against humanity

~9 laborators is both difficult and

confusing. The General Accounting
on

State
behalf of the Nazis. The CIA, the
Department, and US Army
Office (GAO), at the request of the intelligence, Simpson states, each
US Congress, has conducted two created special programs for the spe

major investigations since 1977 to cific purpose of bringing former

ascertain whether the US Govern selected Nazis and collaborators to
ment assisted in the immigration of the United States. Other projects
these individuals to the United States protected such
people by placing
and later concealed Federal involve them on US
payrolls overseas.3
ment. In addition, the Immigration The fact that most US intelligence
and Naturalization Service (INS) records from this time period are still
and, later, the Department ofJus classified only lends greater mystery
tices Office of Special Investigations to the issue.
(OSI) have proceeded with indepen
dent inquiries since the mid-1970s. The CIA comes under particular
OSI, dedicated solely to the investiga scrutiny because of its secrecy and
tion, denaturalization, and reputation. Over the years, observers
deportation of individuals who vio have charged that:
lated US immigration laws by
covering up illegal activities during CIA, and its predecessor organiza
World War II, has stripped 52 peo tions such as the Office of Strategic
ple of their citizenship and removed Services (OSS, 1942-45), the Strate
Kevin C. Ruffner has served on another 44 since 1979. In addition, Services Unit (SSU, 1945-46),
gic
CIAs History Staff. OSI has conducted nearly 1,500 and the Central Intelligence Group

103
War Criminal

(CIG, 1946-47), employed German CIA covered up its these activities also started its separate investigation
intelligence personnel as sources of from Congressional and other at the same time.
information. Afterward, the CIA Federal investigators.
sponsored the new West German In May 1978, the GAO released its
intelligence service, an organization The extent to which the Agency is formal report, Widespread Conspiracy
under the control of officers of the To Obstruct Probes ofAlleged Nazi
guilty or innocent of these charges is
defunct German general staff The a matter of continuing debate among War Criminals Not Supported by
ranks of the organization sheltered AvailableEvidenceControversy May
historians. Certainly, the Agencys
many officers of the German SS and own secretiveness and its previous
Continue. Regarding CIAs involve
SD whose loyalty to the new West scandals color the debate. For ment, the GAO found that in its
public
German Government remained in search for information on 111
decades, the CIA faced little public
doubt. alleged Nazi war criminals, the
scrutiny of its operations or the iden
Agency had no on 54. Of the
records
tity of its agents. But the Bay of Pigs
remaining 57, CIA had references,
CIA and its predecessor organiza debacle in 1961, highlighting the
such as newspaper articles and gen
tions employed former collaborators CIA-sponsored, ill-fated invasion of
Cuba and the Agencys reliance on eral correspondence with other
of the Third Reich, primarily from
Cuban ØmigrØs, cracked CIAs pic Federal agencies, on 35. That left 22
Eastern and Southern Europe, ini
individuals with whom CIA admit
tially as sources of information and ture-perfect mirror. Controversies in
Vietnam later in the decade only ted to GAO investigators that it had
later as operational assets for activi
increased a more substantial relationship. In an
ties behind the Iron Curtain. concern among Americans
about CIAs unnamed case, CIA sponsored the
accountability. During
the 1 970s, a series of Congressional immigration of a senior official of
the German Foreign Ministry during
CIA, including the Office of Policy investigations pointed to extensive
Coordination (OPC, 1948-52), the Nazi era to the United States.
problems within CIA and presented
Germans and East The remaining 21 had contact with
brought Europe an image of the Agency as a rogue

the United States CIA either overseas or after their

ans to to provide elephant.
detailed information on the Soviet immigration to America; some were
Union. paid, while the Agency declined to
use others.4
GAOs First Investigation
CIA, including OPC, formed secret
GAO noted that the CIA assisted
armies from various ØmigrØ groups the
The Nazi war criminal investigations only one person to immigrate to
in Europe and trained them in the
followed in the wake of these scan United States. At the same time, the
United States. The ranks of these dals at the instigation of two others where
Agency employed
groups included numerous former aggressive Congressional leaders, unproven allegations existed indicat
collaborators of Nazi Germany, and
Representatives Joshua Eilberg and ing that some of the individuals of
some of these people remained active Elizabeth Holtzman. Frustrated by whom operational use was subse
in other CIA projects. the slow pace of the INS in review quently made had been members of
ing its own records, Congress finally wartime organizations. The CIA

CIA evacuated Nazi war criminals demanded that the GAO determine employed these individuals after they
and collaborators through rat lines
whether the INS or any other govern had been screened by Federal agen

in southern Europe, allowing them ment agency had conspired to cies and permitted to enter the
obstruct legal action against alleged United States. The Agency denied
to escape justice by relocating them
Nazi war criminals
living in the that itemployed any individual
incognito in South America.
United States. Congress made this against whom allegations of war
request in January 1977, marking crimes were well-founded. The
CIA abused its legal authority to the beginning of the first GAO inves report reiterated CIAs contention
bring Soviet and Soviet Bloc defec tigation. The Special Litigation Unit, that these people were all strongly
torsand other persons of interest to a new office within INS and the anti-Communist and their willing
the United States. immediate predecessor to the OSI, ness to cooperate and their

104
 War Criminal

The Nazi war criminal

investigation is now the
longest running
General Counsel (OGC), the Direc
knowledgeability were the definitive
factors leading to their use by CIA.5
investigation in CIAs torate of Operations, and the Office

history, extending for two of Personnel Security areamong the

The 1978 GAO unleashed full decades primary offices that respond to OSI
Report a

storm of criticism about the use of requests for information. While the

alleged Nazi war criminals by the Agency and OSI experienced some
United States. Congressman Eilberg teething problems during the early
blasted the Federal Government years of the investigations, a routine
because this report makes clear that Formation of Os! procedure has evolved. OGCs
the CIA and FBI were more inter attorneys undertake close consulta
ested in using these people and As result of frustration tion with OSI to protect legitimate
a continuing
getting information from them than with the of the Nazi war crim national interests if it
course
security
in conducting any background inves inal
investigations, Congresswoman is involved
appears that a CIA asset
tigation as to their wartime activities Holtzman strengthened US immigra
in The CIA has
an investigation.
or pursuing allegations that they tion laws to exclude from admission
never deflected OSI from any investi
were war criminals.6 The GAOs into the United States aliens who
investigation, however, denied that have persecuted any person on the gation or prosecution of any
individual for concealing illegal war
there was any evidence ofconspir a basis of race, religion, national ori
time activities.
acy to obstruct justice, although it gin, or political opinion, and to
claimed that it did not enjoy full facilitate the deportation of such
access to governmental records. aliens who have been admitted into
The agencies achieved a major
two
GAOs investigation, the report the United States. 0 Holtzman also
called for the formation of the Office
breakthrough in 1981, when a Fed
stated, was hindered by the effect of
the passage of time on the availabil of Special Investigations in the Crim
eral stripped Otto Albrecht
court

inal Division of the Department of Alfred Bolschwing of his citizen

von
ity of information and limited access
to agencies records.7 Justice. This made the Justice ship. Perhaps the most important
Department, not the INS, responsi Nazi war criminal case involving a
ble for the Nazi war criminal CIA asset, Bolschwing had been one
Frank C. Carlucci, then Deputy
investigations. of the Agencys leading agents in Aus
Director of Central Intelligence, pro
tria after World War II. The
tested to the GAO that we would Before OSI was created, the various German-born Bolschwing had previ
like the record to show that we were
INS investigations had been haphaz ously served as an officer in the SS
prepared at all times to make corn ard and incomplete. Journalists
and the SDs representative in
plete files (appropriately sanitized to dominated the field, and allegations
was

Rumania in 1941, when Iron Guard

protect intelligence sources and were often based on unverifiable

methods) available for review by the ists launched a pogrom against

sources. While it took OSI some

investigators to validate their time to establish its working proce Jewish residents of Bucharest.
conclusions.8 Despite Carluccis dures and to resolve the problems of Bolschwing also concealed from his
contention, Congress felt that the its predecessors, the Department of CIA case officers the fact that he had
GAO report had been a disappoint Justice and CIA reached agreements worked in the same office with Adolf
ment. Congressman Eilberg, in open in 1980 concerning name-trace pro Eichmann in the 1930s. CIA learned
hearings later in the summer of cedures. After that, CIA and OSI
about Bolshwings close relationship
1978, exclaimed that it is just regret instituted a regular reporting sys
with Eichmann after the latters
table that so much time and man tema process that continues.
abduction by Israel in 1960. Several
hours and money was expended and
we have so little to show for it.9 The The Nazi criminal years before that event, CIA brought
war investigation
GAOs failure, in large part, was is now the longest running investiga Bolschwing to the United States, and
blamed on CIAs restrictions on tion in CIAs history, extending for he received American citizenship in

access to its records. two full decades. The Office of 1959)

105
War Criminal

Another GAO Investigation In the spring of 1983, OSI Director resources that had immediate intelli
Allan A. Ryan, Jr. assumed the lead gence potential. These resources
in the Barbie investigation. Several included former Nazi intelligence
The Nazi war criminal
investigations months later Ryan issued a report personnel and collaborators. The
took an unexpected turn in May
that clearly demonstrated that the GAO investigated some 114 individ
1982, when John Loftus, a former
US Army had employed Barbie as an uals and provided detailed
OSI attorney, announced on CBS
agent in Germany and had spon summaries on 12. Of this latter num
TVs 60 Minutes that numerous
sored his escape from Europe. The ber, CIA was involved with five with
branches of the US Government,
Ryan report absolved the CIA of any undesirable or questionable back
including the Army, the FBI, the
wrongdoing, but it highlighted the grounds who had received aid to
CIA, and the State Department, had the United States. The
Nazis and
entangled webs of the Allied intelli move to
employed brought them GAO found no specific program to
America after the Further gence services in Austria, Germany,
to war.

Loftus that these

and Italy in the decade after 1945. aid the immigration of undesirable
more, charged same
Ryan also explored the Armys use of aliens, and it concluded that its
agencies had refusedsupport the
to
rat lines from Europeescape broad and
GAOs 1977-78 investigation. These
review was sufficiently
routes that apparently served several unrestricted that this report
to state
allegations sparked an immediate 14
the conditions that
Hill and gener purposes. fairly portrays
response on Capitol existed following World War II. 6
ated considerable media attention. 12
A slew of other major war criminal
cases followed the Barbie caseso Even so, the GAOs report admitted
The upshot was a new GAO investi many that the 1980s can be referred that while it was not denied access
gation that took another three years to as the decade of Nazi war crimi to any documents requested intelli ...

and unearthed thousands of docu nals. No sooner had the ink dried on
gence agencies often assign projects
ments from numerous agencies. This the pages of the Ryan report than innocuous names which do not

time, the Agency granted the GAO OSI undertook the examination of reflect the projects purposes and,
investigators full access to its records Robert Jan Verbelen, a member of a therefore, we cannot assure that we

in an effort to avoid the controversy Flemish SS group, and his

employ requested all relevant projects files.
that marred the first GAO ment by US Army intelligence in With the passage of time, the destruc
examination. Austria and Germany. While the Ver tion of records, and the death of
belen report did not attract as much participants, we cannot be com

public attention as the Barbie investi pletely sure that we have obtained all

of Cases
gation, it confirmed that American relevant information or that we have
A Surge intelligence, especially the Counter identified all Nazis and Axis collabo
Intelligence Corps, had been slip- rators assisted by US agencies to

While the GAO shod in its recruitment of agents. IS

immigrate the United States.
plowed through to

mountains of records, new events With this statement, the GAO has
raised further questions about US left room for further speculation
intelligence activities during the early GAOs Findings about the US Governments actions

years of the Cold War. In 1983, during the Cold War.

Bolivia extradited Klaus Barbie, the In the summer of 1985, the GAO

butcher of Lyon, to France to stand released its second report, entitled

trial for his crimes in that country Nazis and Axis Collaborators Were Mengele and Waldheim
during the German occupation. Used To Further US Anti-Communist
Reporters quickly ascertained that Objectives in EuropeSome 1mm i In 1985, the Mengele investigation
Barbie had, in fact, escaped from grated to the United States. After years created a media frenzy as sightings of
postwar Germany with the assistance of research through 150,000 files the German doctor were reported
of American intelligence)3 Whether and interviewing numerous surviving throughout South America. While
the United States continued to sup American intelligence officers, the the case appeared to be solved with

port him in South America remained GAO concluded that US intelli the discovery of Mengeles remains in
unclear. gence used anti-Communist July of that year in Brazil, questions

106
 War Criminal

With the demise of the

Warsaw Pact and the fall of
the Soviet Union, the Nazi
camps; the use of anti-Semitic propa
war criminal investigations the mistreatment and
ganda;
have been rejuvenated by execution of Allied prisoners of war;
and the reprisal execution of civil
an influx of new sources
ians. The report, however, did not

and witnesses. address whether Waldheim had post

war intelligence connections with the

9~ East or West.2 Consequently,

whether he had any contact with
either Western and Eastern intelli
American, Soviet, Yugoslav intelli
gence services is still a matter of
or

gence services. conjecture.22

The CIA once again fell suspect and,

over the years, there have been

More Cases, More Demands
demands that the Agency disclose
any holdings that it might
have
regarding the Austrian diplomat/poli With the demise of the Warsaw Pact
tician.9As early as 1980, and the fall of the Soviet Union, the
AP/WIDE ~X~,ALD PHOTOS
Congressman Stephen J. Solarz Nazi war criminal investigations
Joseph Mengele. He used this photo in 1956,
when he applied for an identity card in
expressed interest in Waldheims have been rejuvenated by an influx
early life, and he put questions in of new sources and witnesses.23 The
Argentina under his true name.
writing to Waldheim and to Director OSI and the CIA continue to cooper
of Central Intelligence William ate in the form of name traces; in
still lingered concerning his escape Casey. The Agencys Office of Legis fact, the CIA is a leading source of
from Europe and his postwar activi lative Counsel told Congressman information for individual Nazi war

ties. Once again, American Solarz that we believe that Wald criminal investigations.
intelligence, especially CIA, came heim was not a member of the Nazi
under close scrutiny. Another OSI Youth Movement, nor was he
The end of the Cold War also
investigation cleared the Agency and involved in anti-Jewish activities. In
addition, the CIA provided a brief spurreddemands that the CIA open
all other American intelligence organs
of any connection with Mengele.8 of Waldheims military to the public. Former Con
its fIles
synopsis
record and said there were no indica gresswoman Holtzman, New Yorks
tions that Waldheim had comptroller and then candidate for
The sensitive of the Nazi war
nature

indirectly in the US Senate, wrote the CIA in

criminal investigations is best illus participated directly or

trated by the Kurt Waldheim case in antiJewish activities. 20 1992 and asked for complete disclo
sure of records concerning Klaus
1986-87, in which an international
Barbie and Otto von Bolschwing.
figure, a former secretary general of The Agencys response to Solarz
the UN and soon-to-be Austrian resulted in great embarrassment in In the process of employing these

president, stood accused of hiding both Congressional hearings and dur people and bringing them to safe
his role in World War II. While haven in the United States and else
ing OSIs examination into
Waldheim had long admitted his ser Waldheims wartime activities. As a where, laws were broken, lies were

vice in the German Army, he had result of OSIs 1987 report, the US told, and the President, Congress,
never fully described the extent of his
and other government agencies and
Attorney General placed Waldheims
activities in the Balkans, a region the watch list the public were deceived, Holtzman
name on to prevent
marked Nazi atrocities. his entry into the United States. OSI asserted, but we still dont know the
by numerous

The fact that Waldheim rose to such concluded that Waldheim had partic whole story. Forty-seven years afrer
in the transfer of civilians the end of World War II, it is time
high levels after the war led many ipated to

observers to question whether he the SS for slave labor; the mass for the American people to find out
the truth.24
enjoyed a special relationship with deportation of civilians to death

107
War Criminal

A Mixed Record The Nazi war criminal

investigations and collaborators as well as their
pointed out the
governments sloppy American case officers.
Although the
recruitment measures in Europe. World War II generation is fading,
In many ways, however, the truth
While CIA and other intelligence the issue lives on. While the bulk of
has already been revealed. A careful
of the various
agencies used individual Nazis and the OSS and SSU records have been
reading investigations their collaborators as assets, there is declassified and transferred the
to
reports and a thorough inspection of evidence of a
the declassified US intelligence
no specific program to National Archives, thorough histo
recruit these people as a group. In ries of these agencies and their
records indicate that CIA and other
bringing such people to the United operations have yet to be written.
American intelligence agencies had a States, Allan Ryan, in his memoirs as
mixed track record during the Cold Likewise, continued classification of
director of OSI, says the government
War. Within weeks after Nazi Ger CIAs records hampers the efforts of
assisted in the
immigration of a historians to determine the full
manys defeat, American intelligence small roomful of people at the very
(not to mention British, French, and extent of the Agencys efforts during
most. In Ryans view, postwar
Soviet intelligence) embarked on vari the Cold War. Many of the Agencys
American immigration laws, suffer
ous projects to draw upon the critics will not be satisfied until every
ing from imprecise standards and document is open for public exami
expertise of the German intelligence weak enforcement, allowed far
services. Initially designed to thwart nation and that, in itself, will raise
greater numbers of Nazi war crimi
the resurrection of a Nazi under new questions and further
nals and collaborators to enter the
ground movement, these sources also controversies.
United States than any covert US
proved valuable for information on
intelligence project.25
the USSR as developed
tensions
between the East and West. By
NOTES
1947, the use of German intelligence
Cooperation and Controversy
figures and their collaborators had
become a fixture of all intelligence 1. Public interest in Nazi war criminals
CIA has been straightforward in its
services in Europe. can be seen in numerous publica
dealings with Congress and the OSI
tions since the mid-1970s, such as:
over the past 20 years concerning
Mark Aarons and John Loftus,
The CIA, perhaps more than its Nazi war criminals. Because of the How the Vatican ~c
Unholy Trinity:
Army counterparts or those of other richness of CIAs records, the Justice Nazi Networks Betrayed Western
foreign services, exercised some cau Department closely cooperates with Intelligence to the Soviets (New York:
tion about using these sources. It the Agency. While it took time to St. Martins Press, 1991); Charles
initially opposed the use of East develop this steady working relation Ashman and Robert J. Wagman,
Nazi Hunters: The Shocking True
European ØmigrØ groups and the ship, the investigations have clearly
nascent West German intelligence benefited from the Agencys partici Stoiy of the Continuing Search for
worked with
Nazi War Criminals (New York:
service. It reluctantly pation. Nonetheless, CIA will not Pharos Books, 1988); Howard
these groups, as much to oversee escape from the enduring legacy that Blum, Wanted.: The Sea rch for Nazis
them as to gain intelligence about preceded its own formation. The in America (New York: Quadrangle!
the Soviets. As the pace of the Cold public is intrigued by tales of escaped The New York Times Book Com
War picked up, CIAs expansion also Nazis, and CIAs own mystique 1977); John Lofrus, The
pany,
brought a tremendous growth in its lends itself to the belief that it Belarus Secret, ed. Nathan Miller
overseas operations. The quality of directed classified operations that (New York: Paragon House, 1989,
these projects varied, and CIA soon allowed such people to escape from rev. ed. 1982); Allan A. Ryan, Jr.,

abandoned a number of projects as justice. The media and self-pro Quiet Neighbors: Prosecuting Nazi
War Criminals in America (San
failures, including the recruitment claimed Nazi hunters quickly link
and of hot war contin the Agency to any new rumors of Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
training 1984); and Christopher Simpson,
gency forces. A new organization in one Nazi fugitive or another.
Blowback: Americas Recruitment of
an old game, CIA needed to learn
Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War
the ropes, and it made mistakes in This controversy will outlive its par (New York: Weidenfeld and Nichol
the process. ticipantsthe accused war criminals son,1988).

108
 War Criminal

2. Rick Atkinson, Nazi Hunters are OToo!e and Morton Mimi, US Mengele: A Report to the Attorney
Still at War, Fighting a Losing Bat Probes Report Nazi Collaborators General of the United States (Wash
tle, The Washington Post, 27 August Were Helped to Immigrate, The
ington, DC: Department ofJustice,
1995, pp. Al and A22. Washington Post, 18 May 1982, p. 1992).
A3; Thomas OToole, Nazis
3. Simpson, Blowback, p. xiv.
Brought to US to Work against Sovi
ets in Cold War, The Washington 19. A.M. Rosenthal, The Waldheim
Post, 20 May 1982, pp. Al and A20; File, The New York Times, 24
4. United States General Accounting
and Thomas OToole, The Secret
Office, Comptroller General of the November 1989, p. A35.
Under the Little Cemetery, The
United States, Widespread Conspir Rosenthals columns about Wald
Washington Post, 23 May 1982, pp.
acy to Obstruct Probes ofAlleged Nazi Al andA5.
heim helped persuade a member of
War Criminals Not Supported by
Congress to introduce a bill to open
Available EvidenceControversy
the Agencys records on all Nazi war
13. Ralph Blumenthal, Ex-Chief of
May Continue, GGD-78-73 (Wash criminals.
DC: General Gestapo in Lyon is Linked to US
ington, Accounting
Office, 1978), pp. 33-34. Intelligence, The New York Times,
8 February 1983, pp. A-i andA-9.
20. Frederick P. Hitz, Office of Legisla
5. Ibid. tiveCounsel, to Congressman
14. US Department of Justice, Criminal
Division, Klaus Barbie and the
Stephen J. Solarz, 31 December
6. Press Release, Report to Ei!berg 1980.
United States Government: A Report
Charges Ties with CIA, FBI, 17 to the Assistant Attorney General,
May 1978.
Criminal Division, US Department of 21. US Department of Justice, Criminal
Justice (Washington, DC: US
7. Cover statement, 1978 GAO Division, In the Matter of Kurt Wald
Department of Justice, 1983). For a
Report. For further details, see the heim (Washington, DC: US
retrospective look at the CICs role
Reports Scope of Review, pp. 4-6. this time, see Department ofJustice, 1987).
in Austria during
James V. Milano and Patrick Bro
8. Frank C. Carlucci to J. K. Fasick, gan, Soldiers, Spies, and the Rat Line:
22. For example, see Robert Edwin
International Division, GAO, 18 Americas Undeclared War against the
May 1978. Soviets (Washington, DC: Brasseys, Herzstein, Waldheim.~ The Missing
1995). (New York: Arbor House! Will
Years

9. US Congress. House Subcommittee iam Morrow, 1988) and Eli M.

and 15. US of Justice, Criminal Rosenbaum and William Hoffer,
on Immigration, Citzenship, Department
International Law of the Commit Division, Robert Jan Verbelen and Betrayal: The Untold Story of the
tee on the Judiciary. Alleged Nazi the United States Government: A Kurt Waldheim Investigation and
War Criminals. 95th Cong, 2nd! Report to the Assistant Attorney Gen
Cover-Up (New York: St. Martins
sess., 19-21 July 1978, p. 28. eral, Criminal Division, US Press, 1993).
Department ofJustice (Washington,
DC: US Department ofJustice,
10. US Congress, House, PL 95-549
Immigration and Naturalization 1988). 23. Michael Isikoff, Nazi-Hunting
ActNazi Germany, 95th Cong., Office is Busier than Ever, The
2nd sess., 1978. 16. United States General Accounting Washington Post, 3 May 1993, pp.
Office, Comptroller General of the A17, and Jane Mayer, With Cold
11. The best source of information on United States, Nazis and Axis Collab
War Over, More Escaped Nazis
OSIs early years and the orators Were Used to Further US.
Face US Deportation, The Wall
Anti-Communist Objectives in
Bolschwing case is found in Ryan, StreetJournal, l6April 1991, pp. Al
EuropeSome Immigrated to the
Quiet Neighbors. andA4.
United States, GAO/GGD-85-66
(Washington, DC: GAO, 1985),
12. Nazi Connection, 60 Minutes, 16
1982. For immediate press pp. 29-40.
May reac 24. Elizabeth Holtzman to Robert M.
tion to Loftuss charges, see Dale Gates, 26 March 1992.
Russakoff, American Officials 17. Ibid., pp. 6-7.
Accused of Aiding Nazi Collabora
tots, The Washington Post, 17 May 18. US Department of Justice, Criminal 25. Ryan, Quiet Neighbors, pp. 4-5,
1982, pp. Al and A6;Thomas Division, In the Matter ofJosef 328-329.

109
War Criminal

110