CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW)

Carbon arc welding is a process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between
a non-consumable carbon (graphite) electrode and the work-piece. It was the first arc-welding process
developed but is not used for many applications today, having been replaced by twin-carbon-arc welding and
other variations. The purpose of arc welding is to form a bond between separate metals. In carbon-arc
welding a carbon electrode is used to produce an electric arc between the electrode and the materials being
bonded. This arc produces temperatures in excess of 3,000 °C. At this temperature the separate metals form a
bond and become welded together.

FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW or FCA)

Flux-cored arc welding is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process. FCAW requires a
continuously-fed consumable tubular electrode containing a flux and a constant-voltage or, less commonly, a
constant-current welding power supply. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often
the flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere, producing both
gaseous protection and liquid slag protecting the weld. The process is widely used in construction because of
its high welding speed and portability.
FCAW was first developed in the early 1950s as an alternative to shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). The
advantage of FCAW over SMAW is that the use of the stick electrodes used in SMAW is unnecessary. This
helped FCAW to overcome many of the restrictions associated with SMAW.
One type of FCAW requires no shielding gas. This is made possible by the flux core in the tubular
consumable electrode. However, this core contains more than just flux. It also contains various ingredients
that when exposed to the high temperatures of welding generate a shielding gas for protecting the arc. This
type of FCAW is attractive because it is portable and generally has good penetration into the base metal.
Also, windy conditions need not be considered. Some disadvantages are that this process can produce
excessive, noxious smoke (making it difficult to see the weld pool). As with all welding processes, the
proper electrode must be chosen to obtain the required mechanical properties. Operator skill is a major factor
as improper electrode manipulation or machine setup can cause porosity.
Another type of FCAW uses a shielding gas that must be supplied by an external supply. This is known
informally as "dual shield" welding. This type of FCAW was developed primarily for welding structural
steels. In fact, since it uses both a flux-cored electrode and an external shielding gas, one might say that it is
a combination of gas metal (GMAW) and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). This particular style of FCAW is
preferable for welding thicker and out-of-position metals. The slag created by the flux is also easy to remove.
The main advantages of this process is that in a closed shop environment, it generally produces welds of
better and more consistent mechanical properties, with fewer weld defects than either the SMAW or GMAW
processes. In practice it also allows a higher production rate, since the operator does not need to stop
periodically to fetch a new electrode, as is the case in SMAW. However, like GMAW, it cannot be used in a
windy environment as the loss of the shielding gas from air flow will produce porosity in the weld.
Process variables

 Wire feed speed

 Arc voltage
 Electrode extension
 Travel speed and angle
 Electrode angles
 Electrode wire type
 Shielding gas composition (if required)
 Reverse polarity (Electrode Positive) is used for FCAW Gas-Shielded wire, Straight polarity
(Electrode Negative) is used for self-shielded FCAW

Advantages and Applications

 FCAW may be an "all-position" process with the right filler metals (the consumable electrode)
 No shielding gas needed with some wires making it suitable for outdoor welding and/or windy
conditions
 A high-deposition rate process (speed at which the filler metal is applied) in the 1G/1F/2F
 Some "high-speed" (e.g., automotive) applications
 As compared to SMAW and GTAW, there is less skill required for operators.
 Less precleaning of metal required
 Metallurgical benefits from the flux such as the weld metal being protected initially from external
factors until the slag is chipped away
 Porosity chances very low
 Less equipment required, easier to move around (no gas bottle)
Used on the following alloys:

 Mild and low alloy steels

 Stainless steels
 Some high nickel alloys
 Some wear facing/surfacing alloys

Disadvantages
Of course, all of the usual issues that occur in welding can occur in FCAW such as incomplete fusion
between base metals, slag inclusion (non-metallic inclusions), and cracks in the welds. But there are a few
concerns that come up with FCAW that are worth taking special note of:

 Melted contact tip – when the contact tip actually contacts the base metal, fusing the two and melting
the hole on the end.
 Irregular wire feed – typically a mechanical problem.
 Porosity – the gases (specifically those from the flux-core) don’t escape the welded area before the
metal hardens, leaving holes in the welded metal.
 More costly filler material/wire as compared to GMAW.
 The amount of smoke generated can far exceed that of SMAW, GMAW, or GTAW.
 Changing filler metals requires changing an entire spool. This can be slow and difficult as compared
to changing filler metal for SMAW or GTAW.
 Creates more fumes than SMAW.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert
gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a welding process in which an electric arc forms
between a consumable wire electrode and the workpiece metal(s), which heats the workpiece metal(s),
causing them to melt and join. Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun,
which shields the process from contaminants in the air.
The process can be semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most
commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used. There
are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-
spray, each of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations.
Originally developed in the 1940s for welding aluminium and other non-ferrous materials, GMAW was soon
applied to steels because it provided faster welding time compared to other welding processes. The cost of
inert gas limited its use in steels until several years later, when the use of semi-inert gases such as carbon
dioxide became common. Further developments during the 1950s and 1960s gave the process more
versatility and as a result, it became a highly used industrial process. Today, GMAW is the most common
industrial welding process, preferred for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to
robotic automation. Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such as shielded metal arc
welding, it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of moving air. A related process, flux cored arc welding,
often does not use a shielding gas, but instead employs an electrode wire that is hollow and filled with flux.

Welding gun and wire feed unit

GMAW torch nozzle cutaway image. (1) Torch handle, (2) Molded phenolic dielectric (shown in white) and
threaded metal nut insert (yellow), (3) Shielding gas diffuser, (4) Contact tip, (5) Nozzle output face

Tool style
The most common electrode holder is a semiautomatic air-cooled holder. Compressed air circulates through
it to maintain moderate temperatures. It is used with lower current levels for welding lap or butt  joints. The
second most common type of electrode holder is semiautomatic water-cooled, where the only difference is
that water takes the place of air. It uses higher current levels for welding T or corner joints. The third typical
holder type is a water-cooled automatic electrode holder—which is typically used with automated
equipment.
Power supply
Most applications of gas metal arc welding use a constant voltage power supply. As a result, any change in
arc length (which is directly related to voltage) results in a large change in heat input and current. A shorter
arc length causes a much greater heat input, which makes the wire electrode melt more quickly and thereby
restore the original arc length. This helps operators keep the arc length consistent even when manually
welding with hand-held welding guns. To achieve a similar effect, sometimes a constant current power
source is used in combination with an arc voltage-controlled wire feed unit. In this case, a change in arc
length makes the wire feed rate adjust to maintain a relatively constant arc length. In rare circumstances, a
constant current power source and a constant wire feed rate unit might be coupled, especially for the welding
of metals with high thermal conductivities, such as aluminum. This grants the operator additional control
over the heat input into the weld, but requires significant skill to perform successfully.
Alternating current is rarely used with GMAW; instead, direct current is employed and the electrode is
generally positively charged. Since the anode tends to have a greater heat concentration, this results in faster
melting of the feed wire, which increases weld penetration and welding speed. The polarity can be reversed
only when special emissive-coated electrode wires are used, but since these are not popular, a negatively
charged electrode is rarely employed.
Electrode
Electrode selection is based primarily on the composition of the metal being welded, the process variation
being used, joint design and the material surface conditions. Electrode selection greatly influences the
mechanical properties of the weld and is a key factor of weld quality. In general the finished weld metal
should have mechanical properties similar to those of the base material with no defects such as
discontinuities, entrained contaminants or porosity within the weld. To achieve these goals a wide variety of
electrodes exist. All commercially available electrodes contain deoxidizing metals such
as silicon, manganese, titanium and aluminum in small percentages to help prevent oxygen porosity. Some
contain denitriding metals such as titanium and zirconium to avoid nitrogen porosity. Depending on the
process variation and base material being welded the diameters of the electrodes used in GMAW typically
range from 0.7 to 2.4 mm (0.028 – 0.095 in) but can be as large as 4 mm (0.16 in). The smallest electrodes,
generally up to 1.14 mm (0.045 in) are associated with the short-circuiting metal transfer process, while the
most common spray-transfer process mode electrodes are usually at least 0.9 mm (0.035 in).

Shielding gas
Shielding gases are necessary for gas metal arc welding to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases
such as nitrogen's and oxygen, which can cause fusion defects, porosity, and weld metal embrittlement if
they come in contact with the electrode, the arc, or the welding metal. This problem is common to all arc
welding processes; for example, in the older Shielded-Metal Arc Welding process (SMAW), the electrode is
coated with a solid flux which evolves a protective cloud of carbon dioxide when melted by the arc. In
GMAW, however, the electrode wire does not have a flux coating, and a separate shielding gas is employed
to protect the weld. This eliminates slag, the hard residue from the flux that builds up after welding and must
be chipped off to reveal the completed weld.

The choice of a shielding gas depends on several factors, most importantly the type of material being welded
and the process variation being used. Pure inert gases such as argon and helium are only used for nonferrous
welding; with steel they do not provide adequate weld penetration (argon) or cause an erratic arc and
encourage spatter (with helium). Pure carbon dioxide, on the other hand, allows for deep penetration welds
but encourages oxide formation, which adversely affects the mechanical properties of the weld. lts low cost
makes it an attractive choice, but because of the reactivity of the arc plasma, spatter is unavoidable and
welding thin materials is difficult. As a result, argon and carbon dioxide are frequently mixed in a 75%/25%
to 90%/10% mixture. Generally, in short circuit GMAW, higher carbon dioxide content increases the weld
heat and energy when all other weld parameters (volts, current, electrode type and diameter) are held the
same. As the carbon dioxide content increases over 20%, spray transfer GMAW becomes increasingly
problematic, especially with smaller electrode diameters.
Argon is also commonly mixed with other gases, oxygen, helium, hydrogen and nitrogen. The addition of up
to 5% oxygen (like the higher concentrations of carbon dioxide mentioned above) can be helpful in welding
stainless steel, however, in most applications carbon dioxide is preferred. Increased oxygen makes the
shielding gas oxidize the electrode, which can lead to porosity in the deposit if the electrode does not contain
sufficient deoxidizers. Excessive oxygen, especially when used in application for which it is not prescribed,
can lead to brittleness in the heat affected zone. Argon-helium mixtures are extremely inert, and can be used
on nonferrous materials. A helium concentration of 50–75% raises the required voltage and increases the
heat in the arc, due to helium's higher ionization temperature. Hydrogen is sometimes added to argon in
small concentrations (up to about 5%) for welding nickel and thick stainless steel workpieces. In higher
concentrations (up to 25% hydrogen), it may be used for welding conductive materials such as copper.
However, it should not be used on steel, aluminum or magnesium because it can cause porosity
and hydrogen embrittlement.[21]
Shielding gas mixtures of three or more gases are also available. Mixtures of argon, carbon dioxide and
oxygen are marketed for welding steels. Other mixtures add a small amount of helium to argon-oxygen
combinations, these mixtures are claimed to allow higher arc voltages and welding speed. Helium also
sometimes serves as the base gas, with small amounts of argon and carbon dioxide added. However, because
it is less dense than air, helium is less effective at shielding the weld than argon—which is denser than air. It
also can lead to arc stability and penetration issues, and increased spatter, due to its much more energetic arc
plasma. Helium is also substantially more expensive than other shielding gases. Other specialized and often
proprietary gas mixtures claim even greater benefits for specific applications.[21]
The desirable rate of shielding-gas flow depends primarily on weld geometry, speed, current, the type of gas,
and the metal transfer mode. Welding flat surfaces requires higher flow than welding grooved materials,
since gas disperses more quickly. Faster welding speeds, in general, mean that more gas must be supplied to
provide adequate coverage. Additionally, higher current requires greater flow, and generally, more helium is
required to provide adequate coverage than if argon is used. Perhaps most importantly, the four primary
variations of GMAW have differing shielding gas flow requirements—for the small weld pools of the short
circuiting and pulsed spray modes, about 10 L/min (20 ft³/h) is generally suitable, whereas for globular
transfer, around 15 L/min (30 ft³/h) is preferred. The spray transfer variation normally requires more
shielding-gas flow because of its higher heat input and thus larger weld pool. Typical gas-flow amounts are
approximately 20–25 L/min (40–50 ft³/h).[13]

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING [TIG]

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc
welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area and
electrode is protected from oxidation or other atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding
gas (argon or helium), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as autogenous welds,
do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply produces electrical energy, which is conducted
across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma.

GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such
as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over the weld
than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for
stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more complex and difficult to master, and
furthermore, it is significantly slower than most other welding techniques. A related process, plasma arc
welding, uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often
automated.[1]

Operation[edit]

GTAW weld area

Manual gas tungsten arc welding is
a relatively difficult welding
method, due to the coordination required by
the welder. Similar to torch welding, GTAW
normally requires two hands, since most applications require that the welder manually feed a filler metal into
the weld area with one hand while manipulating the welding torch in the other. Maintaining a short arc
length, while preventing contact between the electrode and the workpiece, is also important.[13]
To strike the welding arc, a high frequency generator (similar to a Tesla coil) provides an electric spark. This
spark is a conductive path for the welding current through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated
while the electrode and the workpiece are separated, typically about 1.5–3 mm (0.06–0.12 in) apart.[14]
Once the arc is struck, the welder moves the torch in a small circle to create a welding pool, the size of which
depends on the size of the electrode and the amount of current. While maintaining a constant separation
between the electrode and the workpiece, the operator then moves the torch back slightly and tilts it
backward about 10–15 degrees from vertical. Filler metal is added manually to the front end of the weld pool
as it is needed.[14]
Welders often develop a technique of rapidly alternating between moving the torch forward (to advance the
weld pool) and adding filler metal. The filler rod is withdrawn from the weld pool each time the electrode
advances, but it is always kept inside the gas shield to prevent oxidation of its surface and contamination of
the weld. Filler rods composed of metals with a low melting temperature, such as aluminum, require that the
operator maintain some distance from the arc while staying inside the gas shield. If held too close to the arc,
the filler rod can melt before it makes contact with the weld puddle. As the weld nears completion, the arc
current is often gradually reduced to allow the weld crater to solidify and prevent the formation of crater
cracks at the end of the weld.[15][16]

Applications
While the aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas tungsten arc welding, the process is used in a
number of other areas. Many industries use GTAW for welding thin workpieces, especially nonferrous
metals. It is used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles, and is also frequently employed to weld
small-diameter, thin-wall tubing such as those used in the bicycle industry. In addition, GTAW is often used
to make root or first-pass welds for piping of various sizes. In maintenance and repair work, the process is
commonly used to repair tools and dies, especially components made of aluminum and magnesium.
[18]
 Because the weld metal is not transferred directly across the electric arc like most open arc welding
processes, a vast assortment of welding filler metal is available to the welding engineer. In fact, no other
welding process permits the welding of so many alloys in so many product configurations. Filler metal
alloys, such as elemental aluminum and chromium, can be lost through the electric arc from volatilization.
This loss does not occur with the GTAW process. Because the resulting welds have the same chemical
integrity as the original base metal or match the base metals more closely, GTAW welds are highly resistant
to corrosion and cracking over long time periods, making GTAW the welding procedure of choice for critical
operations like sealing spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial.[19]

Quality
GTAW fillet weld
Gas tungsten arc welding, because it affords greater control over the weld area than other welding processes,
can produce high-quality welds when performed by skilled operators. Maximum weld quality is assured by
maintaining cleanliness—all equipment and materials used must be free from oil, moisture, dirt and other
impurities, as these cause weld porosity and consequently a decrease in weld strength and quality. To remove
oil and grease, alcohol or similar commercial solvents may be used, while a stainless steel wire brush or
chemical process can remove oxides from the surfaces of metals like aluminum. Rust on steels can be
removed by first grit blasting the surface and then using a wire brush to remove any embedded grit. These
steps are especially important when negative polarity direct current is used, because such a power supply
provides no cleaning during the welding process, unlike positive polarity direct current or alternating current.
[20]
 To maintain a clean weld pool during welding, the shielding gas flow should be sufficient and consistent
so that the gas covers the weld and blocks impurities in the atmosphere. GTAW in windy or drafty
environments increases the amount of shielding gas necessary to protect the weld, increasing the cost and
making the process unpopular outdoors.[21]
The level of heat input also affects weld quality. Low heat input, caused by low welding current or high
welding speed, can limit penetration and cause the weld bead to lift away from the surface being welded. If
there is too much heat input, however, the weld bead grows in width while the likelihood of excessive
penetration and spatter increase. Additionally, if the welding torch is too far from the workpiece the
shielding gas becomes ineffective, causing porosity within the weld. This results in a weld with pinholes,
which is weaker than a typical weld.[21]
If the amount of current used exceeds the capability of the electrode, tungsten inclusions in the weld may
result. Known as tungsten spitting, this can be identified with radiographyand can be prevented by changing
the type of electrode or increasing the electrode diameter. In addition, if the electrode is not well protected by
the gas shield or the operator accidentally allows it to contact the molten metal, it can become dirty or
contaminated. This often causes the welding arc to become unstable, requiring that the electrode be ground
with a diamond abrasive to remove the impurity.[21]

Equipment[edit]

GTAW torch with various electrodes, cups, collets and gas diffusers

GTAW torch, disassembled

The equipment required for the gas tungsten arc welding operation includes a welding torch utilizing a non-
consumable tungsten electrode, a constant-current welding power supply, and a shielding gas source.
Welding torch
GTAW welding torches are designed for either automatic or manual operation and are equipped with cooling
systems using air or water. The automatic and manual torches are similar in construction, but the manual
torch has a handle while the automatic torch normally comes with a mounting rack. The angle between the
centerline of the handle and the centerline of the tungsten electrode, known as the head angle, can be varied
on some manual torches according to the preference of the operator. Air cooling systems are most often used
for low-current operations (up to about 200 A), while water cooling is required for high-current welding (up
to about 600 A). The torches are connected with cables to the power supply and with hoses to the shielding
gas source and where used, the water supply.[22]
The internal metal parts of a torch are made of hard alloys of copper or brass so it can transmit current and
heat effectively. The tungsten electrode must be held firmly in the center of the torch with an appropriately
sized collet, and ports around the electrode provide a constant flow of shielding gas. Collets are sized
according to the diameter of the tungsten electrode they hold. The body of the torch is made of heat-resistant,
insulating plastics covering the metal components, providing insulation from heat and electricity to protect
the welder.[22]
The size of the welding torch nozzle depends on the amount of shielded area desired. The size of the gas
nozzle depends upon the diameter of the electrode, the joint configuration, and the availability of access to
the joint by the welder. The inside diameter of the nozzle is preferably at least three times the diameter of the
electrode, but there are no hard rules. The welder judges the effectiveness of the shielding and increases the
nozzle size to increase the area protected by the external gas shield as needed. The nozzle must be heat
resistant and thus is normally made of alumina or a ceramic material, but fused quartz, a high purity glass,
offers greater visibility. Devices can be inserted into the nozzle for special applications, such as gas lenses or
valves to improve the control shielding gas flow to reduce turbulence and introduction of contaminated
atmosphere into the shielded area. Hand switches to control welding current can be added to the manual
GTAW torches.[22]
Power supply
Gas tungsten arc welding uses a constant current power source, meaning that the current (and thus the heat)
remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. This is important because most
applications of GTAW are manual or semiautomatic, requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a
suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause
dramatic heat variations and make welding more difficult.[23]

The preferred polarity of the GTAW system depends largely on the type of metal being welded. Direct
current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) is often employed when welding steels, nickel, titanium,
and other metals. It can also be used in automatic GTAW of aluminum or magnesium when helium is used
as a shielding gas.[24] The negatively charged electrode generates heat by emitting electrons, which travel
across the arc, causing thermal ionization of the shielding gas and increasing the temperature of the base
material. The ionized shielding gas flows toward the electrode, not the base material, and this can allow
oxides to build on the surface of the weld. [24] Direct current with a positively charged electrode (DCEP) is
less common, and is used primarily for shallow welds since less heat is generated in the base material.
Instead of flowing from the electrode to the base material, as in DCEN, electrons go the other direction,
causing the electrode to reach very high temperatures.[24] To help it maintain its shape and prevent softening,
a larger electrode is often used. As the electrons flow toward the electrode, ionized shielding gas flows back
toward the base material, cleaning the weld by removing oxides and other impurities and thereby improving
its quality and appearance.[24]
Alternating current, commonly used when welding aluminum and magnesium manually or semi-
automatically, combines the two direct currents by making the electrode and base material alternate between
positive and negative charge. This causes the electron flow to switch directions constantly, preventing the
tungsten electrode from overheating while maintaining the heat in the base material. [24] Surface oxides are
still removed during the electrode-positive portion of the cycle and the base metal is heated more deeply
during the electrode-negative portion of the cycle. Some power supplies enable operators to use an
unbalanced alternating current wave by modifying the exact percentage of time that the current spends in
each state of polarity, giving them more control over the amount of heat and cleaning action supplied by the
power source.[24] In addition, operators must be wary of rectification, in which the arc fails to reignite as it
passes from straight polarity (negative electrode) to reverse polarity (positive electrode). To remedy the
problem, a square wavepower supply can be used, as can high-frequency to encourage arc stability.[24]

Electrodes
The electrode used in GTAW is made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy, because tungsten has the highest
melting temperature among pure metals, at 3,422 °C (6,192 °F). As a result, the electrode is not consumed
during welding, though some erosion (called burn-off) can occur. Electrodes can have either a clean finish or
a ground finish—clean finish electrodes have been chemically cleaned, while ground finish electrodes have
been ground to a uniform size and have a polished surface, making them optimal for heat conduction. The
diameter of the electrode can vary between 0.5 and 6.4 millimetres (0.02 and 0.25 in), and their length can
range from 75 to 610 millimetres (3.0 to 24.0 in).
A number of tungsten alloys have been standardized by the International Organization for
Standardization and the American Welding Society in ISO 6848 and AWS A5.12, respectively, for use in
GTAW electrodes, and are summarized in the adjacent table.

 Pure tungsten electrodes (classified as WP or EWP) are general purpose and low cost electrodes.
They have poor heat resistance and electron emission. They find limited use in AC welding of e.g.
magnesium and aluminum.[26]
 Cerium oxide (or ceria) as an alloying element improves arc stability and ease of starting while
decreasing burn-off. Cerium addition is not as effective as thorium but works well, [27] and cerium is not
radioactive.[28]
 An alloy of lanthanum oxide (or lanthana) has a similar effect as cerium, and is also not radioactive.
[28]

 Thorium oxide (or thoria) alloy electrodes offer excellent arc performance and starting, making them
popular general purpose electrodes. However, it is somewhat radioactive, making inhalation of thorium
vapors and dust a health risk, and disposal an environmental risk.[28]
 Electrodes containing zirconium oxide (or zirconia) increase the current capacity while improving arc
stability and starting while also increasing electrode life.[28]
Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW, the major exception being the welding of thin
materials. Filler metals are available with different diameters and are made of a variety of materials. In most
cases, the filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually, but some applications call for
an automatically fed filler metal, which often is stored on spools or coils.[29]
Shielding gas

GTAW system setup

As with other welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, shielding gases are necessary in GTAW to
protect the welding area from atmospheric gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion
defects, porosity, and weld metal embrittlement if they come in contact with the electrode, the arc, or the
welding metal. The gas also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal, and it helps start and
maintain a stable arc.[30]
The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors, including the type of material being welded, joint
design, and desired final weld appearance. Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW, since
it helps prevent defects due to a varying arc length. When used with alternating current, argon shielding
results in high weld quality and good appearance. Another common shielding gas, helium, is most often used
to increase the weld penetration in a joint, to increase the welding speed, and to weld metals with high heat
conductivity, such as copper and aluminum. A significant disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc
with helium gas, and the decreased weld quality associated with a varying arc length.[30]
Argon-helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in GTAW, since they can increase control of the heat
input while maintaining the benefits of using argon. Normally, the mixtures are made with primarily helium
(often about 75% or higher) and a balance of argon. These mixtures increase the speed and quality of the AC
welding of aluminum, and also make it easier to strike an arc. Another shielding gas mixture, argon-
hydrogen, is used in the mechanized welding of light gauge stainless steel, but because hydrogen can cause
porosity, its uses are limited.[30] Similarly, nitrogen can sometimes be added to argon to help stabilize
the austenite in austenitic stainless steels and increase penetration when welding copper. Due to porosity
problems in ferritic steels and limited benefits, however, it is not a popular shielding gas additive.[31]

Materials
Gas tungsten arc welding is most commonly used to weld stainless steel and nonferrous materials, such as
aluminum and magnesium, but it can be applied to nearly all metals, with a notable exception being zinc and
its alloys. Its applications involving carbon steels are limited not because of process restrictions, but because
of the existence of more economical steel welding techniques, such as gas metal arc welding and shielded
metal arc welding. Furthermore, GTAW can be performed in a variety of other-than-flat positions, depending
on the skill of the welder and the materials being welded.[32]
Aluminum and magnesium

A TIG weld showing an accentuated AC etched zone

Closeup view of an aluminum TIG weld AC etch zone

Aluminum and magnesium are most often welded using alternating current, but the use of direct current is
also possible, depending on the properties desired. Before welding, the work area should be cleaned and may
be preheated to 175 to 200 °C (347 to 392 °F) for aluminum or to a maximum of 150 °C (302 °F) for thick
magnesium workpieces to improve penetration and increase travel speed. [33] AC current can provide a self-
cleaning effect, removing the thin, refractory aluminum oxide (sapphire) layer that forms on aluminum metal
within minutes of exposure to air. This oxide layer must be removed for welding to occur. [33] When
alternating current is used, pure tungsten electrodes or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are preferred over
thoriated electrodes, as the latter are more likely to "spit" electrode particles across the welding arc into the
weld. Blunt electrode tips are preferred, and pure argon shielding gas should be employed for thin
workpieces. Introducing helium allows for greater penetration in thicker workpieces, but can make arc
starting difficult.[33]
Direct current of either polarity, positive or negative, can be used to weld aluminum and magnesium as well.
Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) allows for high penetration. [33] Argon is
commonly used as a shielding gas for DCEN welding of aluminum. Shielding gases with high helium
contents are often used for higher penetration in thicker materials. Thoriated electrodes are suitable for use in
DCEN welding of aluminum. Direct current with a positively charged electrode (DCEP) is used primarily for
shallow welds, especially those with a joint thickness of less than 1.6 mm (0.063 in). A thoriated tungsten
electrode is commonly used, along with a pure argon shielding gas.[33]
Steels
For GTAW of carbon and stainless steels, the selection of a filler material is important to prevent excessive
porosity. Oxides on the filler material and workpieces must be removed before welding to prevent
contamination, and immediately prior to welding, alcohol or acetone should be used to clean the surface.
[34]
 Preheating is generally not necessary for mild steels less than one inch thick, but low alloy steels may
require preheating to slow the cooling process and prevent the formation of martensite in the heat-affected
zone. Tool steels should also be preheated to prevent cracking in the heat-affected zone. Austenitic stainless
steels do not require preheating, but martensitic and ferritic chromium stainless steels do. A DCEN power
source is normally used, and thoriated electrodes, tapered to a sharp point, are recommended. Pure argon is
used for thin workpieces, but helium can be introduced as thickness increases.[34]
Dissimilar metals
Welding dissimilar metals often introduces new difficulties to GTAW welding, because most materials do
not easily fuse to form a strong bond. However, welds of dissimilar materials have numerous applications in
manufacturing, repair work, and the prevention of corrosion and oxidation.[35] In some joints, a compatible
filler metal is chosen to help form the bond, and this filler metal can be the same as one of the base materials
(for example, using a stainless steel filler metal with stainless steel and carbon steel as base materials), or a
different metal (such as the use of a nickel filler metal for joining steel and cast iron). Very different
materials may be coated or "buttered" with a material compatible with a particular filler metal, and then
welded. In addition, GTAW can be used in cladding or overlaying dissimilar materials.[35]
When welding dissimilar metals, the joint must have an accurate fit, with proper gap dimensions and bevel
angles. Care should be taken to avoid melting excessive base material. Pulsed current is particularly useful
for these applications, as it helps limit the heat input. The filler metal should be added quickly, and a large
weld pool should be avoided to prevent dilution of the base materials.[35]

Process variations
Pulsed-current
In the pulsed-current mode, the welding current rapidly alternates between two levels. The higher current
state is known as the pulse current, while the lower current level is called the background current. During the
period of pulse current, the weld area is heated and fusion occurs. Upon dropping to the background current,
the weld area is allowed to cool and solidify. Pulsed-current GTAW has a number of advantages, including
lower heat input and consequently a reduction in distortion and warpage in thin workpieces. In addition, it
allows for greater control of the weld pool, and can increase weld penetration, welding speed, and quality. A
similar method, manual programmed GTAW, allows the operator to program a specific rate and magnitude
of current variations, making it useful for specialized applications.[36]
Dabber
The dabber variation is used to precisely place weld metal on thin edges. The automatic process replicates
the motions of manual welding by feeding a cold or hot filler wire into the weld area and dabbing (or
oscillating) it into the welding arc. It can be used in conjunction with pulsed current, and is used to weld a
variety of alloys, including titanium, nickel, and tool steels. Common applications include rebuilding seals
in jet engines and building up saw blades, milling cutters, drill bits, and mower blades.[37]
Plasma arc welding
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process similar to gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
The electric arc is formed between an electrode (which is usually but not always made of sintered tungsten)
and the workpiece. The key difference from GTAW is that in PAW, by positioning the electrode within the
body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding gas envelope. The plasma is then
forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts the arc and the plasma exits the orifice at high
velocities (approaching the speed of sound) and a temperature approaching 28,000 °C (50,000 °F) or higher.
Just as oxy-fuel torches can be used for either welding or cutting, so too can plasma torches, which can
achieve plasma arc welding or plasma cutting.
Arc plasma is the temporary state of a gas. The gas gets ionized after passage of electric current through it
and it becomes a conductor of electricity. In ionized state atoms break into electrons (−) and cations (+) and
the system contains a mixture of ions, electrons and highly excited atoms. The degree of ionization may be
between 1% and greater than 100% i.e.; double and triple degrees of ionization. Such states exist as more
electrons are pulled from their orbits.
The energy of the plasma jet and thus the temperature is dependent upon the electrical power employed to
create arc plasma. A typical value of temperature obtained in a plasma jet torch may be of the order of
28000 °C (50000 °F ) against about 5500 °C (10000 °F) in ordinary electric welding arc. Actually all
welding arcs are (partially ionized) plasmas, but the one in plasma arc welding is a constricted arc plasma.

1. Gas plasma, 2. Nozzle protection, 3. Shield Gas, 4. Electrode, 5. Nozzle

constriction, 6. Electric arc

Concept
Plasma arc welding is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from a
constricted arc setup between a tungsten/alloy tungsten electrode and the water-cooled (constricting) nozzle
(non-transferred arc) or between a tungsten/alloy tungsten electrode and the job (transferred arc). The
process employs two inert gases, one forms the arc plasma and the second shields the arc plasma. Filler
metal may or may not be added.

Principle of operation
Plasma arc welding is a constricted arc process. The arc is constricted with the help of a water-cooled small
diameter nozzle which squeezes the arc, increases its pressure, temperature and heat intensely and thus
improves arc stability, arc shape and heat transfer characteristics. Plasma arc welding processes can be
divided into two basic types:
Non-transferred arc process
The arc is formed between the electrode(-) and the water cooled constricting nozzle(+). Arc plasma comes
out of the nozzle as a flame. The arc is independent of the work piece and the work piece does not form a
part of the electrical circuit. Just like an arc flame (as in atomic hydrogen welding), it can be moved from
one place to another and can be better controlled. The non transferred plasma arc possesses comparatively
less energy density as compared to a transferred arc plasma and it is employed for welding and in
applications involving ceramics or metal plating (spraying). High density metal coatings can be produced by
this process. A non-transferred arc is initiated by using a high frequency unit in the circuit.
Transferred arc process
The arc is formed between the electrode(-) and the work piece(+). In other words, arc is transferred from the
electrode to the work piece. A transferred arc possesses high energy density and plasma jet velocity. For this
reason it is employed to cut and melt metals. Besides carbon steels this process can cut stainless steel and
nonferrous metals where an oxyacetylene torch does not succeed. Transferred arc can also be used for
welding at high arc travel speeds. For initiating a transferred arc, a current limiting resistor is put in the
circuit, which permits a flow of about 50 amps, between the nozzle and electrode and a pilot arc is
established between the electrode and the nozzle. As the pilot arc touches the job main current starts flowing
between electrode and job, thus igniting the transferred arc. The pilot arc initiating unit gets disconnected
and pilot arc extinguishes as soon as the arc between the electrode and the job is started. The temperature of
a constricted plasma arc may be of the order of 8000 - 25000°C.

Equipment
The equipment needed in plasma arc welding along with their functions are as follows:
Power Supply
A direct current power source (generator or rectifier) having drooping characteristics and open circuit
voltage of 70 volts or above is suitable for plasma arc welding. Rectifiers are generally preferred over DC
generators. Working with helium as an inert gas needs open circuit voltage above 70 volts. This higher
voltage can be obtained by series operation of two power sources; or the arc can be initiated with argon at
normal open circuit voltage and then helium can be switched on.
Typical welding parameters for plasma arc welding are as follows:
Current 50 to 350 amps, voltage 27 to 31 volts, gas flow rates 2 to 40 liters/minute (lower range for orifice
gas and higher range for outer shielding gas), direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is normally
employed for plasma arc welding except for the welding of aluminum in which cases water cooled electrode
is preferable for reverse polarity welding, i.e. direct current electrode positive (DCEP).
High frequency generator and current limiting resistors
A high frequency generator and current limiting resistors are used for arc ignition. The arc starting system
may be separate or built into the system.
Plasma Torch
It is either transferred arc or non transferred arc typed. It is hand operated or mechanized. At present, almost
all applications require automated system. The torch is water cooled to increase the life of the nozzle and the
electrode. The size and the type of nozzle tip are selected depending upon the metal to be welded, weld
shapes and desired penetration depth.
Shielding gases
Two inert gases or gas mixtures are employed. The orifice gas at lower pressure and flow rate forms the
plasma arc. The pressure of the orifice gas is intentionally kept low to avoid weld metal turbulence, but this
low pressure is not able to provide proper shielding of the weld pool. To have suitable shielding protection
same or another inert gas is sent through the outer shielding ring of the torch at comparatively higher flow
rates. Most of the materials can be welded with argon, helium, argon+hydrogen and argon+helium, as inert
gases or gas mixtures. Argon is very commonly used. Helium is preferred where a broad heat input pattern
and flatter cover pass is desired without key hole mode weld. A mixture of argon and hydrogen supplies heat
energy higher than when only argon is used and thus permits keyhole mode welds in nickel base alloys,
copper base alloys and stainless steels.
For cutting purposes a mixture of argon and hydrogen (10-30%) or that of nitrogen may be used. Hydrogen,
because of its dissociation into atomic form and thereafter recombination generates temperatures above those
attained by using argon or helium alone. In addition, hydrogen provides a reducing atmosphere, which helps
in preventing oxidation of the weld and its vicinity. (Care must be taken, as hydrogen diffusing into the metal
can lead to embrittlement in some metals and steels.)
Voltage control
Voltage control is required in contour welding. In normal key hole welding a variation in arc length up to
1.5 mm does not affect weld bead penetration or bead shape to any significant extent and thus a voltage
control is not considered essential.
Current and gas decay control
It is necessary to close the key hole properly while terminating the weld in the structure.
Fixture
It is required to avoid atmospheric contamination of the molten metal under bead.
Materials
Steel
Alluminium
All the most of materials

Process Description
Technique of work piece cleaning and filler metal addition is similar to that in TIG welding. Filler metal is
added at the leading edge of the weld pool. Filler metal is not required in making root pass weld.
Type of Joints: For welding work piece up to 25 mm thick, joints like square butt, J or V are employed.
Plasma welding is used to make both key hole and non-key hole types of welds.
Making a non-key hole weld: The process can make non key hole welds on work pieces having thickness
2.4 mm and under.
Making a keyhole welds: An outstanding characteristics of plasma arc welding, owing to exceptional
penetrating power of plasma jet, is its ability to produce keyhole welds in work piece having thickness from
2.5 mm to 25 mm. A keyhole effect is achieved through right selection of current, nozzle orifice diameter
and travel speed, which create a forceful plasma jet to penetrate completely through the work piece. Plasma
jet in no case should expel the molten metal from the joint. The major advantages of keyhole technique are
the ability to penetrate rapidly through relatively thick root sections and to produce a uniform under bead
without mechanical backing. Also, the ratio of the depth of penetration to the width of the weld is much
higher, resulting narrower weld and heat-affected zone. As the weld progresses, base metal ahead the
keyhole melts, flow around the same solidifies and forms the weld bead. Key holing aids deep penetration at
faster speeds and produces high quality bead. While welding thicker pieces, in laying others than root run,
and using filler metal, the force of plasma jet is reduced by suitably controlling the amount of orifice gas.
Plasma arc welding is an advancement over the GTAW process. This process uses a non-consumable
tungsten electrode and an arc constricted through a fine-bore copper nozzle. PAW can be used to join all
metals that are weldable with GTAW (i.e., most commercial metals and alloys). Difficult-to-weld in metals
by PAW include bronze, cast iron, lead and magnesium. Several basic PAW process variations are possible
by varying the current, plasma gas flow rate, and the orifice diameter, including:

 Micro-plasma (< 15 Amperes)

 Melt-in mode (15–100 Amperes)
 Keyhole mode (>100 Amperes)
 Plasma arc welding has a greater energy concentration as compared to GTAW.
 A deep, narrow penetration is achievable, with a maximum depth of 12 to 18 mm (0.47 to
0.71 in) depending on the material.[2]
 Greater arc stability allows a much longer arc length (stand-off), and much greater tolerance to
arc length changes.
 PAW requires relatively expensive and complex equipment as compared to GTAW; proper torch
maintenance is critical
 Welding procedures tend to be more complex and less tolerant to variations in fit-up, etc.
 Operator skill required is slightly greater than for GTAW.
 Orifice replacement is necessary.

Process variables

Gases
At least two separate (and possibly three) flows of gas are used in PAW:

 Plasma gas – flows through the orifice and becomes ionized.

 Shielding gas – flows through the outer nozzle and shields the molten weld from the atmosphere
 Back-purge and trailing gas – required for certain materials and applications.
These gases can all be same, or of differing composition.
Key process variables[edit]

 Current Type and Polarity

 DCEN from a CC source is standard
 AC square-wave is common on aluminum and magnesium
 Welding current and pulsing - Current can vary from 0.5 A to 1200 A; Current can be constant or
pulsed at frequencies up to 20 kHz
 Gas flow rate (This critical variable must be carefully controlled based upon the current, orifice
diameter and shape, gas mixture, and the base material and thickness.)

Other plasma arc processes

 Depending upon the design of the torch (e.g., orifice diameter), electrode design, gas type and
velocities, and the current levels, several variations of the plasma process are achievable, including:

 Plasma arc cutting (PAC)

 Plasma arc gouging
 Plasma arc surfacing
 Plasma arc spraying
Plasma arc cutting
When used for cutting, the plasma gas flow is increased so that the deeply penetrating plasma jet cuts
through the material and molten material is removed as cutting dross. PAC differs from oxy-fuel cutting in
that the plasma process operates by using the arc to melt the metal whereas in the oxy-fuel process, the
oxygen oxidizes the metal and the heat from the exothermic reaction melts the metal. Unlike oxy-fuel
cutting, the PAC process can be applied to cutting metals which form refractory oxides such as stainless
steel, cast iron, aluminum, and other non-ferrous alloys. Since PAC was introduced by Praxair Inc. at
the American Welding Society show in 1954, many process refinements, gas developments, and equipment
improvements have occurred.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA or MMAW), flux
shielded arc welding[1] or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode covered with a flux to lay the weld.
An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is
used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. The workpiece and the
electrode melts forming a pool of molten metal (weld pool) that cools to form a joint. As the weld is laid, the
flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a
layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal arc
welding is one of the world's first and most popular welding processes. It dominates other welding processes
in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW
continues to be used extensively in the construction of heavy steel structures and in industrial fabrication.
The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel)
but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.
Operation

SMAW weld area

To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece by a very light touch of the
electrode to the base metal. The electrode is then pulled back slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the
melting of the workpiece and the consumable electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed
from the electrode to the weld pool. Striking an arc, which varies widely based upon electrode and workpiece
composition, can be the hardest skill for beginners. The orientation of the electrode to workpiece is where
most stumble, if the electrode is held at a perpendicular angle to the workpiece the tip will likely stick to the
metal which will fuse the electrode to the workpiece which will cause it to heat up very rapidly. The tip of
the electrode needs to be at a lower angle to the workpiece, which allows the weld pool to flow out of the
arc. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off shielding gases that protect the weld
area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux provides molten slag which covers the
filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the
surface and protects the weld from contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to
reveal the finished weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must periodically stop
welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new electrode into the electrode holder. This
activity, combined with chipping away the slag, reduces the amount of time that the welder can spend laying
the weld, making SMAW one of the least efficient welding processes. In general, the operator factor, or the
percentage of operator's time spent laying weld, is approximately 25%.[12]
The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition of the workpiece, and the
position of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and welding position also determine the welding
speed. Flat welds require the least operator skill, and can be done with electrodes that melt quickly but
solidify slowly. This permits higher welding speeds.
Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator skill, and often necessitates the use of an
electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent the molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool. However, this
generally means that the electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing the time required to lay the weld.[13]
Quality
The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include weld spatter, porosity, poor fusion,
shallow penetration, and cracking.
Weld spatter, while not affecting the integrity of the weld, damages its appearance and increases cleaning
costs. Secondary finishing services are often required due to the aesthetic appearance caused by the
occurrence of molten splatter.[14] It can be caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or arc blow, a
condition associated with direct current characterized by the electric arc being deflected away from the weld
pool by magnetic forces. Arc blow can also cause porosity in the weld, as can joint contamination, high
welding speed, and a long welding arc, especially when low-hydrogen electrodes are used.
Porosity, often not visible without the use of advanced nondestructive testing methods, is a serious concern
because it can potentially weaken the weld. Another defect affecting the strength of the weld is poor fusion,
though it is often easily visible. It is caused by low current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an
improper electrode.
Shallow penetration, another detriment to weld strength, can be addressed by decreasing welding speed,
increasing the current or using a smaller electrode. Any of these weld-strength-related defects can make the
weld prone to cracking, but other factors are involved as well. High carbon, alloy or sulfur content in the
base material can lead to cracking, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and preheating are not employed.
Furthermore, the workpieces should not be excessively restrained, as this introduces residual stresses into the
weld and can cause cracking as the weld cools and contracts.[15]
Safety
SMAW welding, like other welding methods, can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice if proper
precautions are not taken. The process uses an open electric arc, which presents a risk of burns which are
prevented by personal protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and long sleeve jackets.
Additionally, the brightness of the weld area can lead to a condition called arc eye, in which ultraviolet
light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding helmets with dark face
plates are worn to prevent this exposure, and in recent years, new helmet models have been produced that
feature a face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to high amounts of UV light. To protect bystanders,
especially in industrial environments, translucent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These
curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light
from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the filter glass used in helmets.[16]
In addition, the vaporizing metal and flux materials expose welders to dangerous gases
and particulate matter. The smoke produced contains particles of various types of oxides. The size of the
particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater
danger. Additionally, gases like carbon dioxide and ozone can form, which can prove dangerous if
ventilation is inadequate. Some of the latest welding masks are fitted with an electric powered fan to help
disperse harmful fumes.[17]
Application and materials
Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes, accounting for over half of
all welding in some countries. Because of its versatility and simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the
maintenance and repair industry, and is heavily used in the construction of steel structures and in industrial
fabrication. In recent years its use has declined as flux-cored arc welding has expanded in the construction
industry and gas metal arc welding has become more popular in industrial environments. However, because
of the low equipment cost and wide applicability, the process will likely remain popular, especially among
amateurs and small businesses where specialized welding processes are uneconomical and unnecessary.[18]
SMAW is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and ductile iron.
While less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be used on nickel and copper and their alloys and, in rare
cases, on aluminium. The thickness of the material being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the
skill of the welder, but rarely does it drop below 1.5 mm (0.06 in). No upper bound exists: with proper joint
preparation and use of multiple passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined.
Furthermore, depending on the electrode used and the skill of the welder, SMAW can be used in any
position.[19]

Equipment

SMAW system setup

Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists of a constant current welding power supply and an
electrode, with an electrode holder, a 'ground' clamp, and welding cables (also known as welding leads)
connecting the two.
Power supply
The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring that the current (and thus the heat)
remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. This is important because most
applications of SMAW are manual, requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady
arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat
variations and make welding more difficult. However, because the current is not maintained absolutely
constant, skilled welders performing complicated welds can vary the arc length to cause minor fluctuations
in the current.
A high output welding power supply for SMAW, GTAW, MIG, Flux-Cored, & Gouging
The preferred polarity of the SMAW system depends primarily upon the electrode being used and the desired
properties of the weld. Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) causes heat to build up on
the electrode, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld. Reversing the
polarity so that the electrode is positively charged (DCEP) and the workpiece is negatively charged increases
the weld penetration. With alternating current the polarity changes over 100 times per second, creating an
even heat distribution and providing a balance between electrode melting rate and penetration.[21]
Typically, the equipment used for SMAW consists of a step-down transformer and for direct current models
a rectifier, which converts alternating current into direct current. Because the power normally supplied to the
welding machine is high-voltage alternating current, the welding transformer is used to reduce the voltage
and increase the current. As a result, instead of 220 V at 50 A, for example, the power supplied by the
transformer is around 17–45 V at currents up to 600 A. A number of different types of transformers can be
used to produce this effect, including multiple coil and inverter machines, with each using a different method
to manipulate the welding current. The multiple coil type adjusts the current by either varying the number of
turns in the coil (in tap-type transformers) or by varying the distance between the primary and secondary
coils (in movable coil or movable core transformers). Inverters, which are smaller and thus more portable,
use electronic components to change the current characteristics.[22]
Electrical generators and alternators are frequently used as portable welding power supplies, but because of
lower efficiency and greater costs, they are less frequently used in industry. Maintenance also tends to be
more difficult, because of the complexities of using a combustion engine as a power source. However, in one
sense they are simpler: the use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can provide either AC or
DC.[23] However, the engine driven units are most practical in field work where the welding often must be
done out of doors and in locations where transformer type welders are not usable because there is no power
source available to be transformed.
In some units the alternator is essentially the same as that used in portable generating sets used to supply
mains power, modified to produce a higher current at a lower voltage but still at the 50 or 60 Hz grid
frequency. In higher-quality units an alternator with more poles is used and supplies current at a higher
frequency, such as 400 Hz. The smaller amount of time the high-frequency waveform spends near zero
makes it much easier to strike and maintain a stable arc than with the cheaper grid-frequency sets or grid-
frequency mains-powered units.
Electrode

Various accessories for SMAW

The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors, including the weld material, welding
position and the desired weld properties. The electrode is coated in a metal mixture called flux, which gives
off gases as it decomposes to prevent weld contamination, introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes
weld-protecting slag to form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to improve the weld
quality.[24] Electrodes can be divided into three groups—those designed to melt quickly are called "fast-fill"
electrodes, those designed to solidify quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes, and intermediate electrodes
go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow" electrodes. Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so
that the welding speed can be maximized, while fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that solidifies
quickly, making welding in a variety of positions possible by preventing the weld pool from shifting
significantly before solidifying.[25]
The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes identical to that of the base
material. But even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight difference in alloy composition can
strongly impact the properties of the resulting weld. This is especially true of alloy steels such as HSLA
steels. Likewise, electrodes of compositions similar to those of the base materials are often used for welding
nonferrous materials like aluminium and copper.[26] However, sometimes it is desirable to use electrodes with
core materials significantly different from the base material. For example, stainless steel electrodes are
sometimes used to weld two pieces of carbon steel, and are often utilized to weld stainless steel workpieces
with carbon steel workpieces.[27]
Electrode coatings can consist of a number of different compounds, including rutile, calcium
fluoride, cellulose, and iron powder. Rutile electrodes, coated with 25%–45% TiO2, are characterized by ease
of use and good appearance of the resulting weld. However, they create welds with high hydrogen content,
encouraging embrittlement and cracking. Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF2), sometimes known
as basic or low-hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be stored in dry conditions. They produce
strong welds, but with a coarse and convex-shaped joint surface. Electrodes coated with cellulose, especially
when combined with rutile, provide deep weld penetration, but because of their high moisture content,
special procedures must be used to prevent excessive risk of cracking. Finally, iron powder is a common
coating additive that increases the rate at which the electrode fills the weld joint, up to twice as fast.[28]
To identify different electrodes, the American Welding Society established a system that assigns electrodes
with a four- or five-digit number. Covered electrodes made of mild or low alloy steel carry the prefix E,
followed by their number. The first two or three digits of the number specify the tensile strength of the weld
metal, in thousand pounds per square inch(ksi). The penultimate digit generally identifies the welding
positions permissible with the electrode, typically using the values 1 (normally fast-freeze electrodes,
implying all position welding) and 2 (normally fast-fill electrodes, implying horizontal welding only). The
welding current and type of electrode covering are specified by the last two digits together. When applicable,
a suffix is used to denote the alloying element being contributed by the electrode.[29]
Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode with a minimum tensile strength
of 60 ksi (410 MPa) which is operated using DCEP. E6011 is similar except its flux coating allows it to be
used with alternating current in addition to DCEP. E7024 is a fast-fill electrode, used primarily to make flat
or horizontal welds using AC, DCEN, or DCEP. Examples of fill-freeze electrodes are the E6012, E6013,
and E7014, all of which provide a compromise between fast welding speeds and all-position welding.[30]
Process variations
Though SMAW is almost exclusively a manual arc welding process, one notable process variation exists,
known as gravity welding or gravity arc welding. It serves as an automated version of the traditional shielded
metal arc welding process, employing an electrode holder attached to an inclined bar along the length of the
weld. Once started, the process continues until the electrode is spent, allowing the operator to manage
multiple gravity welding systems. The electrodes employed (often E6027 or E7024) are coated heavily in
flux, and are typically 71 cm (28 in) in length and about 6.35 mm (0.25 in) thick. As in manual SMAW, a
constant current welding power supply is used, with either negative polarity direct current or alternating
current. Due to a rise in the use of semiautomatic welding processes such as flux-cored arc welding, the
popularity of gravity welding has fallen as its economic advantage over such methods is often minimal.
Other SMAW-related methods that are even less frequently used include firecracker welding, an automatic
method for making butt and fillet welds, and massive electrode welding, a process for welding large
components or structures that can deposit up to 27 kg (60 lb) of weld metal per hour.[10]
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. The first patent on the submerged-arc
welding (SAW) process was taken out in 1935 and covered an electric arc beneath a bed of granulated flux.
Originally developed and patented by Jones, Kennedy and Rothermund, the process requires a continuously
fed consumable solid or tubular (metal cored) electrode. [1] The molten weld and the arc zone are protected
from atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under a blanket of granular fusible flux consisting
of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds. When molten, the flux becomes
conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work. This thick layer of flux
completely covers the molten metal thus preventing spatter and sparks as well as suppressing the intense
ultraviolet radiation and fumes that are a part of the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process.
SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode, however, semi-automatic (hand-held)
SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are available. The process is normally limited to the
flat or horizontal-fillet welding positions (although horizontal groove position welds have been done with a
special arrangement to support the flux). Deposition rates approaching 45 kg/h (100 lb/h) have been reported
— this compares to ~5 kg/h (10 lb/h) (max) for shielded metal arc welding. Although currents ranging from
300 to 2000 A are commonly utilized,[2] currents of up to 5000 A have also been used (multiple arcs).
Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist. SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat
strip electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm thick). DC or AC power can be used, and combinations of DC
and AC are common on multiple electrode systems. Constant voltage welding power supplies are most
commonly used; however, constant current systems in combination with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are
available.
Welding head
It feeds flux and filler metal to the welding joint. Electrode (filler metal) gets energized here.
Flux hopper[edit]
It stores the flux and controls the rate of flux deposition on the welding joint.
Flux
The granulated flux shields and thus protects molten weld from atmospheric contamination. The flux cleans
weld metal and can also modify its chemical composition. The flux is granulated to a definite size. It may be
of fused, bonded or mechanically mixed type. The flux may consist of fluorides of calcium and oxides of
calcium, magnesium, silicon, aluminium and manganese. Alloying elements may be added as per
requirements. Substances evolving large amount of gases during welding are never mixed with the flux. Flux
with fine and coarse particle sizes are recommended for welding heavier and smaller thickness respectively.
Electrode
SAW filler material usually is a standard wire as well as other special forms. This wire normally has a
thickness of 1.6 mm to 6 mm (1/16 in. to 1/4 in.). In certain circumstances, twisted wire can be used to give
the arc an oscillating movement. This helps fuse the toe of the weld to the base metal. [3] The electrode
composition depends upon the material being welded. Alloying elements may be added in the electrodes.
Electrodes are available to weld mild steels, high carbon steels, low and special alloy steels, stainless steel
and some of the nonferrous of copper and nickel. Electrodes are generally copper coated to prevent rusting
and to increase their electrical conductivity. Electrodes are available in straight lengths and coils. Their
diameters may be 1.6, 2.0, 2.4, 3, 4.0, 4.8, and 6.4 mm. The approximate value of currents to weld with 1.6,
3.2 and 6.4 mm diameter electrodes are 150–350, 250–800 and 650–1350 Amps respectively.
Welding Operation
The flux starts depositing on the joint to be welded. Since the flux when cold is non-conductor of electricity,
the arc may be struck either by touching the electrode with the work piece or by placing steel wool between
electrode and job before switching on the welding current or by using a high frequency unit. In all cases the
arc is struck under a cover of flux. Flux otherwise is an insulator but once it melts due to heat of the arc, it
becomes highly conductive and hence the current flow is maintained between the electrode and the
workpiece through the molten flux. The upper portion of the flux, in contact with atmosphere, which is
visible remains granular (unchanged) and can be reused. The lower, melted flux becomes slag, which is
waste material and must be removed after welding.
The electrode at a predetermined speed is continuously fed to the joint to be welded. In semi-automatic
welding sets the welding head is moved manually along the joint. In automatic welding a separate drive
moves either the welding head over the stationary job or the job moves/rotates under the stationary welding
head.
The arc length is kept constant by using the principle of a self-adjusting arc. If the arc length decreases, arc
voltage will increase, arc current and therefore burn-off rate will increase thereby causing the arc to lengthen.
The reverse occurs if the arc length increases more than the normal.[citation needed]
A backing plate of steel or copper may be used to control penetration and to support large amounts of molten
metal associated with the process.
Key SAW process variables[edit]

 Wire feed speed (main factor in welding current control)

 Arc voltage
 Travel speed
 Electrode stick-out (ESO) or contact tip to work (CTTW)
 Polarity and current type (AC or DC) and variable balance AC current

Material applications

 Carbon steels (structural and vessel construction)

 Low alloy steels
 Stainless steels
 Nickel-based alloys
 Surfacing applications (wear-facing, build-up, and corrosion resistant overlay of steels)

Advantages

 High deposition rates (over 45 kg/h (100 lb/h) have been reported).

 High operating factors in mechanized applications.
 Deep weld penetration.
 Sound welds are readily made (with good process design and control).
 High speed welding of thin sheet steels up to 5 m/min (16 ft/min) is possible.
 Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.
 Practically no edge preparation is necessary depending on joint configuration and required
penetration.
 The process is suitable for both indoor and outdoor works.
 Welds produced are sound, uniform, ductile, corrosion resistant and have good impact value.
 Single pass welds can be made in thick plates with normal equipment.
 The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus there is no chance of spatter of weld.
 50% to 90% of the flux is recoverable, recycled and reused.[4]

Limitations

 Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and some nickel-based alloys.

 Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions.
 Normally limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes or vessels.
 Requires relatively troublesome flux handling systems.
 Flux and slag residue can present a health and safety concern.
 Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.
 Requires backing strips for proper root penetration.
 Limited to high thickness materials.

Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding in the U.S.)

and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals, respectively.
French engineers Edmond Fouché and Charles Picard became the first to develop oxygen-acetylene welding
in 1903.[1] Pure oxygen, instead of air, is used to increase the flame temperature to allow localized melting of
the workpiece material (e.g. steel) in a room environment. A common propane/air flame burns at about
2,250 K (1,980 °C; 3,590 °F),[2] a propane/oxygen flame burns at about 2,526 K (2,253 °C; 4,087 °F),
[3]
 an oxyhydrogen flame burns at 3,073 K (2,800 °C; 5,072 °F), and an acetylene/oxygen flame burns at
about 3,773 K (3,500 °C; 6,332 °F).[4]
Oxy-fuel is one of the oldest welding processes, besides forge welding. In recent decades it has been
obsolesced in almost all industrial uses due to various arc welding methods offering more consistent
mechanical weld properties and faster application. Gas welding is still used for metal-based artwork and in
smaller home based shops, as well as situations where accessing electricity (e.g., via an extension cord or
portable generator) would present difficulties.
In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two pieces are
heated to a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten pool is generally supplied
with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the metals to be welded.
In oxy-fuel cutting, a torch is used to heat metal to its kindling temperature. A stream of oxygen is then
trained on the metal, burning it into a metal oxide that flows out of the kerf as slag.[5]
Torches that do not mix fuel with oxygen (combining, instead, atmospheric air) are not considered oxy-fuel
torches and can typically be identified by a single tank (oxy-fuel cutting requires two isolated supplies, fuel
and oxygen). Most metals cannot be melted with a single-tank torch. Consequently, single-tank torches are
typically suitable for soldering and brazing but not for welding.
Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

Uses
Oxy-gas torches are or have been used for:

 Welding metal: see below.

 Cutting metal: see below.
 Heating metal: in automotive and other industries for the purposes of loosening seized fasteners.
 Depositing metal to build up a surface, as in hardfacing.
 Also, oxy-hydrogen flames are used:
  in stone working for "flaming" where the stone is heated and a top layer crackles and breaks.
A steel circular brush is attached to an angle grinder and used to remove the first layer leaving
behind a bumpy surface similar to hammered bronze.
 in the glass industry for "fire polishing".
 in jewelry production for "water welding" using a water torch (an oxyhydrogen torch whose
gas supply is generated immediately by electrolysis of water).
 in automotive repair, removing a seized bolt.
 formerly, to heat lumps of quicklime to obtain a bright white light called limelight, in theatres
or optical ("magic") lanterns.
 formerly, in platinum works, as platinum is fusible only in the oxyhydrogen flame [citation
needed]
 and in an electric furnace.
In short, oxy-fuel equipment is quite versatile, not only because it is preferred for some sorts of iron or steel
welding but also because it lends itself to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating (for annealing or tempering,
bending or forming), rust or scale removal, the loosening of corroded nuts and bolts, and is a ubiquitous
means of cutting ferrous metals.

Apparatus
The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of an oxygen source and a fuel gas source (usually
contained in cylinders), two pressure regulators and two flexible hoses (one for each cylinder), and a torch.
This sort of torch can also be used for soldering and brazing. The cylinders are often carried in a special
wheeled trolley.
There have been examples of oxyhydrogen cutting sets with small (scuba-sized) gas cylinders worn on the
user's back in a backpack harness, for rescue work and similar.
There are also examples of pressurized liquid fuel cutting torches, usually using gasoline. These are used for
their increased portability.
Regulator
Main article: Pressure regulator
The regulator ensures that pressure of the gas from the tanks matches the required pressure in the hose. The
flow rate is then adjusted by the operator using needle valves on the torch. Accurate flow control with a
needle valve relies on a constant inlet pressure.
Most regulators have two stages. The first stage is a fixed-pressure regulator, which releases gas from the
cylinder at a constant intermediate pressure, despite the pressure in the cylinder falling as the gas in it is
consumed. This is similar to the first stage of a scuba-diving regulator. The adjustable second stage of the
regulator controls the pressure reduction from the intermediate pressure to the low outlet pressure. The
regulator has two pressure gauges, one indicating cylinder pressure, the other indicating hose pressure. The
adjustment knob of the regulator is sometimes roughly calibrated for pressure, but an accurate setting
requires observation of the gauge.
Some simpler or cheaper oxygen-fuel regulators have only a single stage regulator, or only a single gauge. A
single-stage regulator will tend to allow a reduction in outlet pressure as the cylinder is emptied, requiring
manual readjustment. For low-volume users, this is an acceptable simplification. Welding regulators, unlike
simpler LPG heating regulators, retain their outlet (hose) pressure gauge and do not rely on the calibration of
the adjustment knob. The cheaper single-stage regulators may sometimes omit the cylinder contents gauge,
or replace the accurate dial gauge with a cheaper and less precise "rising button" gauge.
Gas hoses
The hoses are designed for use in welding and cutting metal. A double-hose or twinned design can be used,
meaning that the oxygen and fuel hoses are joined together. If separate hoses are used, they should be
clipped together at intervals approximately 3 feet (1 m) apart, although that is not recommended for cutting
applications, because beads of molten metal given off by the process can become lodged between the hoses
where they are held together, and burn through, releasing the pressurised gas inside, which in the case of fuel
gas usually ignites.
The hoses are color-coded for visual identification. The color of the hoses varies between countries. In
the United States, the oxygen hose is green, and the fuel hose is red. [6] In the UK and other countries, the
oxygen hose is blue (black hoses may still be found on old equipment), and the acetylene (fuel) hose is red.
[7]
 If liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) fuel, such as propane, is used, the fuel hose should be orange, indicating
that it is compatible with LPG. LPG will damage an incompatible hose, including most acetylene hoses.
The threaded connectors on the hoses are handed to avoid accidental mis-connection: the thread on the
oxygen hose is right-handed (as normal), while the fuel gas hose has a left-handed thread. [6] The left-handed
threads also have an identifying groove cut into their nuts.
Gas-tight connections between the flexible hoses and rigid fittings are made by using crimped hose
clips or ferrules, often referred to as 'O' clips, over barbed spigots. The use of worm-drive hose clips
or Jubilee clips is specifically forbidden in the UK and other countries.[8]
Non-return valve
Acetylene is not just flammable; in certain conditions it is explosive. Although it has an upper flammability
limit in air of 81%,[9] acetylene's explosive decomposition behaviour makes this irrelevant. If a detonation
wave enters the acetylene tank, the tank will be blown apart by the decomposition. Ordinary check valves
that normally prevent back flow cannot stop a detonation wave because they are not capable of closing
before the wave passes around the gate. For that reason a flashback arrestor is needed. It is designed to
operate before the detonation wave makes it from the hose side to the supply side.
Between the regulator and hose, and ideally between hose and torch on both oxygen and fuel lines,
a flashback arrestor and/or non-return valve (check valve) should be installed to prevent flame or oxygen-
fuel mixture being pushed back into either cylinder and damaging the equipment or causing a cylinder to
explode.
European practice is to fit flashback arrestors at the regulator and check valves at the torch. US practice is to
fit both at the regulator.
The flashback arrestor (not to be confused with a check valve) prevents shock waves from downstream
coming back up the hoses and entering the cylinder, possibly rupturing it, as there are quantities of
fuel/oxygen mixtures inside parts of the equipment (specifically within the mixer and blowpipe/nozzle) that
may explode if the equipment is incorrectly shut down, and acetylene decomposes at excessive pressures or
temperatures. In case the pressure wave has created a leak downstream of the flashback arrestor, it will
remain switched off until someone resets it.
Check valve
A check valve lets gas flow in one direction only. It is usually a chamber containing a ball that is pressed
against one end by a spring. Gas flow one way pushes the ball out of the way, and a lack of flow or a reverse
flow allows the spring to push the ball into the inlet, blocking it. Not to be confused with a flashback
arrestor, a check valve is not designed to block a shock wave. The shock wave could occur while the ball is
so far from the inlet that the wave will get past the ball before it can reach its off position.
Torch
The torch is the tool that the welder holds and manipulates to make the weld. It has a connection and valve
for the fuel gas and a connection and valve for the oxygen, a handle for the welder to grasp, and a mixing
chamber (set at an angle) where the fuel gas and oxygen mix, with a tip where the flame forms. Two basic
types of torches are positive pressure type and low pressure or injector type.
The top torch is a welding torch and the bottom is a cutting torch
Welding torch
A welding torch head is used to weld metals. It can be identified by having only one or two pipes running to
the nozzle, no oxygen-blast trigger, and two valve knobs at the bottom of the handle letting the operator
adjust the oxygen and fuel flow respectively.
Cutting torch
A cutting torch head is used to cut materials. It is similar to a welding torch, but can be identified by the
oxygen blast trigger or lever.
When cutting, the metal is first heated by the flame until it is cherry red. Once this temperature is attained,
oxygen is supplied to the heated parts by pressing the oxygen-blast trigger. This oxygen reacts with the
metal, forming iron oxide and producing heat. It is the heat that continues the cutting process. The cutting
torch only heats the metal to start the process; further heat is provided by the burning metal.
The melting point of the iron oxide is around half that of the metal being cut. As the metal burns, it
immediately turns to liquid iron oxide and flows away from the cutting zone. However, some of the iron
oxide remains on the workpiece, forming a hard "slag" which can be removed by gentle tapping and/or
grinding.
Rose bud torch
A rose bud torch is used to heat metals for bending, straightening, etc. where a large area needs to be heated.
It is so-called because the flame at the end looks like a rose bud. A welding torch can also be used to heat
small areas such as rusted nuts and bolts.
Injector torch
A typical oxy-fuel torch, called an equal-pressure torch, merely mixes the two gases. In an injector torch,
high-pressure oxygen comes out of a small nozzle inside the torch head which drags the fuel gas along with
it, using the venturi effect.

Fuels
Oxy-fuel processes may use a variety of fuel gases, the most common being acetylene. Other gases that may
be used are propylene, liquified petroleum gas (LPG), propane, natural gas, hydrogen, and MAPP gas. Many
brands use different kinds of gases in their mixes.
Acetylene

Acetylene generator as used in Bali by a reaction of calcium carbide with water. This is used where acetylene
cylinders are not available. The term 'Las Karbit' means acetylene (carbide) welding in Indonesian.
See also: Acetylene
Acetylene is the primary fuel for oxy-fuel welding and is the fuel of choice for repair work and general
cutting and welding. Acetylene gas is shipped in special cylinders designed to keep the gas dissolved. The
cylinders are packed with porous materials (e.g. kapok fibre, diatomaceous earth, or (formerly) asbestos),
then filled to around 50% capacity with acetone, as acetylene is soluble in acetone. This method is necessary
because above 207 kPa (30 lbf/in²) (absolute pressure) acetylene is unstable and may explode.
There is about 1700 kPa (250 psi) pressure in the tank when full. Acetylene when combined
with oxygen burns at 3200 °C to 3500 °C (5800 °F to 6300 °F), highest among commonly used gaseous
fuels. As a fuel acetylene's primary disadvantage, in comparison to other fuels, is high cost.
As acetylene is unstable at a pressure roughly equivalent to 33 feet/10 meters underwater, water-submerged
cutting and welding is reserved for hydrogen, rather than acetylene.

Compressed gas cylinders containing oxygen and MAPP gas.

Gasoline
Oxy-gasoline, also known as oxy-petrol, torches have been found to perform very well, especially where
bottled gas fuel is not available or difficult to transport to the worksite. Tests showed that an oxy-gasoline
torch can cut steel plate up to 0.5 in (13 mm) thick at the same rate as oxy-acetylene. In plate thicknesses
greater than 0.5 in (13 mm) the cutting rate was better than oxy-acetylene; at 4.5 in (110 mm) it was three
times faster.[10]
The gasoline is fed either from a pressurised tank (whose pressure can be hand-pumped or fed from a gas
cylinder).[10] OR from a non pressurised tank with the fuel being drawn into the torch by venturi action by the
pressurised oxygen flow. Another low cost approach commonly used by jewelry makers in Asia is using air
bubbled through a gasoline container by a foot-operated air pump, and burning the fuel-air mixture in a
specialized welding torch.
Hydrogen
See also: Oxyhydrogen
Hydrogen has a clean flame and is good for use on aluminium. It can be used at a higher pressure than
acetylene and is therefore useful for underwater welding and cutting. It is a good type of flame to use when
heating large amounts of material. The flame temperature is high, about 2,000 °C for hydrogen gas in air at
atmospheric pressure,[11] and up to 2800 °C when pre-mixed in a 2:1 ratio with pure oxygen (oxyhydrogen).
Hydrogen is not used for welding steels and other ferrous materials, because it causes hydrogen
embrittlement.
For some oxyhydrogen torches the oxygen and hydrogen are produced by electrolysis of water in an
apparatus which is connected directly to the torch. Types of this sort of torch:

 The oxygen and the hydrogen are led off the electrolysis cell separately and are fed into the two gas
connections of an ordinary oxy-gas torch. This happens in the water torch, which is sometimes used in
small torches used in making jewelry and electronics.
 The mixed oxygen and hydrogen are drawn from the electrolysis cell and are led into a special torch
designed to prevent flashback. See oxyhydrogen.
MPS and MAPP gas[edit]
Main articles:  Methylacetylene-propadiene gas  and MAPP gas
Methylacetylene-propadiene (MAPP) gas and LPG gas are similar fuels, because LPG gas is liquefied
petroleum gas mixed with MPS. It has the storage and shipping characteristics of LPG and has a heat value a
little less than acetylene. Because it can be shipped in small containers for sale at retail stores, it is used by
hobbyists and large industrial companies and shipyards because it does not polymerize at high pressures —
above 15 psi or so (as acetylene does) and is therefore much less dangerous than acetylene. Further, more of
it can be stored in a single place at one time, as the increased compressibility allows for more gas to be put
into a tank. MAPP gas can be used at much higher pressures than acetylene, sometimes up to 40 or 50 psi in
high-volume oxy-fuel cutting torches which can cut up to 12-inch-thick (300 mm) steel. Other welding gases
that develop comparable temperatures need special procedures for safe shipping and handling. MPS and
MAPP are recommended for cutting applications in particular, rather than welding applications.
On 31 April 2008 the Petromont Varennes plant closed its methylacetylene/propadiene crackers. As they
were the only North American plant making MAPP gas, many substitutes were introduced by the companies
who had repackaged the Dow and Varennes product(s) - most of these substitutes are propylene, see below.
Propylene and Fuel Gas
Propylene is used in production welding and cutting. It cuts similarly to propane. When propylene is used,
the torch rarely needs tip cleaning. There is often a substantial advantage to cutting with an injector torch
(see the propane section) rather than an equal-pressure torch when using propylene. Quite a few North
American suppliers have begun selling propylene under proprietary trademarks such as FG2 and Fuel-Max.
Butane, propane and butane/propane mixes
Butane, like propane, is a saturated hydrocarbon. Butane and propane do not react with each other and are
regularly mixed. Butane boils at 0.6 °C. Propane is more volatile, with a boiling point of -42 °C.
Vaporization is rapid at temperatures above the boiling points. The calorific (heat) values of both are almost
equal. Both are thus mixed to attain the vapor pressure that is required by the end user and depending on the
ambient conditions. If the ambient temperature is very low, propane is preferred to achieve higher vapor
pressure at the given temperature.[citation needed]
Propane does not burn as hot as acetylene in its inner cone, and so it is rarely used for welding. [12] Propane,
however, has a very high number of BTUs per cubic foot in its outer cone, and so with the right torch
(injector style) can make a faster and cleaner cut than acetylene, and is much more useful for heating and
bending than acetylene.
The maximum neutral flame temperature of propane in oxygen is 2,822 °C (5,112 °F).[citation needed]
Propane is cheaper than acetylene and easier to transport.

The role of oxygen

Oxygen is not the fuel. It is what chemically combines with the fuel to produce the heat for welding. This is
called 'oxidation', but the more specific and more commonly used term in this context is 'combustion'. In the
case of hydrogen, the product of combustion is simply water. For the other hydrocarbon fuels, water and
carbon dioxide are produced. The heat is released because the molecules of the products of combustion have
a lower energy state than the molecules of the fuel and oxygen. In oxy-fuel cutting, oxidation of the metal
being cut (typically iron) produces nearly all of the heat required to "burn" through the workpiece.
Oxygen is usually produced elsewhere by distillation of liquefied air and shipped to the welding site in high-
pressure vessels (commonly called "tanks" or "cylinders") at a pressure of about 21,000 kPa (3,000 lbf/in² =
200 atmospheres). It is also shipped as a liquid in Dewar type vessels (like a large Thermos jar) to places that
use large amounts of oxygen.
It is also possible to separate oxygen from air by passing the air, under pressure, through a zeolite sieve that
selectively adsorbs the nitrogen and lets the oxygen (and argon) pass. This gives a purity of oxygen of about
93%. This method works well for brazing, but higher-purity oxygen is necessary to produce a clean, slag-
free kerf when cutting.

Types of flame
Main article: Oxidizing and reducing flames
The welder can adjust the oxy-acetylene flame to be carbonizing (aka reducing), neutral, or oxidizing.
Adjustment is made by adding more or less oxygen to the acetylene flame. The neutral flame is the flame
most generally used when welding or cutting. The welder uses the neutral flame as the starting point for all
other flame adjustments because it is so easily defined. This flame is attained when welders, as they slowly
open the oxygen valve on the torch body, first see only two flame zones. At that point, the acetylene is being
completely burned in the welding oxygen and surrounding air. [5] The flame is chemically neutral. The two
parts of this flame are the light blue inner cone and the darker blue to colorless outer cone. The inner cone is
where the acetylene and the oxygen combine. The tip of this inner cone is the hottest part of the flame. It is
approximately 6,000 °F (3,300 °C) and provides enough heat to easily melt steel. [5] In the inner cone the
acetylene breaks down and partly burns to hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which in the outer cone combine
with more oxygen from the surrounding air and burn.
An excess of acetylene creates a carbonizing flame. This flame is characterized by three flame zones; the hot
inner cone, a white-hot "acetylene feather", and the blue-colored outer cone. This is the type of flame
observed when oxygen is first added to the burning acetylene. The feather is adjusted and made ever smaller
by adding increasing amounts of oxygen to the flame. A welding feather is measured as 2X or 3X, with X
being the length of the inner flame cone. The unburned carbon insulates the flame and drops the temperature
to approximately 5,000 °F (2,800 °C). The reducing flame is typically used for hard facing operations or
backhand pipe welding techniques. The feather is caused by incomplete combustion of the acetylene to cause
an excess of carbon in the flame. Some of this carbon is dissolved by the molten metal to carbonize it. The
carbonizing flame will tend to remove the oxygen from iron oxides which may be present, a fact which has
caused the flame to be known as a "reducing flame".[5]
The oxidizing flame is the third possible flame adjustment. It occurs when the ratio of oxygen to acetylene
required for a neutral flame has been changed to give an excess of oxygen. This flame type is observed when
welders add more oxygen to the neutral flame. This flame is hotter than the other two flames because the
combustible gases will not have to search so far to find the necessary amount of oxygen, nor heat up as much
thermally inert carbon.[5] It is called an oxidizing flame because of its effect on metal. This flame adjustment
is generally not preferred. The oxidizing flame creates undesirable oxides to the structural and mechanical
detriment of most metals. In an oxidizing flame, the inner cone acquires a purplish tinge, gets pinched and
smaller at the tip, and the sound of the flame gets harsh. A slightly oxidizing flame is used in braze-welding
and bronze-surfacing while a more strongly oxidizing flame is used in fusion welding certain brasses and
bronzes[5]
The size of the flame can be adjusted to a limited extent by the valves on the torch and by the regulator
settings, but in the main it depends on the size of the orifice in the tip. In fact, the tip should be chosen first
according to the job at hand, and then the regulators set accordingly.
Welding
The flame is applied to the base metal and held until a small puddle of molten metal is formed. The puddle is
moved along the path where the weld bead is desired. Usually, more metal is added to the puddle as it is
moved along by dipping metal from a welding rod or filler rod into the molten metal puddle. The metal
puddle will travel towards where the metal is the hottest. This is accomplished through torch manipulation by
the welder.
The amount of heat applied to the metal is a function of the welding tip size, the speed of travel, and the
welding position. The flame size is determined by the welding tip size. The proper tip size is determined by
the metal thickness and the joint design.
Welding gas pressures using oxy-acetylene are set in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.
The welder will modify the speed of welding travel to maintain a uniform bead width. Uniformity is a quality
attribute indicating good workmanship. Trained welders are taught to keep the bead the same size at the
beginning of the weld as at the end. If the bead gets too wide, the welder increases the speed of welding
travel. If the bead gets too narrow or if the weld puddle is lost, the welder slows down the speed of travel.
Welding in the vertical or overhead positions is typically slower than welding in the flat or horizontal
positions.
The welder must add the filler rod to the molten puddle. The welder must also keep the filler metal in the hot
outer flame zone when not adding it to the puddle to protect filler metal from oxidation. Do not let the
welding flame burn off the filler metal. The metal will not wet into the base metal and will look like a series
of cold dots on the base metal. There is very little strength in a cold weld. When the filler metal is properly
added to the molten puddle, the resulting weld will be stronger than the original base metal.
Welding lead or 'lead burning' was much more common in the 19th century to make some pipe connections
and tanks. Great skill is required but can be quickly learned. [13] In building construction today some
lead flashing is welded but soldered copper flashing is much more common in America. In the automotive
body collision industry before the 1980s, oxyacetylene gas torch welding was seldom used to weld sheet
metal, since warpage was a byproduct besides the excess heat. Automotive body repair methods at the time
were crude and yielded improprieties until MIG welding became the industry standard. Since the 1970s,
when high strength steel became the standard for automotive manufacturing, electric welding became the
preferred method. After the 1980s, the oxyacetylene torch fell out of use for sheet metal welding in the
industrialized world.
Cutting
For cutting, the setup is a little different. A cutting torch has a 60- or 90-degree angled head with orifices
placed around a central jet. The outer jets are for preheat flames of oxygen and acetylene. The central jet
carries only oxygen for cutting. The use of several preheating flames rather than a single flame makes it
possible to change the direction of the cut as desired without changing the position of the nozzle or the angle
which the torch makes with the direction of the cut, as well as giving a better preheat balance.
[5]
 Manufacturers have developed custom tips for Mapp, propane, and polypropylene gases to optimize the
flames from these alternate fuel gases.
The flame is not intended to melt the metal, but to bring it to its ignition temperature.
The torch's trigger blows extra oxygen at higher pressures down the torch's third tube out of the central jet
into the workpiece, causing the metal to burn and blowing the resulting molten oxide through to the other
side. The ideal kerf is a narrow gap with a sharp edge on either side of the workpiece; overheating the
workpiece and thus melting through it causes a rounded edge.

Oxygen Rich Butane Torch Flame

Fuel Rich Butane Torch Flame

Cutting a rail just before renewing the rails and the ballast.
Cutting is initiated by heating the edge or leading face (as in cutting shapes such as round rod) of the steel to
the ignition temperature (approximately bright cherry red heat) using the pre-heat jets only, then using the
separate cutting oxygen valve to release the oxygen from the central jet.[5] The oxygen chemically combines
with the iron in the ferrous material to oxidize the iron quickly into molten iron oxide, producing the cut.
Initiating a cut in the middle of a workpiece is known as piercing.
It is worth noting several things at this point:

 The oxygen flowrate is critical; too little will make a slow ragged cut, while too much will waste
oxygen and produce a wide concave cut. Oxygen lances and other custom made torches do not have a
separate pressure control for the cutting oxygen, so the cutting oxygen pressure must be controlled using
the oxygen regulator. The oxygen cutting pressure should match the cutting tip oxygen orifice. Consult
the tip manufacturer's equipment data for the proper cutting oxygen pressures for the specific cutting tip.
[5]
 The oxidation of iron by this method is highly exothermic. Once it has started, steel can be cut at a
surprising rate, far faster than if it were merely melted through. At this point, the pre-heat jets are there
purely for assistance. The rise in temperature will be obvious by the intense glare from the ejected
material, even through proper goggles. (A thermic lance is a tool that also uses rapid oxidation of iron
to cut through almost any material.)
 Since the melted metal flows out of the workpiece, there must be room on the opposite side of the
workpiece for the spray to exit. When possible, pieces of metal are cut on a grate that lets the melted
metal fall freely to the ground. The same equipment can be used for oxyacetylene blowtorches and
welding torches, by exchanging the part of the torch in front of the torch valves.
For a basic oxy-acetylene rig, the cutting speed in light steel section will usually be nearly twice as fast as
a petrol-driven cut-off grinder. The advantages when cutting large sections are obvious: an oxy-fuel torch is
light, small and quiet and needs very little effort to use, whereas a cut-off grinder is heavy and noisy and
needs considerable operator exertion and may vibrate severely, leading to stiff hands and possible long-
term vibration white finger. Oxy-acetylene torches can easily cut through ferrous materials in excess of
200 mm (8 inches). Oxygen lances are used in scrapping operations and cut sections thicker than 200 mm
(8 inches). Cut-off grinders are useless for these kinds of application.
Robotic oxy-fuel cutters sometimes use a high-speed divergent nozzle. This uses an oxygen jet that opens
slightly along its passage. This allows the compressed oxygen to expand as it leaves, forming a high-velocity
jet that spreads less than a parallel-bore nozzle, allowing a cleaner cut. These are not used for cutting by hand
since they need very accurate positioning above the work. Their ability to produce almost any shape from
large steel plates gives them a secure future in shipbuilding and in many other industries.
Oxy-propane torches are usually used for cutting up scrap to save money, as LPG is far cheaper joule for
joule than acetylene, although propane does not produce acetylene's very neat cut profile. Propane also finds
a place in production, for cutting very large sections.
Oxy-acetylene can cut only low- to medium-carbon steels and wrought iron. High-carbon steels are difficult
to cut because the melting point of the slag is closer to the melting point of the parent metal, so that the slag
from the cutting action does not eject as sparks but rather mixes with the clean melt near the cut. This keeps
the oxygen from reaching the clean metal and burning it. In the case of cast iron, graphite between the grains
and the shape of the grains themselves interfere with the cutting action of the torch. Stainless steels cannot be
cut either because the material does not burn readily.[14]

Safety[edit]
Oxygas welding station (keep cylinders and hoses away from the flame)

Gas welding/cutting goggles and safety helmet

Oxyacetylene welding/cutting is not difficult, but there are a good number of subtle safety points that should
be learned such as:

 More than 1/7 the capacity of the cylinder should not be used per hour. This causes the acetone inside
the acetylene cylinder to come out of the cylinder and contaminate the hose and possibly the torch.
 Acetylene is dangerous above 1 atm (15 psi) pressure. It is unstable and explosively decomposes.
 Proper ventilation when welding will help to avoid large chemical exposure.
The importance of eye protection
Proper protection such as welding goggles should be worn at all times, including to protect the eyes against
glare and flying sparks. Special safety eyewear must be used—both to protect the welder and to provide a
clear view through the yellow-orange flare given off by the incandescing flux. In the 1940s cobalt melters’
glasses were borrowed from steel foundries and were still available until the 1980s. However, the lack of
protection from impact, ultra-violet, infrared and blue light caused severe eyestrain and eye
damage. Didymium eyewear, developed for glassblowers in the 1960s, was also borrowed—until many
complained of eye problems from excessive infrared, blue light, and insufficient shading. Today very good
eye protection can be found designed especially for gas-welding aluminum that cuts the sodium orange flare
completely and provides the necessary protection from ultraviolet, infrared, blue light and impact, according
to ANSI Z87-1989 safety standards for a Special Purpose Lens.[15]
Fuel leakage
Fuel gases that are denser than air (Propane, Propylene, MAPP, Butane, etc...), may collect in low areas if
allowed to escape. To avoid an ignition hazard, special care should be taken when using these gases over
areas such as basements, sinks, storm drains, etc. In addition, leaking fittings may catch fire during use and
pose a risk to personnel as well as property.
Safety with cylinders
When using fuel and oxygen tanks they should be fastened securely upright to a wall or a post or a portable
cart. An oxygen tank is especially dangerous for the reason that the oxygen is at a pressure of 21 MPa
(3000 lbf/in² = 200 atmospheres) when full, and if the tank falls over and its valve strikes something and is
knocked off, the tank will effectively become an extremely deadly flying missile propelled by the
compressed oxygen, capable of even breaking through a brick wall. [16] For this reason, never move an oxygen
tank around without its valve cap screwed in place.
On an oxyacetylene torch system there will be three types of valves, the tank valve, the regulator valve, and
the torch valve. There will be a set of these three valves for each gas. The gas in the tanks or cylinders is at
high pressure. Oxygen cylinders are generally filled to approximately 2200 psi. The regulator converts the
high pressure gas to a low pressure stream suitable for welding. Acetylene cylinders must be maintained in
an upright position to prevent the internal acetone and acetylene from separating in the filler material.[17]
Chemical exposure
A less obvious hazard of welding is exposure to harmful chemicals. Exposure to certain metals, metal oxides,
or carbon monoxide can often lead to severe medical conditions. Damaging chemicals can be produced from
the fuel, from the work-piece, or from a protective coating on the work-piece. By increasing ventilation
around the welding environment, the welders will have much less exposure to harmful chemicals from any
source.
The most common fuel used in welding is acetylene, which has a two-stage reaction. The primary chemical
reaction involves the acetylene disassociating in the presence of oxygen to produce heat, carbon monoxide,
and hydrogen gas: C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2. A secondary reaction follows where the carbon monoxide and
hydrogen combine with more oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. When the secondary
reaction does not burn all of the reactants from the primary reaction, the welding process can produce large
amounts of carbon monoxide, and it often does. Carbon monoxide is also the byproduct of many other
incomplete fuel reactions.
Almost every piece of metal is an alloy of one type or another. Copper, aluminium, and other base metals are
occasionally alloyed with beryllium, which is a highly toxic metal. When a metal like this is welded or cut,
high concentrations of toxic beryllium fumes are released. Long-term exposure to beryllium may result in
shortness of breath, chronic cough, and significant weight loss, accompanied by fatigue and general
weakness. Other alloying elements such as arsenic, manganese, silver, and aluminium can cause sickness to
those who are exposed.
More common are the anti-rust coatings on many manufactured metal components. Zinc, cadmium,
and fluorides are often used to protect irons and steels from oxidizing. Galvanized metals have a very heavy
zinc coating. Exposure to zinc oxide fumes can lead to a sickness named "metal fume fever". This condition
rarely lasts longer than 24 hours, but severe cases can be fatal. [18] Not unlike common influenza, fevers,
chills, nausea, cough, and fatigue are common effects of high zinc oxide exposure.
Flashback
Flashback is the condition of the flame propagating down the hoses of an oxy-fuel welding and cutting
system. To prevent such a situation a flashback arrestor is usually employed.[19] The flame burns backwards
into the hose, causing a popping or squealing noise. It can cause an explosion in the hose with the potential
to injure or kill the operator. Using a lower pressure than recommended can cause a flashback.

Low Pressure and High Pressure Gas Welding

his article will help you to make comparison between low pressure and high pressure gas welding.

Comparison # Low Pressure Gas Welding:

1. Pressure of Acetylene:
The pressure of acetylene used is low i.e., below atmospheric (0.1 bar).

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2. Design of Welding Torch/ Blow Pipe:

A specially designed injector type blow pipe/torch is used.

3. Process of Acetylene Production:

This process uses acetylene which is produced on the spot with the help of acetylene generator by reaction of
calcium carbide and water.

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4. Equipments Used:
The low pressure gas welding plant consists of acetylene generator and its mechanism, storage chamber and
its mechanism, seals, hydraulic back pressure valve, Oxygen cylinder, pressure regulator, piping, low
pressure torch, injector type pipe, etc.

5. Purity of Acetylene:
The acetylene produced by generator is not pure and hence requires a purifier before being used.

6. Labour:
Additional labour is required to charge calcium carbide and water in hopper of the acetylene generator.
Cleaning of carbide sludge is also needed.

7. Pressure Fluctuation:
This process has disadvantage of pressure fluctuation of acetylene. This results in unsteady gas flame.

8. Cost of Production:
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The cost of production of acetylene is low and hence this process is suitable where large amount of acetylene
is required.

9. Portability of Plant:
Low pressure gas welding plant is not portable, as the number of equipment’s used are more.

10. Application and Uses:

The low pressure gas welding is used in production units, where the requirement of acetylene is in large
quantity.

Comparison # High Pressure Gas Welding:

1. Pressure of Acetylene:
The pressure of acetylene used is high i.e., above atmospheric (max. up to 2 bar).

2. Design of Welding Torch/ Blow Pipe:

A high pressure blow pipe/ torch is used.

3. Process of Acetylene Production:

This process uses acetylene gas which is already filled in commercially available cylinder.

4. Equipments Used:
The high pressure gas welding plant consists of oxygen and acetylene cylinders, pressure regulators, piping,
high pressure torch, etc.

5. Purity of Acetylene:
The acetylene obtained from cylinder is pure.

6. Labour:
There is no additional labour is required as the acetylene gas is available in cylinder.

7. Pressure Fluctuation:
A constant acetylene pressure is available from the cylinder.

8. Cost of Production:
Acetylene gas obtained from commercial cylinders is costly.

9. Portability of Plant:
High pressure gas welding plant is obviously portable.

10. Application and Uses:

The high pressure gas welding is most commonly used method. It is used in engineering and maintenance
work.

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW)
Resistance spot welding (RSW)[1] is a process in which contacting metal surface points are joined by the heat
obtained from resistance to electric current. It is a subset of electric resistance welding.
Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to
3 mm (0.020 to 0.118 in) thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to
concentrate welding current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a
large current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot welding is
that a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately 10–100 milliseconds).
[2]
 That permits the welding to occur without excessive heating of the remainder of the sheet.
The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the electrodes and
the magnitude and duration of the current.[3] The amount of energy is chosen to match the sheet's material
properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little energy will not melt the metal or will
make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt too much metal, eject molten material, and make a
hole rather than a weld.[4] Another feature of spot welding is that the energy delivered to the spot can be
controlled to produce reliable welds.
Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this process, the weld is localized by means of raised
sections, or projections, on one or both of the workpieces to be joined. Heat is concentrated at the
projections, which permits the welding of heavier sections or the closer spacing of welds. The projections
can also serve as a means of positioning the workpieces. Projection welding is often used to weld studs, nuts,
and other threaded machine parts to metal plate. It is also frequently used to join crossed wires and bars. This
is another high-production process, and multiple projection welds can be arranged by suitable designing and
jigging

Applications
Spot welding is typically used when welding particular types of sheet metal, welded wire mesh or wire mesh.
Thicker stock is more difficult to spot weld because the heat flows into the surrounding metal more easily.
Spot welding can be easily identified on many sheet metal goods, such as metal buckets. Aluminium
alloys can be spot welded, but their much higher thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity requires
higher welding currents. This requires larger, more powerful, and more expensive welding transformers.
BMW plant in Leipzig, Germany: Spot welding of BMW 3 series car bodies with KUKA industrial robots.
Perhaps the most common application of spot welding is in the automobile manufacturing industry, where it
is used almost universally to weld the sheet metal to form a car. Spot welders can also be completely
automated, and many of the industrial robots found on assembly lines are spot welders (the other major use
for robots being painting).
Spot welding is also used in the orthodontist's clinic, where small-scale spot welding equipment is used when
resizing metal "molar bands" used in orthodontics.
Another application is spot welding straps to nickel–cadmium, nickel–metal hydride or Lithium-ion
battery cells to make batteries. The cells are joined by spot welding thin nickel straps to the battery terminals.
Spot welding can keep the battery from getting too hot, as might happen if conventional soldering were done.
Good design practice must always allow for adequate accessibility. Connecting surfaces should be free of
contaminants such as scale, oil, and dirt, to ensure quality welds. Metal thickness is generally not a factor in
determining good welds.

Processing and Equipment

Spot welding involves three stages; the first of which involves the electrodes being brought to the surface of
the metal and applying a slight amount of pressure. The current from the electrodes is then applied briefly
after which the current is removed but the electrodes remain in place for the material to cool. Weld times
range from 0.01 sec to 0.63 sec depending on the thickness of the metal, the electrode force and the diameter
of the electrodes themselves.[citation needed]
The equipment used in the spot welding process consists of tool holders and electrodes. The tool holders
function as a mechanism to hold the electrodes firmly in place and also support optional water hoses that
cool the electrodes during welding. Tool holding methods include a paddle-type, light duty, universal, and
regular offset. The electrodes generally are made of a low resistance alloy, usually copper, and are designed
in many different shapes and sizes depending on the application needed.
The two materials being welded together are known as the workpieces and must conduct electricity. The
width of the workpieces is limited by the throat length of the welding apparatus and ranges typically from 5
to 50 inches (13 to 130 cm). Workpiece thickness can range from 0.008 to 1.25 inches (0.20 to 32 mm).[6]
After the current is removed from the workpiece, it is cooled via the coolant holes in the center of the
electrodes. Both water and a brine solution may be used as coolants in spot welding mechanisms.

Tool Styles
In the case of resistance spot welding, there are two main parts of the tooling system, the features of which
fundamentally influence the whole process: the gun and its type, and the size and shape of the electrode. In
such application, where the gun layout should be as rigid as possible due to the high applying forces (e.g.
welding of thick materials), the C-type gun is widely used. As well as the high resulting rigidity, this
arrangement leads to a high tooling flexibiliy, as the motion of the electrodes is collinear. Unlike the C-type,
the so-called X-type arrangement provides less rigidity, although the reachable workspace is far larger than
with the C-type, thus this layout is very common, where thin and flat objects are being processed (e.g.
manufacturing of floor pan or roof panel). However, it offers less flexibility in terms of tooling, because the
paths of the moving electrodes are not collinear (like the tips of a scissor), so a dome-shaped electrode tip
should be used.
Electrodes used in spot welding can vary greatly with different applications. Each tool style has a different
purpose. Radius style electrodes are used for high heat applications, electrodes with a truncated tip for high
pressure, eccentric electrodes for welding corners, offset eccentric tips for reaching into corners and small
spaces, and finally offset truncated for reaching into the workpiece itself.

Effects
The spot welding process tends to harden the material, causing it to warp. This reduces the material's fatigue
strength, and may stretch the material as well as anneal it. The physical effects of spot welding include
internal cracking, surface cracks and a bad appearance. The chemical properties affected include the metal's
internal resistance and its corrosive properties.

Electrical notes
The basic spot welder consists of a power supply, an energy storage unit (e.g., a capacitor bank), a switch, a
welding transformer, and the welding electrodes. The energy storage element allows the welder to deliver
high instantaneous power levels. If the power demands are not high, then the energy storage element isn't
needed. The switch causes the stored energy to be dumped into the welding transformer. The welding
transformer steps down the voltage and steps up the current. An important feature of the transformer is it
reduces the current level that the switch must handle. The welding electrodes are part of the transformer's
secondary circuit. There is also a control box that manages the switch and may monitor the welding electrode
voltage or current.
The resistance presented to the welder is complicated. [7] There is the resistance of secondary winding, the
cables, and the welding electrodes. There is also the contact resistance between the welding electrodes and
the workpiece. There is the resistance of the workpieces, and the contact resistance between the workpieces.
At the beginning of the weld, the contact resistances are usually high, so most of the initial energy will be
dissipated there. That heat and the clamping force will soften and smooth out the material at the electrode-
material interface and make better contact (that is, lower the contact resistance). Consequently, more
electrical energy will go into the workpiece and the junction resistance of the two workpieces. As electrical
energy is delivered to the weld and causes the temperature to rise, the electrodes and the workpiece are
conducting that heat away. The goal is to apply enough energy so that a portion of material within the spot
melts without having the entire spot melt. The perimeter of the spot will conduct away a lot of heat and keep
the perimeter at a lower temperature. The interior of the spot has less heat conducted away, so it melts first.
If the welding current is applied too long, the entire spot melts, the material runs out or otherwise fails, and
the "weld" becomes a hole.
The voltage needed for welding depends on the resistance of the material to be welded, the sheet thickness
and desired size of the nugget. When welding a common combination like 1.0 + 1.0 mm sheet steel, the
voltage between the electrodes is only about 1.5 V at the start of the weld but can fall as low as 1 V at the
end of the weld. This decrease in voltage results from the reduction in resistance caused by the workpiece
melting. The open circuit voltage from the transformer is higher than this, typically in the 5 to 22 volt range.
[8]

The resistance of the weld spot changes as it flows and liquefies. Modern welding equipment can monitor
and adjust the weld in real-time to ensure a consistent weld. The equipment may seek to control different
variables during the weld, such as current, voltage, power, or energy.
Welder sizes range from 5 to 500 kVA.[9] Micro spot welders, used in a variety of industries, can go down to
1.5 kVA or less for precision welding needs.
Physics
Clamping
Welding times are often very short, which can cause problems with the electrodes—they cannot move fast
enough to keep the material clamped. Welding controllers will use a double pulse to get around this problem.
During the first pulse, the electrode contact may not be able to make a good weld. The first pulse will soften
the metal. During the pause between the two pulses, the electrodes will come closer and make better contact.
Fields
During spot welding, the large electric current induces a large magnetic field, and the electric current and
magnetic field interact with each other to produce a large magnetic force field too, which drives the melted
metal to move very fast at a velocity up to 0.5 m/s. As such, the heat energy distribution in spot welding
could be dramatically changed by the fast motion of the melted metal. [10][11][12] The fast motion in spot
welding can be observed with high speed photography.[13]

Safety
It is common for a spray of molten metal droplets (sparks) to be ejected from the area of the weld during the
process.
Although spot welding does not generate UV light as intensely as arc welding, eye protection is nevertheless
required. Welding goggles with a 5.0 shade are recommended.[14]

Seam welding
"Seam welding" redirects here. For the geometrical welding configuration, see welding joint.
Resistance seam welding is a process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of two similar metals. The
seam may be a butt joint or an overlap joint and is usually an automated process. It differs from flash
welding in that flash welding typically welds the entire joint at once and seam welding forms the weld
progressively, starting at one end. Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes, usually made
from copper, to apply pressure and current. The electrodes are often disc shaped and rotate as the material
passes between them. This allows the electrodes to stay in constant contact with the material to make long
continuous welds. The electrodes may also move or assist the movement of the material.
A transformer supplies energy to the weld joint in the form of low voltage, high current AC power. The joint
of the work piece has high electrical resistance relative to the rest of the circuit and is heated to its melting
point by the current. The semi-molten surfaces are pressed together by the welding pressure that creates a
fusion bond, resulting in a uniformly welded structure. Most seam welders use water cooling through the
electrode, transformer and controller assemblies due to the heat generated.
Seam welding produces an extremely durable weld because the joint is forged due to the heat and pressure
applied. A properly welded joint formed by resistance welding can easily be stronger than the material from
which it is formed.
A common use of seam welding is during the manufacture of round or rectangular steel tubing. Seam
welding has been used to manufacture steel beverage cans but is no longer used for this as modern beverage
cans are seamless aluminum.
There are two modes for seam welding: Intermittent and continuous. In intermittent seam welding, the
wheels advance to the desired position and stop to make each weld. This process continues until the desired
length of the weld is reached. In continuous seam welding, the wheels continue to roll as each weld is made.
Low-frequency Electric resistance welding
Low-frequency electric resistance welding, LF-ERW, is an obsolete method of welding seams in oil and gas
pipelines. It was phased out in the 1970s but as of 2015 some pipelines built with this method remained in
service.[3]
Electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe is manufactured by cold-forming a sheet of steel into a cylindrical
shape. Current is then passed between the two edges of the steel to heat the steel to a point at which the edges
are forced together to form a bond without the use of welding filler material. Initially this manufacturing
process used low frequency A.C. current to heat the edges. This low frequency process was used from the
1920s until 1970. In 1970, the low frequency process was superseded by a high frequency ERW process
which produced a higher quality weld.
Over time, the welds of low frequency ERW pipe was found to be susceptible to selective seam corrosion,
hook cracks, and inadequate bonding of the seams, so low frequency ERW is no longer used to manufacture
pipe. The high frequency process is still being used to manufacture pipe for use in new pipeline construction.
[4]

Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW) Working Principles 

The Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW) is very much similar to the Spot Welding (RSW) but here circular
rotating electrodes are used. And here we get continuous weld which is air-tight (If the process is perfect). 
The seam-welding form of the resistance process is a series of overlapping welds. Two or more sheets of
base metal are usually passed between electroderollers, as shown in following Figure, which transmit the
current and also the mechanical pressure required for producing a welded seam which is normally gas-tight
or liquid-tight. 

Please see the steps involved in RSEW 

Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW) Advantages and Disadvantages 
Advantages 
o Gas tight as well as liquid tight joints can be made. 
o The Overlap is less than spot or projection welding. 
o The production of single seam weld and parallel seams can be got simultaneously. 

Disadvantages 
o The welding process is restricted to a straight line or uniformlycurved line. 
o The metals sheets having thickness more than 3mm can cause problems while welding. 
o The design of the electrodes may be needed to change to weld metal sheets having
obstructions. 

Applications of RSEW  
o Girth weld is possible in rectangular or square or even in circular shapes. 
o Most of the metals can be welded (Except copper and some high percentage copperalloys)
o Butt welding can be done.

Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this process, the weld is localized by means of raised
sections, or projections, on one or both of the workpieces to be joined. Heat is concentrated at
the projections, which permits thewelding of heavier sections or the closer spacing ofwelds.

Projection welding has fewer variables that affect the resistance welding process as compared to spot
welding. The most important variables of this assembly technique are the quality of the projections and the
response of the cylinder as the projection collapses during the welding time.
Quality of Projections
If the cross section of metal in the projection is fractured, the heat build up will
form more rapidly in the stretched material then at the workpiece interface area.
This will result in the projection collapsing before fusion takes place. When the
projection is totally collapsed, further growth of a weld nugget will be impossible
since the large surface of the copper electrodes will diffuse current density when the
Lawrence Alexander &
electrodes make full contact to the workpiece.
Co.
Response of Cylinder Follow Through
When the projection is collapsing, it is imperative that the electrode force be maintained otherwise massive
expulsion will occur. This expulsion is none other than the projection material that needs to be fused to the
workpiece. The cylinder is responsible for follow through.
Benefits of Projection Welding Techniques 

Projection welding is very easy to maintain if the fundamentals are taken into consideration in the first
place. Steel wire shopping carts, wire racks, and other crosswire products are all projection welding. Nuts
and bolts are often assemble to other metal parts by projection welding. If you want to produce a part with
very little heat surface marks on one side of the panel, then processing a projection on the alternate part and
using large electrodes contoured to the finished part would facilitate the goal. 
Good cylinder response that follows through the collapse of the projections on this weld nut produces very
little expulsion and assures good weld quality
Projections (low thermal mass islands) are one method of insuring proper heat balance in difficult spot
welding applications when there exists a 5:1 size difference between the parts to be welded.  By providing a
projection on the surface of one of the workpieces, weld current and force can be focused into the small area
of the projection to produce heat at the desired weld location. Projection welding can extend electrode life by
increasing the electrode contact area and decreasing the current density at the surface of the electrode.
Projection welding is effective even if the weldments are thick.  For more information regarding designing
projections, see our blogs 'Projection Welding: Balance Heat and Extend Electrode Life' and 'Designing Ring
Projections for Hermetic Sealing.'

Flash welding is a type of resistance welding that does not use any filler metals. The pieces of metal to be
welded are set apart at a predetermined distance based on material thickness, material composition, and
desired properties of the finished weld. Current is applied to the metal, and the gap between the two pieces
creates resistance and produces the arc required to melt the metal. Once the pieces of metal reach the proper
temperature, they are pressed together, effectively forge welding them together.[1]

Parameters
According to a study published in Materials and Design, several parameters affect the final product. Flash
time is the time that the arc is present. Upset time is the amount of time that the two pieces are pressed
together. Flash time needs to be long enough to sufficiently heat the metal before it is pressed together.
However, if it is too long, too much of the base metal begins to melt away. The upset time is critical in
creating the desired mechanical properties of the finished weld. During the upset, any impurities in the base
metal are pressed out creating a perfect weld. If the upset time is too short, all of the impurities may not be
pushed out of the base metal creating a defective weld. The upset time is also crucial in the strength of the
finished weld because it is during the upset that coalescence occurs between the two pieces of metal. If the
upset time is too short, the two pieces of metal may not completely bond.[1]
Very often flash butt welding is controlled by distance rather than time such that the flashing would occur for
a pre-determined length, say 5 mm, before the upsetting cycle starts. Upsetting may then also be controlled
by distance. A parameter would be set to apply the upsetting force until a certain distance has been upset. It
is generally the upsetting distance that is more important than the upsetting time.
At the end of upsetting there is commonly a 'hold time' during which the joint is held still to allow the joint to
cool and the two pieces of metal to completely bond.

Applications
According to the Journal of Materials Processing, the railroad industry uses flash welding to join sections of
mainline rail together to create continuous welded rail (CWR), which is much smoother than mechanically-
joined rail because there are no gaps between the sections of rail. This smoother rail reduces the wear on the
rails themselves, effectively reducing the frequency of inspections and maintenance. [2] Continuous welded
rail is particularly used on high-speed rail lines because of the smoothness of the rail head. A study published
in Materials Science and Design proved that flash welding is also beneficial in the railroad industry because
it allows dissimilar metals, including non ferrous metals, to be joined. This allows switches and crossings,
which are generally composed of high manganese steel, to be effectively welded to carbon steel rail with the
use of a stainless steelinsert, while keeping the desired mechanical properties of both the rails and the
crossings intact.[3] The ability of this single process to weld many different metals, with simple parameter
adjustments, makes it very versatile. Materials and Design also discusses the use of flash welding in
the metal building industry to increase the length of the angle ironused to fabricate joists.[1]
The aluminum industry uses flash welding to join aluminum, steel, and copper in various current-carrying
conductors called busbars. The steel is used for strength, the copper is used for conductivity, and the
aluminum is used for its combination of cost and conductivity.[4]

Upset welding (UW)/resistance butt welding is a welding technique that produces coalescence

simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces or progressively along a joint, by the heat obtained
from resistance to electric current through the area where those surfaces are in contact. [1] . Pressure is applied
before heating is started and is maintained throughout the heating period. The equipment used for upset
welding is very similar to that used for flash welding. It can be used only if the parts to be welded are equal
in cross-sectional area. The abutting surfaces must be very carefully prepared to provide for proper heating.
The difference from flash welding is that the parts are clamped in the welding machine and force is applied
bringing them tightly together. High-amperage current is then passed through the joint, which heats the
abutting surfaces. When they have been heated to a suitable forging temperature an upsetting force is applied
and the current is stopped. The high temperature of the work at the abutting surfaces plus the high pressure
causes coalescence to take place. After cooling, the force is released and the weld is completed.

COEXTRUSION WELDING (CEW) is a solid-state process that produces a weld by heating two or more
workpieces to the welding temperature and forcing them through an extrusion die. The process typically is
conducted at elevated temperatures not only to improve welding but also to lower extrusion pressures. Some
cold coextrusion welding of aluminum and copper has been performed. For hot coextrusion, the parts to be
welded are often assembled in a can or retort that is designed with the appropriate leading taper and wall
thickness to promote initiation of extrusion. For reactive metals, such as zirconium, titanium, and tantalum,
the retort may be evacuated and sealed. Both forward and back coextrusion have been employed, but forward
coextrusion is the usual mode. A principal advantage of coextrusion welding is that the high isostatic
pressures associated with the process are favorable to the deformation welding of low-ductility alloys. In a
similar process, extrusion welding has been used to butt weld tubes. The ends of the tubes are prepared for
extrusion by beveling at a 45 to 60° angle to produce an overlapping joint ( Fig.). The leading tube contains
the female portion of the beveled joint and is the stronger of the two metals in dissimilar metal joints.
Extrusion press die angles of 30 to 35° are common. An advantage of extrusion welding over other methods
of deformation butt welding of tubes is that there is no flash or upset to remove following extrusion.
After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Process of Cold Pressure Welding 2. Cold Welding
Equipments 3. Application and Uses 4. Advantages 5. Disadvantages.
Process of Cold Pressure Welding:
Cold state welding is a solid-state pressure welding process Fig. 7.34. A microscopic view in which external
pressure is applied at room temperature to cause substantial of two mating surfaces, deformation and welding
gets completed. Cold-pressure welding has an absence of heat (additionally applied) and flux. At least one of
the metals to be joined must be highly ductile, for satisfactory cold-welding.
The surfaces to be weld must be cleaned with a wire brush to remove the oxide-film and must be carefully
degreased before welding. Cold-Pressure Welding of Sheets
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The two metal sheets are brought into overlapping contact and a special tool (punch) is used to produce
localized plastic deformation, which results in coalescence between the two parts. The process in shown in
Fig. 7.35 (a). This process is usually followed by annealing of the welded joint and is a replacement of
riveting.

Cold-pressure welding of wires is performed by means of a special purpose machine. Fig. 7.35 (b) illustrates
the steps involved in this process. As can be seen, the ends of wires are clamped and pressed repeatedly
against each other in order to ensure adequate plastic deformation. The excess upset metal is then trimmed
by the sharp edges of the gripping jaws.

Cold Welding Equipments:

The cold-welding machine has following components:
(i) Punch presses.

(ii) Punch tool or die.

(iii) Rollers (as in rolling).

(iv) Static load (manual or power).

Tool-dies for cold welding should be such that they cause a controlled deformation in both the plates
uniformly. The pressure applied must be of both the sides of the plates. A deep indentation on the surface of
the work parts is obtained and thickness reduction up to 50% is reached by this process.

Application and Uses of Cold Pressure Welding:

(i) The cold-pressure welding technique is used when welding wires of non-ferrous metals such as
aluminum, copper, or aluminum-copper alloys,

(ii) It is used in assembly of small transistors where heating is not allowed,

(iii) It is used to join wires when they break during operation,

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(iv) It can be used to joint dis-similar metals,

(v) Metals welded by cold welding process are,

(a) Copper and its alloys,

(b) High purity aluminum and its alloys,

(c) Nickel, Zinc and silver, and

(d) Cd and Pd, etc.

Advantages of Cold Pressure Welding:

(i) This process does not involve any heat and flux and hence smooth joint is produced.

(ii) This process is suitable to weld almost all metals from A1 to Cu.

Disadvantages of Cold Pressure Welding:

Cold welding is not suitable for high strength (Fe) metals and alloys as they require greater pressure to
produce deformation.

Diffusion bonding or diffusion welding is a solid-state welding technique used in metalworking, capable of

joining similar and dissimilar metals. It operates on the principle of solid-state diffusion, wherein the atoms
of two solid, metallic surfaces intersperse themselves over time. This is typically accomplished at an elevated
temperature, approximately 50-70% of the absolute melting temperature of the materials. Diffusion bonding
is usually implemented by applying high pressure, in conjunction with necessarily high temperature, to the
materials to be welded; the technique is most commonly used to weld "sandwiches" of alternating layers of
thin metal foil, and metal wires or filaments.[1]Currently, the diffusion bonding method is widely used in the
joining of high-strength and refractory metals within the aerospace and nuclear industries
Characteristics
Diffusion bonding involves no liquid fusion, and often no filler metal. No weight is added to the total, and
the join tends to exhibit both the strength and temperature resistance of the base metal(s). The materials
endure no, or very little, plastic deformation. Very little residual stress is introduced, and there is no
contamination from the bonding process. It may be performed on a join surface of theoretically any size with
no increase in processing time; practically speaking, the surface tends to be limited by the pressure required
and physical limitations. It may be performed with similar and dissimilar metals, reactive and refractory
metals, or pieces of varying thicknesses.
Diffusion bonding is most often used for jobs either difficult or impossible to weld by other means, due to its
relatively high cost. Examples include welding materials normally impossible to join via liquid fusion, such
as zirconium and beryllium; materials with very high melting points such as tungsten; alternating layers of
different metals which must retain strength at high temperatures; and very thin, honeycombed metal foil
structures.[4][5][6]

Processes[edit]

Animation of Diffusion Bonding Process

When joining two materials of similar crystalline structure, diffusion bonding is performed by clamping the
two pieces to be welded with their surfaces abutting each other. Prior to welding, these surfaces must be
machined to as smooth a finish as economically viable, and kept as free from chemical contaminants or other
detritus as possible. Any intervening material between the two metallic surfaces may prevent adequate
diffusion of material. Specific tooling is made for each welding application to mate the welder to the
workpieces.[8] Once clamped, pressure and heat are applied to the components, usually for many hours. The
surfaces are heated either in a furnace, or via electrical resistance. Pressure can be applied using a hydraulic
press at temperature; this method allows for exact measurements of load on the parts. In cases where the
parts must have no temperature gradient, differential thermal expansion can be used to apply load. By
fixturing parts using a low-expansion metal (i.e. Molybdenum) the parts will supply their own load by
expanding more than the fixture metal at temperature. Alternative methods for applying pressure include the
use of dead weights, differential gas pressure between the two surfaces, and high-pressure autoclaves.
Diffusion bonding must be done in a vacuum or inert gas environment when using metals that have strong
oxide layers (i.e. copper). Surface treatment including polishing, etching, and cleaning as well as diffusion
pressure and temperature are important factors regarding the process of diffusion bounding.[4][5][6]
At the microscopic level, diffusion bonding occurs in three simplified stages:

 Before the surfaces completely contact, asperities (very small surface defects) on the two
surfaces contact and plastically deform. As these asperities deform, they interlink,
forming interfaces between the two surfaces.
 Elevated temperature and pressure causes accelerated creep in the materials; grain
boundaries and raw material migrate and gaps between the two surfaces are reduced to
isolated pores.
  Material begins to diffuse across the boundary of the abutting surfaces, blending this
material boundary and creating a bond.

Benefits[edit]

 The bounded surface have the same physical and mechanical properties as the base
material. Once we have finished the jointing, we could also perform the test of the
jointing materials, for example, tensile testing.
 The diffusion bounding process is able to produce a high quality joints in which case no
discontinuity and porosity exists in the interface. [9] In other words, we are able to sand,
manufacturing and heat the material.
 The diffusion bounding is able to help us to build high precision components with
complex shapes. Also, diffusion is flexible.
 The diffusion bounding method can be used wildly, joining either similar or dissimilar
materials, and also important in processing composite materials.
 The process is not extremely hard to approach and the cost to perform the diffusion
bounding is not high.[10]
 The material under diffusion is able to reduce the plastic deformation.

Applicability[edit]

Animation of sheet forming process using diffusion welding

Diffusion bonding is primarily used to create intricate forms for the electronics, aerospace, and nuclear
industries. Since this form of bonding takes a considerable amount of time compared to other joining
techniques such as explosion welding, parts are made in small quantities, and often fabrication is mostly
automated. However, due to different requirements, some of the time interval could be accomplished in few
minutes. In an attempt to reduce fastener count, labor costs, and part count, diffusion bonding, in conjunction
with superplastic forming, is also used when creating complex sheet metal forms. Multiple sheets are stacked
atop one another and bonded in specific sections. The stack is then placed into a mold and gas pressure
expands the sheets to fill the mold. This is often done using titanium or aluminum alloys for parts needed in
the aerospace industry.[11]
Typical materials that are welded include titanium, beryllium, and zirconium. In many military
aircraft diffusion bonding will help to allow for the conservation of expensive strategic materials and the
reduction of manufacturing costs. Some aircraft have over 100 diffusion-bonded parts, including; fuselages,
outboard and inboard actuator fittings, landing geartrunnions, and nacelle frames.

Explosion welding (EXW) is a solid state (solid-phase) process where welding is accomplished by

accelerating one of the components at extremely high velocity through the use of chemical explosives. This
process is most commonly utilized to clad carbon steel plate with a thin layer of corrosion resistant material
(e.g., stainless steel, nickel alloy, titanium, or zirconium). Due to the nature of this process, producible
geometries are very limited. Typical geometries produced include plates, tubing and tube sheets.
Explosion welding 1 Flyer (cladding). 2 Resolidified zone (needs to be minimised for welding of dissimilar
materials). 3 Target (substrate). 4 Explosion. 5 Explosive powder. 6 Plasma jet.

Development
Unlike other forms of welding such as arc welding (which was developed in the late 19th century), explosion
welding was developed relatively recently, in the decades after World War II. Its origins, however, go back
to World War I, when it was observed that pieces of shrapnel sticking to armor plating were not only
embedding themselves, but were actually being welded to the metal. Since the extreme heat involved in other
forms of welding did not play a role, it was concluded that the phenomenon was caused by the explosive
forces acting on the shrapnel. These results were later duplicated in laboratory tests and, not long afterwards,
the process was patented and put to use.

Advantages and disadvantages

Explosion welding can produce a bond between two metals that cannot necessarily be welded by
conventional means. The process does not melt either metal, instead plasticizing the surfaces of both metals,
causing them to come into intimate contact sufficient to create a weld. This is a similar principle to other
non-fusion welding techniques, such as friction welding. Large areas can be bonded extremely quickly and
the weld itself is very clean, due to the fact that the surface material of both metals is violently expelled
during the reaction.
Explosion welding can join a wide array of compatible and non-compatible metals; with more than 260
metal combinations possible.[4]

A disadvantage of this method is that extensive knowledge of explosives is needed before the procedure may
be attempted safely. Regulations for the use of high explosives may require special licensing.

Magnetic pulse welding (MPW) is a solid state welding process that uses magnetic forces to weld two

workpieces together. The welding mechanism is most similar to that of explosion welding.[1] Magnetic pulse
welding started in the early 1970s, when the automotive industrybegan to use solid state welding. The
biggest advantage using magnetic pulse welding is that the formation of brittle intermetallic phases is
avoided. Therefore, dissimilar metals can be welded, which cannot be joined by fusion welding. With
magnetic pulse welding high quality welds in similar and dissimilar metals can be made in microseconds
without the need for shielding gases or welding consumables.
Process

Magnetic pulse welded HVAC pressure vessel

Magnetic pulse welding is based on a very short electromagnetic pulse (<100µs), which is obtained by a fast
discharge of capacitors through low inductance switches into a coil. The pulsed current with a very
high amplitude and frequency (500kA and 15 kHz) produces a high-density magnetic field, which creates
an eddy current in one of the work pieces. Repulsive Lorentz forces are created and a high magnetic pressure
well beyond the material yield strength causing acceleration and one of the work pieces impacts onto the
other part with a collision velocity up to 500 m/s.[2]
During magnetic pulse welding a high plastic deformation is developed along with high shear strain and
oxide disruption thanks to the jet and high temperatures near the collision zone. This leads to solid state weld
due to the microstructure refinement, dislocation cells, slip bends, micro twins and local recrystallization.[3]

Principles[edit]
In order to get a strong weld, several conditions have to be reached:[4]

 Jetting condition: the collision has to be subsonic compared to the local materials speed of sound to
generate a jet.
 High pressure regime: the impact velocity has to be sufficient to obtain a hydrodynamic regime,
otherwise the parts will only be crimped or formed.
 No fusion during the collision: If the pressure is too high, the materials can locally melt and re-
solidify. This can cause a weak weld.
The main difference between magnetic pulse welding and explosive welding is that the collision angle and
the velocity are almost constant during the explosive welding process, while in magnetic pulse welding they
continuously vary.

Advantages of MPW[edit]

 Allows welding of designs which with other processes are challenging or not possible.
 High-speed pulse lasts from 10 to 100 µs, the only time limitation is loading and unloading and
capacitor charge time.
 High repeat
 Suited to mass-production: typically 1-5 million welds per year.
 Dissimilar metals welding is possible.
 Weld with no heat-affected zone.
 No need for filler materials.
 Green process: no smoke, no radiation and no extraction equipment required.
 High quality clean interface.
 Mechanical strength of the joint is stronger than that of the parent material.
 High precision obtainable by adjustment of magnetic field.
 No distortion.
 Almost zero residual stresses.
 No corrosion development in the welding area.

Numerical simulations of MPW[edit]

Various numerical investigations were carried out to predict the interface behavior of the MPW and the in-
flight behavior of the flyer to determine the collision conditions. Generally, the flyer velocity prior to the
impact governs the interfacial phenomena. This is the characteristic parameter that should be known based
on the process and adjustable process parameters. Although, Experimental measurements using laser
velocimetry methods provide an accurate assessment of the flyer velocity, (one example of such
measurement is Photon Doppler velocimetry (PDV)), numerical computation offers a better description of
the flyer velocity in terms of spatial and temporal distribution. Moreover, a multi-physics computation of the
MPW process take into account of the electrical current through the coil and compute the physical behavior
for an electromagnetic-mechanical coupled problem. Sometime, these simulations also allow to include the
thermal effect during the process.[5][6] A 3D example model used for LS-DYNA® simulation is also described
in [7], and it also provides some details of the physical interactions of the process, the governing equations,
the resolution procedure, and both boundary and initial conditions. The model is used to show the capability
of 3D computation to predict the process behavior and particularly, the flyer kinematics and macroscopic
deformation.[8][9]

Forge welding (FOW) is a solid-state welding process[1] that joins two pieces of metal by heating them to a

high temperature and then hammering them together.[2] It may also consist of heating and forcing the metals
together with presses or other means, creating enough pressure to cause plastic deformation at the weld
surfaces.[3] The process is one of the simplest methods of joining metals and has been used since ancient
times. Forge welding is versatile, being able to join a host of similar and dissimilar metals. With the
invention of electrical and gas welding methods during the Industrial Revolution, manual forge-welding has
been largely replaced, although automated forge-welding is a common manufacturing process.
Introduction[edit]
Forge welding is a process of joining metals by heating them beyond a certain threshold and forcing them
together with enough pressure to cause deformation of the weld surfaces, creating a metallic bond between
the atoms of the metals. The pressure required varies, depending on the temperature, strength,
and hardness of the alloy.[4] Forge welding is the oldest welding technique, and has been used since ancient
times.
Welding processes can generally be grouped into two categories: fusion and diffusion welding. Fusion
welding involves localized melting of the metals at the weld interfaces, and is common in electric or gas
welding techniques. This requires temperatures much higher than the melting point of the metal in order to
cause localized melting before the heat can thermally conduct away from the weld, and often a filler metal is
used to keep the weld from segregating. Diffusion welding consists of joining the metals without melting
them, welding the surfaces together while in the solid state. In diffusion welding, the heat source is often
lower than the melting point of the metal, allowing more even heat-distribution thus reducing thermal
stresses at the weld. In this method a filler metal is typically not used, but the weld occurs directly between
the metals at the weld interface. This includes methods such as cold welding, explosion welding, and forge
welding. Unlike other diffusion methods, in forge welding the metals are heated to a high temperature before
forcing them together, usually resulting in greater plasticity at the weld surfaces. This generally makes forge
welding more versatile than cold-diffusion techniques, which are usually performed on soft metals like
copper or aluminum. In forge welding, the entire welding areas are heated evenly. Forge welding can be used
for a much wider range of harder metals and alloys, like steel and titanium.[5]

Materials[edit]
Many metals can be forge welded, with the most common being both high and low-carbon steels. Iron and
even some hypoeutectic cast-irons can be forge welded. Some aluminum alloys can also be forge welded.
[13]
 Metals such as copper, bronze and brass do not forge weld readily. Although it is possible to forge weld
copper-based alloys, it is often with great difficulty due to copper's tendency to absorb oxygen during the
heating.[14] Copper and its alloys are usually better joined with cold welding, explosion welding, or other
pressure-welding techniques. With iron or steel, the presence of even small amounts of copper severely
reduces the alloy's ability to forge weld.[15][16]
Titanium alloys are commonly forge welded. Because of titanium's tendency to absorb oxygen when molten,
the solid-state, diffusion bond of a forge weld is often stronger than a fusion weld in which the metal is
liquefied.[17]
Forge welding between similar materials is caused by solid-state diffusion. This results in a weld that
consists of only the welded materials without any fillers or bridging materials. Forge welding between
dissimilar materials is caused by the formation of a lower melting temperature eutectic between the
materials. Due to this the weld is often stronger than the individual metals.

Processes[edit]

A mechanized trip hammer.
The most well-known and oldest forge-welding process is the manual-hammering method. Manual
hammering is done by heating the metal to the proper temperature, coating with flux, overlapping the weld
surfaces, and then striking the joint repeatedly with a hand-held hammer. The joint is often formed to allow
space for the flux to flow out, by beveling or rounding the surfaces slightly, and hammered in a successively
outward fashion to squeeze the flux out. The hammer blows are typically not as hard as those used for
shaping, preventing the flux from being blasted out of the joint at the first blow.
When mechanical hammers were developed, forge welding could be accomplished by heating the metal, and
then placing it between the mechanized hammer and the anvil. Originally powered by waterwheels, modern
mechanical-hammers can also be operated by compressed air, electricity, steam, gas engines, and many other
ways. Another method is forge welding with a die, whereas the pieces of metal are heated and then forced
into a die which both provides the pressure for the weld and keeps the joint at the finished shape. Roll
welding is another forge welding process, where the heated metals are overlapped and passed through rollers
at high pressures to create the weld.[18][19]
Modern forge-welding is often automated, using computers, machines, and sophisticated hydraulic-presses to
produce a variety of products from a number of various alloys.[20] For example, steel pipe is often forge-
welded during the manufacturing process. Flat stock is heated and fed through specially-shaped rollers that
both form the steel into a tube and simultaneously provide the pressure to weld the edges into a continuous
seam.[21] Diffusion bonding is a common method for forge welding titanium alloys in the aerospace industry.
In this process the metal is heated while in a press or die. Beyond a specific critical-temperature, which
varies depending on the alloy, the impurities burn out and the surfaces are forced together. [22] Other methods
include flash welding and percussion welding. These are resistance forge-welding techniques where the press
or die is electrified, passing high current through the alloy to create the heat for the weld. [23] Shielded active-
gas forge-welding is a process of forge welding in an oxygen-reactive environment, to burn out oxides,
using hydrogen gas and induction heating.[24]
Temperature[edit]
The temperature required to forge weld is typically 50 to 90 percent of the melting temperature. [25] Iron can
be welded when it surpasses the critical temperature (the A4 temperature) where its allotrope changes
from gamma iron (face-centered cubic) to delta iron (body-centered cubic). Since the critical temperatures
are affected by alloying agents like carbon, steel welds at a lower temperature-range than iron. As the carbon
content in the steel increases, the welding temperature-range decreases in a linear fashion. Iron, different
steels, and even cast-iron can be welded to each other, provided that their carbon content is close enough that
the welding ranges overlap. Pure iron can be welded when nearly white hot; between 2,500 °F (1,400 °C)
and 2,700 °F (1,500 °C). Steel with a carbon content of 2.0% can be welded when orangish-yellow, between
1,700 °F (900 °C) and 2,000 °F (1,100 °C). Common steel, between 0.2 and 0.8% carbon, is typically welded
at a bright yellow heat.[26]
A primary requirement for forge welding is that both weld surfaces need to be heated to the same
temperature and welded before they cool too much. When steel reaches the proper temperature, it begins to
weld very readily, so a thin rod or nail heated to the same temperature will tend to stick at first contact,
requiring it to be bent or twisted loose. One of the simplest ways to tell if iron or steel is hot enough is to
stick a magnet to it. When iron crosses the A2 critical temperature, it begins to change into the allotrope
called gamma iron. When this happens, the steel or iron becomes non-magnetic. In steel, the carbon begins to
mix with gamma iron at the A3 temperature, forming a solid solution called austenite. When it crosses the
A4 critical temperature, it changes into delta iron, which is magnetic. Therefore, a blacksmith can tell when
the welding temperature is reached by placing a magnet in contact with the metal. When red or orange-hot, a
magnet will not stick to the metal, but when the welding temperature is crossed, the magnet will again stick
to it. The steel may take on a glossy or wet appearance at the welding temperature. Care must be taken to
avoid overheating the metal to the point that it gives off sparks from rapid oxidation (burning), or else the
weld will be poor and brittle.[27]

Decarburization[edit]
When steel is heated to an austenizing temperature, the carbon begins to diffuse through the iron. The higher
the temperature; the greater the rate of diffusion. At such high temperatures, carbon readily combines with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide, so the carbon can easily diffuse out of the steel and into the surrounding air.
By the end of a blacksmithing job, the steel will be of a lower carbon content than it was prior to heating.
Therefore, most blacksmithing operations are done as quickly as possible to reduce decarburization,
preventing the steel from becoming too soft.
To produce the right amount of hardness in the finished product, the smith generally begins with steel that
has a carbon content that is higher than desired. In ancient times, forging often began with steel that had a
carbon content much too high for normal use. Most ancient forge-welding began with hypereutectoid steel,
containing a carbon content sometimes well above 1.0%. Hypereutectoid steels are typically too brittle to be
useful in a finished product, but by the end of forging the steel typically had a high carbon-content ranging
from 0.8% (eutectoid tool-steel) to 0.5% (hypoeutectoid spring-steel).[28]

Applications[edit]
Forge welding has been used throughout its history for making most any items out of steel and iron. It has
been used in everything from the manufacture of tools, farming implements, and cookware to the
manufacture of fences, gates, and prison cells. In the early Industrial Revolution, it was commonly used in
the manufacture of boilers and pressure vessels, until the introduction of fusion-welding. It was commonly
used through the Middle Ages for producing armor and weapons.
One of the most famous applications of forge welding involves the production of pattern-welded blades.
During this process a smith repeatedly draws out a billet of steel, folds it back and welds it upon itself.
[29]
 Another application was the manufacture of shotgun barrels. Metal wire was spooled onto a mandrel, and
then forged into a barrel that was thin, uniform, and strong. In some cases the forge-welded objects are acid-
etched to expose the underlying pattern of metal, which is unique to each item and provides aesthetic appeal.
Despite its diversity, forge welding had many limitations. A primary limitation was the size of objects that
could be forge welded. Larger objects required a bigger heat source, and size reduced the ability to manually
weld it together before it cooled too much. Welding large items like steel plate or girders was typically not
possible, or at least highly impractical, until the invention of fusion welding, requiring them to be riveted
instead. In some cases, fusion welding produced a much stronger weld, such as in the construction of boilers.

Flux[edit]
Forge welding requires the weld surfaces to be extremely clean or the metal will not join properly, if at all.
Oxides tend to form on the surface while impurities like phosphorus and sulfur tend to migrate to the surface.
Often a flux is used to keep the welding surfaces from oxidizing, which would produce a poor quality weld,
and to extract other impurities from the metal. The flux mixes with the oxides that form and lowers the
melting temperature and the viscosity of the oxides. This enables the oxides to flow out of the joint when the
two pieces are beaten together. A simple flux can be made from borax, sometimes with the addition of
powdered iron-filings.[30]
The oldest flux used for forge welding was fine silica sand. The iron or steel would be heated in a reducing
environment within the coals of the forge. Devoid of oxygen, the metal forms a layer of iron-oxide
called wustite on its surface. When the metal is hot enough, but below the welding temperature, the smith
sprinkles some sand onto the metal. The siliconin the sand reacts with the wustite to form fayalite, which
melts just below the welding temperature. This produced a very effective flux which helped to make a strong
weld.[31]
Early examples of flux used different combinations and various amounts of iron fillings, borax, sal
ammoniac, balsam of copaiba, cyanide of potash, and soda phosphate. The 1920 edition of Scientific
American book of facts and formulae indicates a frequently offered trade secret as using copperas, saltpeter,
common salt, black oxide of manganese, prussiate of potash, and "nice welding sand" (silicate).

Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process that generates heat through

mechanical friction between workpieces in relative motion to one another, with the addition of a lateral force
called "upset" to plastically displace and fuse the materials. Because no melting occurs, friction welding is
not a fusion welding process in the traditional sense, but more of a forge welding technique. Friction welding
is used with metals and thermoplastics in a wide variety of aviation and automotive applications.

Benefits[edit]
The combination of fast joining times (on the order of a few seconds), and direct heat input at the weld
interface, yields relatively small heat-affected zones. Friction welding techniques are generally melt-free,
which mitigates grain growth in engineered materials, such as high-strength heat-treated steels. Another
advantage is that the motion tends to "clean" the surface between the materials being welded, which means
they can be joined with less preparation. During the welding process, depending on the method being used,
small pieces of the plastic or metal will be forced out of the working mass (flash). It is believed that the flash
carries away debris and dirt.[citation needed]
Another advantage of friction welding is that it allows dissimilar materials to be joined. This is particularly
useful in aerospace, where it is used to join lightweight aluminum stock to high-strength steels. Normally the
wide difference in melting points of the two materials would make it impossible to weld using traditional
techniques, and would require some sort of mechanical connection. Friction welding provides a "full
strength" bond with no additional weight. Other common uses for these sorts of bi-metal joins is in the
nuclear industry, where copper-steel joints are common in the reactor cooling systems; and in the transport of
cryogenic fluids, where friction welding has been used to join aluminum alloys to stainless steels and high-
nickel-alloy materials for cryogenic-fluid piping and containment vessels.
Friction welding is also used with thermoplastics, which act in a fashion analogous to metals under heat and
pressure. The heat and pressure used on these materials is much lower than metals, but the technique can be
used to join metals to plastics with the metal interface being machined. For instance, the technique can be
used to join eyeglass frames to the pins in their hinges. The lower energies and pressures used allows for a
wider variety of techniques to be used.

History[edit]
Friction welding was first developed in the Soviet Union, with first experiments taking place in 1956. The
American companies Caterpillar, Rockwell International, and American Manufacturing Foundry all
developed machines for this process. Patents were also issued throughout Europe and the former Soviet
Union. The most extensive historical records are kept with the American Welding Society.[citation needed]

Metal techniques[edit]
Spin welding[edit]
Main article: Spin welding
Spin welding systems consist of two chucks for holding the materials to be welded, one of which is fixed and
the other rotating. Before welding, one of the work pieces is attached to the rotating chuck along with
a flywheel of a given weight. The piece is then spun up to a high rate of rotation to store the required energy
in the flywheel. Once spinning at the proper speed, the motor is removed and the pieces forced together
under pressure. The force is kept on the pieces after the spinning stops to allow the weld to "set".[1]
In inertia friction welding the drive motor is disengaged, and the work pieces are forced together by a
friction welding force. The kinetic energy stored in the rotating flywheel is dissipated as heat at the weld
interface as the flywheel speed decreases.
In direct-drive friction welding the drive motor and chuck are connected. The drive motor is continually
driving the chuck during the heating stages. Usually, a clutch is used to disconnect the drive motor from the
chuck, and a brake is then used to stop the chuck.
Linear friction welding[edit]
Linear friction welding (LFW) is similar to spin welding, except that the moving chuck oscillates laterally
instead of spinning. The speeds are much lower in general, which requires the pieces to be kept under
pressure at all times. This also requires the parts to have a high shear strength. Linear friction welding
requires more complex machinery than spin welding, but has the advantage that parts of any shape can be
joined, as opposed to parts with a circular meeting point. Another advantage is that in many instances quality
of joint is better than that obtained using rotating technique.
Friction surfacing[edit]
Friction surfacing is a process derived from friction welding where a coating material is applied to a
substrate. A rod composed of the coating material (called a mechtrode) is rotated under pressure, generating
a plasticised layer in the rod at the interface with the substrate. By moving a substrate across the face of the
rotating rod a plasticised layer is deposited between 0.2–2.5 millimetres (0.0079–0.0984 in) thick depending
on mechtrode diameter and coating material.

Thermoplastic technique[edit]
Linear vibration welding[edit]
In linear vibration welding the materials are placed in contact and put under pressure. An external vibration
force is then applied to slip the pieces relative to each other, perpendicular to the pressure being applied. The
parts are vibrated through a relatively small displacement known as the amplitude, typically between 1.0 and
1.8 mm, for a frequency of vibration of 200 Hz (high frequency), or 2–4 mm at 100 Hz (low frequency), in
the plane of the joint. This technique is widely used in the automotive industry, among others. [2] A minor
modification is angular friction welding, which vibrates the materials by torquing them through a small
angle.
Orbital friction welding[edit]
Orbital friction welding is similar to spin welding, but uses a more complex machine to produce an orbital
motion in which the moving part rotates in a small circle, much smaller than the size of the joint as a whole.

Seizure resistance[edit]
Friction welding may unintentionally occur at sliding surfaces like bearings. This happens in particular if the
lubricating oil film between sliding surfaces becomes thinner than the surface roughness, which may be due
to low speed, low temperature, oil starvation, excessive clearance, low viscosity of the oil, high roughness of
the surfaces, or a combination thereof.[3]
The seizure resistance is the ability of a material to resist friction welding. It is a fundamental property of
bearing surfaces and in general of sliding surfaces under load.

Joint designs
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process that uses a non-consumable tool to join two
facing workpieces without melting the workpiece material.[1] Heat is generated by friction between the
rotating tool and the workpiece material, which leads to a softened region near the FSW tool. While the tool
is traversed along the joint line, it mechanically intermixes the two pieces of metal, and forges the hot and
softened metal by the mechanical pressure, which is applied by the tool, much like joining clay, or dough.
[1]
 It is primarily used on wrought or extruded aluminium and particularly for structures which need very high
weld strength. FSW is also found in modern shipbuilding, trains, and aerospace applications.[2][3][4][5][6][7]
It was invented and experimentally proven at The Welding Institute (TWI) in the UK in December 1991.
TWI held patents on the process, the first being the most descriptive.[8]

Principle of operation[edit]
Two discrete metal workpieces butted together, along with the tool (with a probe)

The progress of the tool through the joint, also showing the weld zone and the region affected by the tool
shoulder
A rotating cylindrical tool with a profiled probe is fed into a butt joint between two clamped workpieces,
until the shoulder, which has a larger diameter than the pin, touches the surface of the workpieces. The probe
is slightly shorter than the weld depth required, with the tool shoulder riding atop the work surface. [9] After a
short dwell time, the tool is moved forward along the joint line at the pre-set welding speed.[10]
Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant tool and the work pieces. This heat, along with that
generated by the mechanical mixing process and the adiabatic heat within the material, cause the stirred
materials to soften without melting. As the tool is moved forward, a special profile on the probe forces
plasticised material from the leading face to the rear, where the high forces assist in a forged consolidation of
the weld.
This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal results in severe
solid-state deformation involving dynamic recrystallization of the base material.[11]

Micro-structural features[edit]
The solid-state nature of the FSW process, combined with its unusual tool shape and asymmetric speed
profile, results in a highly characteristic micro-structure. The micro-structure can be broken up into the
following zones:

 The stir zone (also known as the dynamically recrystallised zone) is a region of heavily deformed
material that roughly corresponds to the location of the pin during welding. The grains within the stir
zone are roughly equiaxed and often an order of magnitude smaller than the grains in the parent material.
[12]
 A unique feature of the stir zone is the common occurrence of several concentric rings, which has
been referred to as an "onion-ring" structure. [13] The precise origin of these rings has not been firmly
 established, although variations in particle number density, grain size and texture have all been
suggested.
 The flow arm zone is on the upper surface of the weld and consists of material that is dragged by the
shoulder from the retreating side of the weld, around the rear of the tool, and deposited on the advancing
side.[citation needed]
 The thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) occurs on either side of the stir zone. In this region
the strain and temperature are lower and the effect of welding on the micro-structure is correspondingly
smaller. Unlike the stir zone, the micro-structure is recognizably that of the parent material, albeit
significantly deformed and rotated. Although the term TMAZ technically refers to the entire deformed
region, it is often used to describe any region not already covered by the terms stir zone and flow arm.
[citation needed]

 The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is common to all welding processes. As indicated by the name, this
region is subjected to a thermal cycle but is not deformed during welding. The temperatures are lower
than those in the TMAZ but may still have a significant effect if the micro-structure is thermally
unstable. In fact, in age-hardened aluminum alloys this region commonly exhibits the poorest mechanical
properties.[14]

Advantages and limitations[edit]

The solid-state nature of FSW leads to several advantages over fusion welding methods, as problems
associated with cooling from the liquid phase are avoided. Issues such
as porosity, solute redistribution, solidification cracking and liquation cracking do not arise during FSW. In
general, FSW has been found to produce a low concentration of defects and is very tolerant to variations in
parameters and materials.
Nevertheless, FSW is associated with a number of unique defects if it isn't done properly. Insufficient weld
temperatures, due to low rotational speeds or high traverse speeds, for example, mean that the weld material
is unable to accommodate the extensive deformation during welding. This may result in long, tunnel-like
defects running along the weld, which may occur on the surface or subsurface. Low temperatures may also
limit the forging action of the tool and so reduce the continuity of the bond between the material from each
side of the weld. The light contact between the material has given rise to the name "kissing bond". This
defect is particularly worrying, since it is very difficult to detect using nondestructive methods such as X-
ray or ultrasonic testing. If the pin is not long enough or the tool rises out of the plate, then the interface at
the bottom of the weld may not be disrupted and forged by the tool, resulting in a lack-of-penetration defect.
This is essentially a notch in the material, which can be a potential source of fatigue cracks.
A number of potential advantages of FSW over conventional fusion-welding processes have been identified:
[15][10]

 Good mechanical properties in the as-welded condition.

 Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of molten material.
 No consumables — A threaded pin made of conventional tool steel, e.g., hardened H13, can weld
over 1 km (0.62 mi) of aluminium, and no filler or gas shield is required for aluminium.
 Easily automated on simple milling machines — lower setup costs and less training.
 Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc.), as there is no weld pool.
 Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over-matching, thus reducing the need
for expensive machining after welding.
 Can use thinner materials with same joint strength.
 Low environmental impact.
 General performance and cost benefits from switching from fusion to friction.
However, some disadvantages of the process have been identified:
 Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.
 Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to hold the plates together.
 Less flexible than manual and arc processes (difficulties with thickness variations and non-linear
welds).
 Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques, although this may be offset if fewer
welding passes are required.

Important welding parameters[edit]

Tool design[edit]

Advanced friction stir welding and processing tools by MegaStir shown upside down
The design of the tool[16] is a critical factor, as a good tool can improve both the quality of the weld and the
maximal possible welding speed.
It is desirable that the tool material be sufficiently strong, tough, and hard wearing at the welding
temperature. Further, it should have a good oxidation resistance and a low thermal conductivity to minimise
heat loss and thermal damage to the machinery further up the drive train. Hot-worked tool steel such as AISI
H13 has proven perfectly acceptable for welding aluminium alloys within thickness ranges of 0.5–
50 mm [17] but more advanced tool materials are necessary for more demanding applications such as highly
abrasive metal matrix composites[18] or higher-melting-point materials such as steel or titanium.
Improvements in tool design have been shown to cause substantial improvements in productivity and quality.
TWI has developed tools specifically designed to increase the penetration depth and thus increasing the plate
thicknesses that can be successfully welded. An example is the "whorl" design that uses a tapered pin with
re-entrant features or a variable-pitch thread to improve the downwards flow of material. Additional designs
include the Triflute and Trivex series. The Triflute design has a complex system of three tapering, threaded
re-entrant flutes that appear to increase material movement around the tool. The Trivex tools use a simpler,
non-cylindrical, pin and have been found to reduce the forces acting on the tool during welding.
The majority of tools have a concave shoulder profile, which acts as an escape volume for the material
displaced by the pin, prevents material from extruding out of the sides of the shoulder and maintains
downwards pressure and hence good forging of the material behind the tool. The Triflute tool uses an
alternative system with a series of concentric grooves machined into the surface, which are intended to
produce additional movement of material in the upper layers of the weld.
Widespread commercial applications of friction stir welding process for steels and other hard alloys such
as titanium alloys will require the development of cost-effective and durable tools. [19] Material selection,
design and cost are important considerations in the search for commercially useful tools for the welding of
hard materials. Work is continuing to better understand the effects of tool material's composition, structure,
properties and geometry on their performance, durability and cost.[20]
Tool rotation and traverse speeds[edit]
There are two tool speeds to be considered in friction-stir welding; [21] how fast the tool rotates and how
quickly it traverses along the interface. These two parameters have considerable importance and must be
chosen with care to ensure a successful and efficient welding cycle. The relationship between the rotation
speed, the welding speed and the heat input during welding is complex, but in general, it can be said that
increasing the rotation speed or decreasing the traverse speed will result in a hotter weld. In order to produce
a successful weld, it is necessary that the material surrounding the tool is hot enough to enable the extensive
plastic flow required and minimize the forces acting on the tool. If the material is too cold, then voids or
other flaws may be present in the stir zone and in extreme cases the tool may break.
Excessively high heat input, on the other hand, may be detrimental to the final properties of the weld.
Theoretically, this could even result in defects due to the liquation of low-melting-point phases (similar to
liquation cracking in fusion welds). These competing demands lead onto the concept of a "processing
window": the range of processing parameters viz. tool rotation and traverse speed, that will produce a good
quality weld.[22] Within this window the resulting weld will have a sufficiently high heat input to ensure
adequate material plasticity but not so high that the weld properties are excessively deteriorated.
Tool tilt and plunge depth[edit]

A drawing showing the plunge depth and tilt of the tool. The tool is moving to the left.
The plunge depth is defined as the depth of the lowest point of the shoulder below the surface of the welded
plate and has been found to be a critical parameter for ensuring weld quality. [23] Plunging the shoulder below
the plate surface increases the pressure below the tool and helps ensure adequate forging of the material at
the rear of the tool. Tilting the tool by 2–4 degrees, such that the rear of the tool is lower than the front, has
been found to assist this forging process. The plunge depth needs to be correctly set, both to ensure the
necessary downward pressure is achieved and to ensure that the tool fully penetrates the weld. Given the
high loads required, the welding machine may deflect and so reduce the plunge depth compared to the
nominal setting, which may result in flaws in the weld. On the other hand, an excessive plunge depth may
result in the pin rubbing on the backing plate surface or a significant undermatch of the weld thickness
compared to the base material. Variable-load welders have been developed to automatically compensate for
changes in the tool displacement, while TWI have demonstrated a roller system that maintains the tool
position above the weld plate.

Welding forces[edit]
During welding, a number of forces will act on the tool:[24]

 A downwards force is necessary to maintain the position of the tool at or below the material surface.
Some friction-stir welding machines operate under load control, but in many cases the vertical position
of the tool is preset, and so the load will vary during welding.
 The traverse force acts parallel to the tool motion and is positive in the traverse direction. Since this
force arises as a result of the resistance of the material to the motion of the tool, it might be expected that
this force will decrease as the temperature of the material around the tool is increased.
 The lateral force may act perpendicular to the tool traverse direction and is defined here as positive
towards the advancing side of the weld.
 Torque is required to rotate the tool, the amount of which will depend on the down force and friction
coefficient (sliding friction) and/or the flow strength of the material in the surrounding region (stiction).
In order to prevent tool fracture and to minimize excessive wear and tear on the tool and associated
machinery, the welding cycle is modified so that the forces acting on the tool are as low as possible, and
abrupt changes are avoided. In order to find the best combination of welding parameters, it is likely that a
compromise must be reached, since the conditions that favour low forces (e.g. high heat input, low travel
speeds) may be undesirable from the point of view of productivity and weld properties.

Flow of material[edit]
Early work on the mode of material flow around the tool used inserts of a different alloy, which had a
different contrast to the normal material when viewed through a microscope, in an effort to determine where
material was moved as the tool passed.[25][26] The data was interpreted as representing a form of in-
situ extrusion, where the tool, backing plate and cold base material form the "extrusion chamber", through
which the hot, plasticised material is forced. In this model the rotation of the tool draws little or no material
around the front of the probe; instead, the material parts in front of the pin and passes down either side. After
the material has passed the probe, the side pressure exerted by the "die" forces the material back together,
and consolidation of the join occurs, as the rear of the tool shoulder passes overhead and the large down
force forges the material.
More recently, an alternative theory has been advanced that advocates considerable material movement in
certain locations.[27] This theory holds that some material does rotate around the probe, for at least one
rotation, and it is this material movement that produces the "onion-ring" structure in the stir zone. The
researchers used a combination of thin copper strip inserts and a "frozen pin" technique, where the tool is
rapidly stopped in place. They suggested that material motion occurs by two processes:

1. Material on the advancing side of a weld enters into a zone that rotates and advances with the profiled
probe. This material was very highly deformed and sloughs off behind the pin to form arc-shaped
features when viewed from above (i.e. down the tool axis). It was noted that the copper entered the
rotational zone around the pin, where it was broken up into fragments. These fragments were only
found in the arc-shaped features of material behind the tool.
2. The lighter material came from the retreating side in front of the pin and was dragged around to the
rear of the tool and filled in the gaps between the arcs of advancing side material. This material did
not rotate around the pin, and the lower level of deformation resulted in a larger grain size.
The primary advantage of this explanation is that it provides a plausible explanation for the production of the
onion-ring structure.
The marker technique for friction stir welding provides data on the initial and final positions of the marker in
the welded material. The flow of material is then reconstructed from these positions. Detailed material flow
field during friction stir welding can also be calculated from theoretical considerations based on fundamental
scientific principles. Material flow calculations are routinely used in numerous engineering applications.
Calculation of material flow fields in friction stir welding can be undertaken both using comprehensive
numerical simulations[28][29][30] or simple but insightful analytical equations.[31] The comprehensive models for
the calculation of material flow fields also provide important information such as geometry of the stir zone
and the torque on the tool.[32][33] The numerical simulations have shown the ability to correctly predict the
results from marker experiments[30] and the stir zone geometry observed in friction stir welding experiments.
[32][34]

Generation and flow of heat[edit]

For any welding process, it is, in general, desirable to increase the travel speed and minimise the heat input,
as this will increase productivity and possibly reduce the impact of welding on the mechanical properties of
the weld. At the same time, it is necessary to ensure that the temperature around the tool is sufficiently high
to permit adequate material flow and prevent flaws or tool damage.
When the traverse speed is increased, for a given heat input, there is less time for heat to conduct ahead of
the tool, and the thermal gradients are larger. At some point the speed will be so high that the material ahead
of the tool will be too cold, and the flow stress too high, to permit adequate material movement, resulting in
flaws or tool fracture. If the "hot zone" is too large, then there is scope to increase the traverse speed and
hence productivity.
The welding cycle can be split into several stages, during which the heat flow and thermal profile will be
different:[35]

 Dwell. The material is preheated by a stationary, rotating tool to achieve a sufficient temperature
ahead of the tool to allow the traverse. This period may also include the plunge of the tool into the
workpiece.
 Transient heating. When the tool begins to move, there will be a transient period where the heat
production and temperature around the tool will alter in a complex manner until an essentially steady
state is reached.
 Pseudo steady state. Although fluctuations in heat generation will occur, the thermal field around the
tool remains effectively constant, at least on the macroscopic scale.
 Post steady state. Near the end of the weld, heat may "reflect" from the end of the plate, leading to
additional heating around the tool.
Heat generation during friction-stir welding arises from two main sources: friction at the surface of the tool
and the deformation of the material around the tool. [36] The heat generation is often assumed to occur
predominantly under the shoulder, due to its greater surface area, and to be equal to the power required to
overcome the contact forces between the tool and the workpiece. The contact condition under the shoulder
can be described by sliding friction, using a friction coefficient μ and interfacial pressure P, or sticking
friction, based on the interfacial shear strength at an appropriate temperature and strain rate. Mathematical
approximations for the total heat generated by the tool shoulder Qtotal have been developed using both sliding
and sticking friction models:[35]
   (sliding)
   (sticking)
where ω is the angular velocity of the tool, Rshoulder is the radius of the tool shoulder, and Rpin is that of
the pin. Several other equations have been proposed to account for factors such as the pin, but the
general approach remains the same.
A major difficulty in applying these equations is determining suitable values for the friction
coefficient or the interfacial shear stress. The conditions under the tool are both extreme and very
difficult to measure. To date, these parameters have been used as "fitting parameters", where the
model works back from measured thermal data to obtain a reasonable simulated thermal field. While
this approach is useful for creating process models to predict, for example, residual stresses, it is less
useful for providing insights into the process itself.

Applications[edit]
The FSW process has initially been patented by TWI in most industrialised countries and licensed
for over 183 users. Friction stir welding and its variants – friction stir spot welding and friction stir
processing – are used for the following industrial applications:[37] shipbuilding and offshore,
[38]
 aerospace,[39][40] automotive,[41] rolling stock for railways,[42][43]general fabrication,[44] robotics, and
computers.
Shipbuilding and offshore[edit]

Friction stir welding was used to prefabricate the aluminium panels of the Super Liner Ogasawara at
Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding
Two Scandinavian aluminium extrusion companies were the first to apply FSW commercially to the
manufacture of fish freezer panels at Sapa in 1996, as well as deck panels and helicopter landing
platforms at Marine Aluminium Aanensen. Marine Aluminium Aanensen subsequently merged with
Hydro Aluminium Maritime to become Hydro Marine Aluminium. Some of these freezer panels are
now produced by Riftec and Bayards. In 1997 two-dimensional friction stir welds in the
hydrodynamically flared bow section of the hull of the ocean viewer vessel The Boss were produced
at Research Foundation Institute with the first portable FSW machine. The Super Liner
Ogasawara at Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding is the largest friction stir welded ship so far.
The Sea Fighter of Nichols Bros and the Freedom-class Littoral Combat Ships contain prefabricated
panels by the FSW fabricators Advanced Technology and Friction Stir Link, Inc. respectively.
[3]
 The Houbei-class missile boat has friction stir welded rocket launch containers of China Friction
Stir Centre. HMNZS Rotoiti in New Zealand has FSW panels made by Donovans in a converted
milling machine.[45][46] Various companies apply FSW to armor plating for amphibious assault
ships[47][48]
Aerospace[edit]

Longitudinal and circumferential friction stir welds are used for the Falcon 9 rocket booster tank at
the SpaceX factory
United Launch Alliance applies FSW to the Delta II, Delta IV, and Atlas V expendable launch
vehicles, and the first of these with a friction stir welded interstage module was launched in 1999.
The process is also used for the Space Shuttle external tank, for Ares I and for the Orion Crew
Vehicle test article at NASA[needs update], as well as Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 rockets at SpaceX. The toe
nails for ramp of Boeing C-17 Globemaster III cargo aircraft by Advanced Joining
Technologies[4] and the cargo barrier beams for the Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter[4]were the first
commercially produced aircraft parts. FAA-approved wings and fuselage panels of the Eclipse
500 aircraft were made at Eclipse Aviation, and this company delivered 259 friction stir welded
business jets, before they were forced into Chapter 7 liquidation. Floor panels for Airbus
A400M military aircraft are now made by Pfalz Flugzeugwerke and Embraer used FSW for the
Legacy 450 and 500 Jets[5]Friction stir welding also is employed for fuselage panels on the Airbus
A380.[49] BRÖTJE-Automation uses friction stir welding for gantry production machines developed
for the aerospace sector, as well as other industrial applications.[50]
Automotive[edit]

The centre tunnel of the Ford GT is made from two aluminium extrusions friction stir welded to a
bent aluminium sheet and houses the fuel tank
Aluminium engine cradles and suspension struts for stretched Lincoln Town Car were the first
automotive parts that were friction stir welded at Tower Automotive, who use the process also for
the engine tunnel of the Ford GT. A spin-off of this company is called Friction Stir Link, Inc. and
successfully exploits the FSW process, e.g. for the flatbed trailer "Revolution" of Fontaine Trailers.
[51]
 In Japan FSW is applied to suspension struts at Showa Denko and for joining of aluminium sheets
to galvanized steel brackets for the boot (trunk) lid of the Mazda MX-5. Friction stir spot welding is
successfully used for the bonnet (hood) and rear doors of the Mazda RX-8 and the boot lid of
the Toyota Prius. Wheels are friction stir welded at Simmons Wheels, UT Alloy Works and Fundo.
[52]
 Rear seats for the Volvo V70 are friction stir welded at Sapa, HVAC pistons at Halla Climate
Control and exhaust gas recirculation coolers at Pierburg. Tailor welded blanks [53] are friction stir
welded for the Audi R8 at Riftec.[54] The B-column of the Audi R8 Spider is friction stir welded from
two extrusions at Hammerer Aluminium Industries in Austria.
Railways[edit]

The high-strength low-distortion body of Hitachi's A-train British Rail Class 395 is friction stir
welded from longitudinal aluminium extrusions
Since 1997 roof panels were made from aluminium extrusions at Hydro Marine Aluminium with a
bespoke 25 m long FSW machine, e.g. for DSB class SA-SD trains of Alstom LHB.[6] Curved side
and roof panels for the Victoria line trains of London Underground, side panels
for Bombardier's Electrostar trains[7] at Sapa Group and side panels for Alstom's British Rail Class
390 Pendolino trains are made at Sapa Group.[not in citation given][55] Japanese commuter and express A-
trains,[56] and British Rail Class 395 trains are friction stir welded by Hitachi,
[57]
 while Kawasaki applies friction stir spot welding to roof panels and Sumitomo Light
Metal produces Shinkansen floor panels. Innovative FSW floor panels are made by Hammerer
Aluminium Industries in Austria for the Stadler KISS double decker rail cars, to obtain an internal
height of 2 m on both floors and for the new car bodies of the Wuppertal Suspension Railway.[58]
Heat sinks for cooling high-power electronics of locomotives are made at Sykatek, EBG, Austerlitz
Electronics, EuroComposite, Sapa [59] and Rapid Technic, and are the most common application of
FSW due to the excellent heat transfer.
Fabrication[edit]

The lids of 50-mm-thick copper canisters for nuclear waste are attached to the cylinder by friction
stir welding at SKB

Friction stir processed knives by MegaStir

Façade panels and cathode sheets are friction stir welded at AMAG and Hammerer Aluminium
Industries, including friction stir lap welds of copper to aluminium. Bizerba meat slicers, Ökolüfter
HVAC units and Siemens X-ray vacuum vessels are friction stir welded at Riftec. Vacuum valves
and vessels are made by FSW at Japanese and Swiss companies. FSW is also used for the
encapsulation of nuclear waste at SKB in 50-mm-thick copper canisters.[60][61] Pressure vessels from
ø1 m semispherical forgings of 38.1 mm thick aluminium alloy 2219 at Advanced Joining
Technologies and Lawrence Livermore Nat Lab. [62] Friction stir processing is applied to ship
propellers at Friction Stir Link, Inc. and to hunting knives by DiamondBlade. Bosch uses it in
Worcester for the production of heat exchangers.[63]
Robotics[edit]
KUKA Robot Group has adapted its KR500-3MT heavy-duty robot for friction stir welding via the
DeltaN FS tool. The system made its first public appearance at the EuroBLECH show in November
2012.[64]
 Personal computers[edit]
Apple applied friction stir welding on the 2012 iMac to effectively join the bottom to the back of the
device.[65]

Hot-pressure-welding is a solid state process that produces joints between the faying surfaces of two bodies.
It is done by application of heat and pressure.
Fusion temperature is not reached, filler metal is not needed, substantial plastic deformation is generated.
Heat is generally applied by flames of oxyfuel torches directed on the end surfaces of solid bars or hollow
sections to be joined.
Alternatively, heat can be generated by eddy currents caused by electrical induction from a suitable
inductor coil.
Hot-pressure-welding: Heat and Squeeze
As soon as the two bodies facing ends reach the correct temperature, the torches are suddenly removed, not
to stand in the way.
The bodies are brought to contact and upset together under pressure, usually by hydraulic equipment.
This variant is properly called the open joint process.
If the parts are making contact under pressure before heat application from the outside, it is called the  closed
joint process.
In either case flash material is expelled and a bulge is formed at the joint.
Hot-pressure-welding is similar in a way to both friction welding (see Friction Welding Processes) and flash
welding (see Flash Welding Process), although the source of heating is different.
For obtaining the best results the surfaces should be machined square and clean. Some beveling can be used
to control the amount of upset.
The process as described is performed as a manual operation.
The materials to be welded must exhibit hot ductility or forgeability. Therefore cast iron cannot be Hot
pressure welded.
The materials commonly joined by Hot pressure welding are carbon steels, low alloy steels, and certain
nonferrous metals.
Certain dissimilar materials combinations are weldable by Hot pressure welding.
Materials that immediately form on the surface adherent oxides upon heating cannot be easily welded in air
by this process.
Typically among them aluminum alloys and stainless steels. Tests were performed in a vacuum chamber.

Advantages

 Simple process
 Simple joint preparation
 Relatively low cost equipment
 Quick weld production
 High quality joints
 No filler metal needed
 Minimally skilled operators required

Limitations

 Not all metals are weldable

 Not easily automated
 Length of cycle dependent on time for heating
 Removal of flash and bulge required after welding.
 Only simple sections readily butt weldable.

The most important parameter is the pressure sequence cycle, possibly being developed by trial and error.

Pressure in the range of 40 to 70 MPa (6 to 10 ksi) must be available.

Typical application reported, refer to butt Hot-pressure-welding of railroad rails sections and steel

reinforcing bars, especially in Japan.

For use in the production of weldments for the aerospace industry with delicate materials Hot-pressure-
welding can be carried out in closed chambers with vacuum or a shielding medium.

Mechanical properties tend to be near those of the base materials, but depend upon materials composition,
cooling rate and quality.

Hot-pressure-welding can be an economic and successful process for performing butt joints of simple
shapes if the materials are easily weldable.

Ultrasonic welding is an industrial technique whereby high-frequency ultrasonic acoustic vibrations are

locally applied to workpieces being held together under pressure to create a solid-state weld. It is commonly
used for plastics, and especially for joining dissimilar materials. In ultrasonic welding, there are no
connective bolts, nails, soldering materials, or adhesives necessary to bind the materials together.

History[edit]
Practical application of ultrasonic welding for rigid plastics was completed in the 1960s. At this point only
hard plastics could be welded. The patent for the ultrasonic method for welding rigid thermoplastic parts was
awarded to Robert Soloff and Seymour Linsley in 1965. [1] Soloff, the founder of Sonics & Materials Inc.,
was a lab manager at Branson Instruments where thin plastic films were welded into bags and tubes using
ultrasonic probes. He unintentionally moved the probe close to a plastic tape dispenser and the halves of the
dispenser welded together. He realized that the probe did not need to be manually moved around the part but
that the ultrasonic energy could travel through and around rigid plastics and weld an entire joint. [1] He went
on to develop the first ultrasonic press. The first application of this new technology was in the toy industry.[2]
The first car made entirely out of plastic was assembled using ultrasonic welding in 1969. [2] Even though
plastic cars did not catch on, ultrasonic welding did. The automotive industry has used it regularly since the
1980s.[2] It is now used for a multitude of applications.

Process[edit]
For joining complex injection molded thermoplastic parts, ultrasonic welding equipment can be easily
customized to fit the exact specifications of the parts being welded. The parts are sandwiched between a
fixed shaped nest (anvil) and a sonotrode (horn) connected to a transducer, and a ~20 kHz low-amplitude
acoustic vibration is emitted. (Note: Common frequencies used in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics are
15 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 35 kHz, 40 kHz and 70 kHz). When welding plastics, the interface of the two parts
is specially designed to concentrate the melting process. One of the materials usually has a spiked energy
director which contacts the second plastic part. The ultrasonic energy melts the point contact between the
parts, creating a joint. This process is a good automated alternative to glue, screws or snap-fit designs. It is
typically used with small parts (e.g. cell phones, consumer electronics, disposable medical tools, toys, etc.)
but it can be used on parts as large as a small automotive instrument cluster. Ultrasonics can also be used to
weld metals, but are typically limited to small welds of thin, malleable metals, e.g. aluminum, copper, nickel.
Ultrasonics would not be used in welding the chassis of an automobile or in welding pieces of
a bicycle together, due to the power levels required.
Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local melting of the plastic due to absorption of vibrational
energy along the joint to be welded. In metals, welding occurs due to high-pressure dispersion of surface
oxides and local motion of the materials. Although there is heating, it is not enough to melt the base
materials.
Ultrasonic welding can be used for both hard and soft plastics, such as semicrystalline plastics, and metals.
The understanding of ultrasonic welding has increased with research and testing. The invention of more
sophisticated and inexpensive equipment and increased demand for plastic and electronic components has
led to a growing knowledge of the fundamental process. [2] However, many aspects of ultrasonic welding still
require more study, such as relating weld quality to process parameters. [3] Ultrasonic welding continues to be
a rapidly developing field.
Scientists from the Institute of Materials Science and Engineering (WKK) of University of Kaiserslautern,
with the support from the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft), have
succeeded in proving that using ultrasonic welding processes can lead to highly durable bonds between light
metals and Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets.[4]
The benefits of ultrasonic welding are that it is much faster than conventional adhesives or solvents. The
drying time is very quick, and the pieces do not need to remain in a jig for long periods of time waiting for
the joint to dry or cure. The welding can easily be automated, making clean and precise joints; the site of the
weld is very clean and rarely requires any touch-up work. The low thermal impact on the materials involved
enables a greater number of materials to be welded together.

Components[edit]
All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of the same basic elements:

 A press, usually with a pneumatic or electric drive, to assemble two parts under pressure
 A nest or anvil or fixture where the parts are placed and allowing the high frequency vibration to be
directed to the interfaces
 An ultrasonic stack composed of a converter or piezoelectric transducer, an optional booster and a
sonotrode (US: Horn). All three elements of the stack are specifically tuned to resonate at the same exact
ultrasonic frequency (Typically 15, 20, 30, 35 or 40 kHz)
 Converter: Converts the electrical signal into a mechanical vibration using piezo electric
effect
 Booster: Modifies the amplitude of the vibration mechanically. It is also used in standard
systems to clamp the stack in the press.
 Horn or Sonotrode: Take the shape of the part, also modifies the amplitude mechanically and
Applies the mechanical vibration to the parts to be welded.
 An electronic ultrasonic generator (US: Power supply) delivering a high power electric signal with
frequency matching the resonance frequency of the stack.
 A controller controlling the movement of the press and the delivery of the ultrasonic energy.

Applications[edit]
The applications of ultrasonic welding are extensive and are found in many industries including electrical
and computer, automotive and aerospace, medical, and packaging. Whether two items can be ultrasonically
welded is determined by their thickness. If they are too thick this process will not join them. This is the main
obstacle in the welding of metals. However, wires, microcircuit connections, sheet metal, foils, ribbons and
meshes are often joined using ultrasonic welding. Ultrasonic welding is a very popular technique for
bonding thermoplastics. It is fast and easily automated with weld times often below one second and there is
no ventilation system required to remove heat or exhaust. This type of welding is often used to build
assemblies that are too small, too complex, or too delicate for more common welding techniques.
Computer and electrical industries[edit]
In the electrical and computer industry ultrasonic welding is often used to join wired connections and to
create connections in small, delicate circuits. Junctions of wire harnesses are often joined using ultrasonic
welding.[5] Wire harnesses are large groupings of wires used to distribute electrical signals and
power. Electric motors, field coils, transformers and capacitors may also be assembled with ultrasonic
welding.[6] It is also often preferred in the assembly of storage media such as flash drives and computer disks
because of the high volumes required. Ultrasonic welding of computer disks has been found to have cycle
times of less than 300 ms.[7]
One of the areas in which ultrasonic welding is most used and where new research and experimentation is
centered is microcircuits.[5] This process is ideal for microcircuits since it creates reliable bonds without
introducing impurities or thermal distortion into components. Semiconductor
devices, transistors and diodes are often connected by thin aluminum and gold wires using ultrasonic
welding.[8] It is also used for bonding wiring and ribbons as well as entire chips to microcircuits. An example
of where microcircuits are used is in medical sensors used to monitor the human heart in bypass patients.
One difference between ultrasonic welding and traditional welding is the ability of ultrasonic welding to join
dissimilar materials. The assembly of battery components is a good example of where this ability is utilized.
When creating battery and fuel cell components, thin gauge copper, nickel and aluminium connections, foil
layers and metal meshes are often ultrasonically welded together. [5] Multiple layers of foil or mesh can often
be applied in a single weld eliminating steps and costs.
Aerospace and automotive industries[edit]
For automobiles, ultrasonic welding tends to be used to assemble large plastic and electrical components
such as instrument panels, door panels, lamps, air ducts, steering wheels, upholstery and engine components.
[9]
 As plastics have continued to replace other materials in the design and manufacture of automobiles, the
assembly and joining of plastic components has increasingly become a critical issue. Some of the advantages
for ultrasonic welding are low cycle times, automation, low capital costs, and flexibility. [10] Also, ultrasonic
welding does not damage surface finish, which is a crucial consideration for many car manufacturers,
because the high-frequency vibrations prevent marks from being generated.[9]
Ultrasonic welding is generally utilized in the aerospace industry when joining thin sheet gauge metals and
other lightweight materials. Aluminum is a difficult metal to weld using traditional techniques because of its
high thermal conductivity. However, it is one of the easier materials to weld using ultrasonic welding
because it is a softer metal and thus a solid-state weld is simple to achieve. [11] Since aluminum is so widely
used in the aerospace industry, it follows that ultrasonic welding is an important manufacturing process.
Also, with the advent of new composite materials, ultrasonic welding is becoming even more prevalent. It
has been used in the bonding of the popular composite material carbon fiber. Numerous studies have been
done to find the optimum parameters that will produce quality welds for this material.[12]
Medical industry[edit]
In the medical industry ultrasonic welding is often used because it does not introduce contaminants or
degradation into the weld and the machines can be specialized for use in clean rooms.[13] The process can
also be highly automated, provides strict control over dimensional tolerances and does not interfere with the
biocompatibility of parts. Therefore, it increases part quality and decreases production costs. Items such as
arterial filters, anesthesia filters, blood filters, IV catheters, dialysis tubes, pipettes, cardiometry reservoirs,
blood/gas filters, face masks and IV spike/filters can all be made using ultrasonic welding. [14] Another
important application in the medical industry for ultrasonic welding is textiles. Items like hospital gowns,
sterile garments, masks, transdermal patches and textiles for clean rooms can be sealed and sewn using
ultrasonic welding.[15] This prevents contamination and dust production and reduces the risk of infection.
Packaging industry[edit]

Butane lighter
Packaging is an application where ultrasonic welding is often used. Many common items are either created
or packaged using ultrasonic welding. Sealing containers, tubes and blister packs are common applications.
Ultrasonic welding is also applied in the packaging of dangerous materials, such as explosives, fireworks and
other reactive chemicals. These items tend to require hermetic sealing, but cannot be subjected to high
temperatures.[8] One example is a butane lighter. This container weld must be able to withstand high pressure
and stress and must be airtight to contain the butane.[16] Another example is the packaging of ammunition and
propellants. These packages must be able to withstand high pressure and stress to protect the consumer from
the contents. When sealing hazardous materials, safety is a primary concern.
The food industry finds ultrasonic welding preferable to traditional joining techniques, because it is fast,
sanitary and can produce hermetic seals. Milk and juice containers are examples of products often sealed
using ultrasonic welding. The paper parts to be sealed are coated with plastic,
generally polypropylene or polyethylene, and then welded together to create an airtight seal. [16] The main
obstacle to overcome in this process is the setting of the parameters. For example, if over-welding occurs,
then the concentration of plastic in the weld zone may be too low and cause the seal to break. If it is under-
welded, the seal is incomplete. [16] Variations in the thicknesses of materials can cause variations in weld
quality. Some other food items sealed using ultrasonic welding include candy bar wrappers, frozen food
packages and beverage containers.

Safety[edit]
Ultrasonic welding machines, like most industrial equipment, pose the risk of some hazards. These include
exposure to high heat levels and voltages. This equipment should be operated using the safety guidelines
provided by the manufacturer to avoid injury. For instance, operators must never place hands or arms near
the welding tip when the machine is activated. [17] Also, operators should be provided with hearing protection
and safety glasses. Operators should be informed of government agency regulations for the ultrasonic
welding equipment and these regulations should be enforced.[18]
Ultrasonic welding machines require routine maintenance and inspection. Panel doors, housing covers and
protective guards may need to be removed for maintenance. [17] This should be done when the power to the
equipment is off and only by the trained professional servicing the machine.
Since this is an ultrasonic process it would seem that sound would not be an issue. However, sub-harmonic
vibrations, which can create annoying audible noise, may be caused in larger parts near the machine due to
the ultrasonic welding frequency.[19] This noise can be damped by clamping these large parts at one or more
locations. Also, high-powered welders with frequencies of 15 kHz and 20 kHz typically emit a potentially
damaging high-pitched squeal in the range of human hearing. Shielding this radiating sound can be done
using an acoustic enclosure.[19] There are hearing and safety concerns with ultrasonic welding that are
important to consider, but generally they are comparable to those of other welding techniques.

Electron-beam welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in which a beam of high-velocity electrons is

applied to two materials to be joined. The workpieces melt and flow together as the kinetic energy of the
electrons is transformed into heat upon impact. EBW is often performed under vacuum conditions to
prevent dissipation of the electron beam.

History[edit]
Electron-beam welding was developed by the German physicist Karl-Heinz Steigerwald in 1949,[1] who was
at the time working on various electron-beam applications. Steigerwald conceived and developed the first
practical electron-beam welding machine, which began operation in 1958.[2] American inventor James T.
Russell has also been credited with designing and building the first electron-beam welder.[3][4][5]

Electron-beam welder

Deep narrow weld

Physics of electron-beam heating[edit]

Electrons are elementary particles possessing a mass m = 9.1 · 10−31 kg and a negative electrical charge e =
1.6 · 10−19 C. They exist either bound to an atomic nucleus, as conduction electrons in the atomic
lattice of metals, or as free electrons in vacuum.
Free electrons in vacuum can be accelerated, with their paths controlled by electric and magnetic fields. In
this way narrow beams of electrons carrying high kinetic energy can be formed, which upon collision with
atoms in solids transform their kinetic energy into heat. Electron-beam welding provides excellent welding
conditions because it involves:

 Strong electric fields, which can accelerate electrons to a very high speed. Thus, the electron beam
can carry high power, equal to the product of beam current and accelerating voltage. By increasing the
beam current and the accelerating voltage, the beam power can be increased to practically any desired
value.
 Using magnetic lenses, by which the beam can be shaped into a narrow cone and focused to a very
small diameter. This allows for a very high surface power density on the surface to be welded. Values of
power density in the crossover (focus) of the beam can be as high as 104 – 106 W/mm2.
 Shallow penetration depths in the order of hundredths of a millimeter. This allows for a very high
volumetric power density, which can reach values of the order 105 – 107 W/mm3. Consequently, the
temperature in this volume increases extremely rapidly, 108 – 1010 K/s.
The effectiveness of the electron beam depends on many factors. The most important are the physical
properties of the materials to be welded, especially the ease with which they can be melted or vaporize under
low-pressure conditions. Electron-beam welding can be so intense that loss of material due to evaporation or
boiling during the process must be taken into account when welding. At lower values of surface power
density (in the range of about 103 W/mm2) the loss of material by evaporation is negligible for most metals,
which is favorable for welding. At higher power density, the material affected by the beam can totally
evaporate in a very short time; this is no longer electron-beam welding; it is electron-beam machining.
Beam formation[edit]
Cathode - the source of free electrons

Tungsten cathodes: strap - wire

Conduction electrons (those not bound to the nucleus of atoms) move in a crystal lattice of metals with
velocities distributed according to Gauss's law and depending on temperature. They cannot leave the metal
unless their kinetic energy (in eV) is higher than the potential barrier at the metal surface. The number of
electrons fulfilling this condition increases exponentially with increasing temperature of the metal, following
Richardson's rule.
As a source of electrons for electron-beam welders, the material must fulfill certain requirements:

 to achieve high power density in the beam, the emission current density [A/mm2], hence the working
temperature, should be as high as possible,
 to keep evaporation in vacuum low, the material must have a low enough vapour pressure at the
working temperature.
 The emitter must be mechanically stable, not chemically sensitive to gases present in the vacuum
atmosphere (like oxygen and water vapour), easily available, etc.
These and other conditions limit the choice of material for the emitter to metals with high melting points,
practically to only two: tantalum and tungsten. With tungsten cathodes, emission current densities about
100 mA/mm2 can be achieved, but only a small portion of the emitted electrons takes part in beam formation,
depending on the electric field produced by the anode and control electrode voltages. The type of cathode
most frequently used in electron-beam welders is made of a tungsten strip, about 0.05 mm thick, shaped as
shown in Fig. 1a. The appropriate width of the strip depends on the highest required value of emission
current. For the lower range of beam power, up to about 2 kW, the width w=0.5 mm is appropriate.
Acceleration of electrons, current control
Beam generator
Electrons emitted from the cathode possess very low energy, only a few eV. To give them the required high
speed, they are accelerated by a strong electric field applied between the emitter and another, positively
charged, electrode, namely the anode. The accelerating field must also navigate the electrons to form a
narrow converging “bundle” around the axis. This can be achieved by an electric field in the proximity of the
emitting cathode surface which has, a radial addition as well as an axial component, forcing the electrons in
the direction of the axis. Due to this effect, the electron beam converges to some minimal diameter in a plane
close to the anode.
For practical applications the power of the electron beam must, of course, be controllable. This can be
accomplished by another electric field produced by another cathode negatively charged with respect to the
first.
At least this part of electron gun must be evacuated to "high" vacuum, to prevent "burning" the cathode and
the emergence of electrical discharges.
Focusing
After leaving the anode, the divergent electron beam does not have a power density sufficient for welding
metals and has to be focused. This can be accomplished by a magnetic field produced by electric current in a
cylindrical coil.

Magnetic lens
The focusing effect of a rotationally symmetrical magnetic field on the trajectory of electrons is the result of
the complicated influence of a magnetic field on a moving electron. This effect is a force proportional to the
induction B of the field and electron velocity v. The vector product of the radial component of
induction Br and axial component of velocity va is a force perpendicular to those vectors, causing the electron
to move around the axis. Additional effect of this motion in the same magnetic field is another
force F oriented radially to the axis, which is responsible for the focusing effect of the magnetic lens. The
resulting trajectory of electrons in the magnetic lens is a curve similar to a helix. In this context it should be
mentioned that variations of focal length (exciting current) cause a slight rotation of the beam cross-section.
Beam deflection system

Correction & deflection coils

As mentioned above, the beam spot should be very precisely positioned with respect to the joint to be
welded. This is commonly accomplished mechanically by moving the workpiece with respect to the electron
gun, but sometimes it is preferable to deflect the beam instead. Most often a system of four coils positioned
symmetrically around the gun axis behind the focusing lens, producing a magnetic field perpendicular to the
gun axis, is used for this purpose.
There are more practical reasons why the most appropriate deflection system is used in TV CRT or PC
monitors. This applies to both the deflecting coils as well as to the necessary electronics. Such a system
enables not only “static” deflection of the beam for the positioning purposes mentioned above, but also
precise and fast dynamic control of the beam spot position by a computer. This makes it possible, e.g.:

 to weld joints of complicated geometry,

 to create image-enlarged pictures of objects in the working chamber on TV or PC monitors.
Both possibilities find many useful applications in electron-beam welding practice.
Penetration of electron beam during welding[edit]
To explain the capability of the electron beam to produce deep and narrow welds, the process of
"penetration" must be explained. First of all, the process for a "single" electron can be considered.
Penetration of electrons
When electrons from the beam impact the surface of a solid, some of them may be reflected (as
"backscattered" electrons), while others penetrate the surface, where they collide with the particles of the
solid. In non-elastic collisions they lose their kinetic energy. It has been proved, both theoretically and
experimentally, that they can "travel" only a very small distance below the surface before they transfer all
their kinetic energy into heat. This distance is proportional to their initial energy and inversely proportional
to the density of the solid. Under conditions usual in welding practice the "travel distance" is on the order of
hundredths of a millimeter. Just this fact enables, under certain conditions, fast beam penetration.
Penetration of the electron beam
The heat contribution of single electrons is very small, but the electrons can be accelerated by very high
voltages, and by increasing their number (the beam current) the power of the beam can be increased to any
desired value. By focusing the beam onto a small diameter on the surface of a solid object, values of planar
power density as high as 104 up to 107 W/mm2 can be reached. Because electrons transfer their energy into
heat in a very thin layer of the solid, as explained above, the power density in this volume can be extremely
high. The volume density of power in the small volume in which the kinetic energy of the electrons is
transformed into heat can reach values of the order 10 5 – 107 W/mm3. Consequently, the temperature in this
volume increases extremely rapidly, by 108 – 109 K/s.
The effect of the electron beams under such circumstances depends on several conditions, first of all on the
physical properties of the material. Any material can be melted, or even evaporated, in a very short time.
Depending on conditions, the intensity of evaporation may vary, from negligible to essential. At lower values
of surface power density (in the range of about 10 3 W/mm2) the loss of material by evaporation is negligible
for most metals, which is favorable for welding. At higher power density, the material affected by the beam
can totally evaporate in a very short time; this no longer electron-beam welding; it is electron-beam
machining.
Results of the electron-beam application[edit]

Various forms of melted zone

The results of the beam application depend on several factors: Many experiments and innumerable practical
applications of electron beam in welding technology prove that the effect of the beam, i.e. the size and shape
of the zone influenced by the beam depends on:
(1) Beam power – The power of the beam [W] is the product of the accelerating voltage [kV] and beam
current [mA], parameters easily measurable and precisely controllable. The power is controlled by the beam
current at constant accelerating voltage, usually the highest accessible.
(2) Power density (focusing of the beam) – The power density at the spot of incidence of the beam with the
workpiece depends on factors like the size of the electron source on the cathode, the optical quality of the
accelerating electric lens and the focusing magnetic lens, alignment of the beam, the value of the accelerating
voltage, and the focal length. All these factors (except the focal length) depend on the design of the machine.
(3) Welding speed – The construction of the welding equipment should enable adjustment of the relative
speed of motion of the workpiece with respect to the beam in wide enough limits, e.g., between 2 and
50 mm/s.
(4) Material properties, and in some cases also on
(5) Geometry (shape and dimensions) of the joint.
The final effect of the beam depends on the particular combination of these parameters.

 Action of the beam at low power density or over a very short time results in melting only a thin
surface layer.
 A defocused beam does not penetrate, and the material at low welding speeds is heated only by
conduction of the heat from the surface, producing a hemispherical melted zone.
 At high power density and low speed, a deeper and slightly conical melted zone is produced.
 In the case of very high power density, the beam (well focused) penetrates deeper, in proportion to its
total power.
Welded membranes

The welding process[edit]

Weldability[edit]
For welding thin-walled parts, appropriate welding aids are generally needed. Their construction must
provide perfect contact of the parts and prevent their movement during welding. Usually they have to be
designed individually for a given workpiece.
Not all materials can be welded by an electron beam in a vacuum. This technology cannot be applied to
materials with high vapour pressureat the melting temperature, like zinc, cadmium, magnesium and
practically all non-metals.
Another limitation to weldability may be the change of material properties induced by the welding process,
such as a high speed of cooling. As detailed discussion of this matter exceeds the scope of this article, the
reader is recommended to seek more information in the appropriate literature.[2]

Titanium-to-aluminium joints
Joining dissimilar materials[edit]
It is often not possible to join two metal components by welding, i.e. to melt part of both in the vicinity of the
joint, if the two materials have very different properties from their alloy, due to the creation of brittle, inter-
metallic compounds. This situation cannot be changed, even by electron-beam heating in vacuum, but this
nevertheless makes it possible to realize joints meeting high demands for mechanical compactness and that
are perfectly vacuum-tight. The principal approach is not to melt both parts, but only the one with the lower
melting point, while the other remains solid. The advantage of electron-beam welding is its ability to localize
heating to a precise point and to control exactly the energy needed for the process. A high-vacuum
atmosphere substantially contributes to a positive result. A general rule for construction of joints to be made
this way is that the part with the lower melting point should be directly accessible for the beam.
Possible problems and limitations[edit]

Cracks in weld
The material melted by the beam shrinks during cooling after solidification, which may have unwanted
consequences like cracking, deformation and changes of shape, depending on conditions.
The butt weld of two plates results in bending of the weldment because more material has been melted at the
head than at the root of the weld. This effect is of course not as substantial as in arc welding.
Another potential danger is the emergence of cracks in the weld. If both parts are rigid, the shrinkage of the
weld produces high stress in the weld which may lead to cracks if the material is brittle (even if only after
remelting by welding). The consequences of weld contraction should always be considered when
constructing the parts to be welded.

Electron-beam welding equipment[edit]

Electron-beam welder
Since the publication of the first practical electron-beam welding equipment by Steigerwald in 1958,
electron-beam welding has spread rapidly in all branches of engineering where welding can be applied. To
cover the various requirements, countless welder types have been designed, differing in construction,
working space volume, workpiece manipulators and beam power. Electron-beam generators (electron guns)
designed for welding applications can supply beams with power ranging from a few watts up to about one
hundred kilowatts. "Micro-welds" of tiny components can be realized, as well as deep welds up to 300 mm
(or even more if needed). Vacuum working chambers of various design may have a volume of only a few
liters, but vacuum chambers with the volume of several hundreds cubic meters have also been built.
Specifically, the equipment comprises:

1. Electron gun, generating the electron beam,

2. Working chamber, mostly evacuated to "low" or "high" vacuum,
3. Workpiece manipulator (positioning mechanism),
4. Power supply and control and monitoring electronics.
Electron gun
In the electron gun, the free electrons are gained by thermo-emission from a hot metal strap (or wire). They
are then accelerated and formed into a narrow convergent beam by an electric field produced by three
electrodes: the electron emitting strap, the cathode connected to the negative pole of the high (accelerating)
voltage power supply (30 - 200 kV) and the positive high voltage electrode, the anode. There is a third
electrode charged negatively with respect to the cathode, called the Wehnelt or control electrode. Its negative
potential controls the portion of emitted electrons entering into the accelerating field, i.e., the electron-beam
current.
After passing the anode opening, the electrons move with constant speed in a slightly divergent cone. For
technological applications the divergent beam has to be focused, which is realized by the magnetic field of a
coil, the magnetic focusing lens.
For proper functioning of the electron gun, it is necessary that the beam be perfectly adjusted with respect to
the optical axes of the accelerating electrical lens and the magnetic focusing lens. This can be done by
applying a magnetic field of some specific radial direction and strength perpendicular to the optical axis
before the focusing lens. This is usually realized by a simple correction system consisting of two pairs of
coils. By adjusting the currents in these coils any required correcting field can be produced.
After passing the focusing lens, the beam can be applied for welding, either directly or after being deflected
by a deflection system. This consists of two pairs of coils, one for each X and Y direction. These can be used
for "static" or "dynamic" deflection. Static deflection is useful for exact positioning of the beam by welding.
Dynamic deflection is realized by supplying the deflection coils with currents which can be controlled by the
computer. This opens new possibilities for electron-beam applications, like surface hardening or annealing,
exact beam positioning, etc.
The fast deflection system can also be applied (if provided with appropriate electronics) for imaging and
engraving. In this case the equipment is operated like a scanning electron microscope, with a resolution of
about 0,1 mm (limited by the beam diameter). In a similar mode the fine computer-controlled beam can
"write" or "draw" a picture on the metal surface by melting a thin surface layer.
Working chamber
Since the appearance of the first electron-beam welding machines at the end of the 1950s, the application of
electron-beam welding spread rapidly into industry and research in all highly developed countries. Up to
now, uncountable numbers of various types of electron-beam equipment have been designed and realized. In
most of them the welding takes place in a working vacuum chamber in a high or low vacuum environment.
The vacuum working chamber may have any desired volume, from a few liters up to hundreds of cubic
meters. They can be provided with electron guns supplying an electron beam with any required power up to
100 kW, or even more if needed. In micro-electron beam devices, components with dimensions in tenths of a
millimeter can be precisely welded. In welders with electron beams of high enough power, welds up to
300 mm deep can be realized.
There are also welding machines in which the electron beam is brought out of vacuum into the atmosphere.
With such equipment very large objects can be welded without huge working chambers.
Workpiece manipulators
Electron-beam welding can never be "hand-manipulated", even if not realized in vacuum, as there is always
strong X-radiation. The relative motion of the beam and the workpiece is most often achieved by rotation or
linear travel of the workpiece. In some cases the welding is realized by moving the beam with the help of a
computer-controlled deflection system. Workpiece manipulators are mostly designed individually to meet
the specific requirements of the welding equipment.
Power supply and control and monitoring electronics
Electron-beam equipment must be provided with an appropriate power supply for the beam generator. The
accelerating voltage may be chosen between 30 and 200 kV. Usually it is about 60 or 150 kV, depending on
various conditions. With rising voltage the technical problems and the price of the equipment rapidly
increase, hence, whenever it is possible a lower voltage of about 60 kV is to be chosen. The maximum power
of the high voltage supply depends on the maximum depth of weld required.
The high-voltage equipment must also supply the low voltage, above 5 V, for the cathode heating, and
negative voltage up to about 1000 V for the control electrode.
The electron gun also needs low-voltage supplies for the correction system, the focusing lens, and the
deflection system. The last mentioned may be very complex if it is to provide computer-controlled imaging,
engraving, or similar beam applications.
Complex electronics may also be needed to control the workpiece manipulator.
Electroslag welding (ESW) is a highly productive, single pass welding process for thick (greater than
25 mm up to about 300 mm) materials in a vertical or close to vertical position. (ESW) is similar
to electrogas welding, but the main difference is the arc starts in a different location. An electric arc is
initially struck by wire that is fed into the desired weld location and then flux is added. Additional flux is
added until the molten slag, reaching the tip of the electrode, extinguishes the arc. The wire is then
continually fed through a consumable guide tube (can oscillate if desired) into the surfaces of the metal
workpieces and the filler metal are then melted using the electrical resistance of the molten slag to
cause coalescence. The wire and tube then move up along the workpiece while a copper retaining shoe that
was put into place before starting (can be water-cooled if desired) is used to keep the weld between the plates
that are being welded. Electroslag welding is used mainly to join low carbon steel plates and/or sections that
are very thick. It can also be used on structural steel if certain precautions are observed, and for large cross-
section aluminium busbars.[1] This process uses a direct current (DC) voltage usually ranging from about
600 A and 40-50 V, higher currents are needed for thicker materials. Because the arc is extinguished, this is
not an arc process.
History[edit]
The process was patented by Robert K Hopkins in the United States in February 1940 (patent 2191481) and
developed and refined at the Paton Institute, Kiev, USSR during the 1940s. The Paton method was released
to the west at the Bruxelles Trade Fair of 1950.[2] The first widespread use in the U.S. was in 1959,
by General Motors Electromotive Division, Chicago, for the fabrication of traction motor frames. In
1968 Hobart Brothers of Troy, Ohio, released a range of machines for use in the shipbuilding, bridge
construction and large structural fabrication industries. Between the late 1960s and late 1980s, it is estimated
that in California alone over a million stiffeners were welded with the electroslag welding process. Two of
the tallest buildings in California were welded, using the electroslag welding process - The Bank of America
building in San Francisco, and the twin tower Security Pacific buildings in Los Angeles. The Northridge
earthquake and the Loma Prieta earthquakes provided a "real world" test to compare all of the welding
processes. The Structural Steel welding industry is well aware that, over one billion dollars in crack repairs
were needed, after the Northridge earthquake, to repair weld cracks propagated in welds made with the
gasless flux cored wire process. Not one failure or one crack propagation was initiated in any of the
hundreds-of-thousands of welds made on continuity plates welded with the Electroslag welding process.[3]
However the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) monitored the new process and found that
electroslag welding, because of the very large amounts of confined heat used, produced a coarse-grained and
brittle weld and in 1977 banned the use of the process for many applications. [4] The FHWA commissioned
research from universities and industry and Narrow Gap Improved Electro Slag Welding (NGI-
ESW) was developed as a replacement. The FHWA moratorium was rescinded in 2000.[5]

Benefits[edit]
Benefits of the process include its high metal deposition rates—it can lay metal at a rate between 15 and
20 kg per hour (35 and 45 lb/h) per electrode—and its ability to weld thick materials. Many welding
processes require more than one pass for welding thick workpieces, but often a single pass is sufficient for
electroslag welding. The process is also very efficient, since joint preparation and materials handling are
minimized while filler metal utilization is high. The process is also safe and clean, with no arc flash and low
weld splatter or distortion. Electroslag welding easily lends itself to mechanization, thus reducing the
requirement for skilled manual welders.
One electrode is commonly used to make welds on materials with a thickness of 25 to 75 mm (1 to 3 in), and
thicker pieces generally require more electrodes. The maximum workpiece thickness that has ever been
successfully welded was a 0.91 m (36 in) piece that required the simultaneous use of six electrodes to
complete.
Induction welding is a form of welding that uses electromagnetic induction to heat the workpiece. The
welding apparatus contains an induction coil that is energised with a radio-frequency electric current. This
generates a high-frequency electromagnetic field that acts on either an electrically conductive or
a ferromagnetic workpiece. In an electrically conductive workpiece, the main heating effect
is resistive heating, which is due to induced currents called eddy currents. In a ferromagnetic workpiece, the
heating is caused mainly by hysteresis, as the electromagnetic field repeatedly distorts the magnetic
domains of the ferromagnetic material. In practice, most materials undergo a combination of these two
effects.
Nonmagnetic materials and electrical insulators such as plastics can be induction-welded by implanting them
with metallic or ferromagnetic compounds, called susceptors, that absorb the electromagnetic energy from
the induction coil, become hot, and lose their heat to the surrounding material by thermal
conduction. [1] Plastic can also be induction welded by embedding the plastic with electrically conductive
fibers like metals or carbon fiber. Induced eddy currents resistively heat the embedded fibers which lose their
heat to the surrounding plastic by conduction. Induction welding of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is
commonly used in the aerospace industry.
Induction welding is used for long production runs and is a highly automated process, usually used for
welding the seams of pipes. It can be a very fast process, as a lot of power can be transferred to a localised
area, so the faying surfaces melt very quickly and can be pressed together to form a continuous rolling weld.
The depth that the currents, and therefore heating, penetrates from the surface is inversely proportional to the
square root of the frequency. The temperature of the metals being welded and their composition will also
affect the penetration depth. This process is very similar to resistance welding, except that in the case of
resistance welding the current is delivered using contacts to the workpiece instead of using induction.
Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join pieces of metal or thermoplastics through
the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high
welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume applications using automation, such as in the
automotive industry. It is based on keyhole or penetration mode welding.

Operation[edit]
Like electron beam welding (EBW), laser beam welding has high power density (on the order of 1 MW/cm2)
resulting in small heat-affected zones and high heating and cooling rates. The spot size of the laser can vary
between 0.2 mm and 13 mm, though only smaller sizes are used for welding. The depth of penetration is
proportional to the amount of power supplied, but is also dependent on the location of the focal point:
penetration is maximized when the focal point is slightly below the surface of the workpiece
A continuous or pulsed laser beam may be used depending upon the application. Millisecond-long pulses are
used to weld thin materials such as razor blades while continuous laser systems are employed for deep welds.
LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding carbon steels, HSLA steels, stainless steel, aluminum,
and titanium. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is a concern when welding high-carbon steels. The weld
quality is high, similar to that of electron beam welding. The speed of welding is proportional to the amount
of power supplied but also depends on the type and thickness of the workpieces. The high power capability
of gas lasers make them especially suitable for high volume applications. LBW is particularly dominant in
the automotive industry.[1][2]
Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are as follows:
- the laser beam can be transmitted through air rather than requiring a vacuum
- the process is easily automated with robotic machinery
- x-rays are not generated
- LBW results in higher quality welds
A derivative of LBW, laser-hybrid welding, combines the laser of LBW with an arc welding method such
as gas metal arc welding. This combination allows for greater positioning flexibility, since GMAW supplies
molten metal to fill the joint, and due to the use of a laser, increases the welding speed over what is normally
possible with GMAW. Weld quality tends to be higher as well, since the potential for undercutting is
reduced.[3]

Equipment[edit]
Automation and CAM[edit]
Although laser beam welding can be accomplished by hand, most systems are automated and use a system
of computer aided manufacturing based on computer aided designs. [4][5][6] Laser welding can also be coupled
with milling to form a finished part.[7]
Recently the RepRap project, which historically worked on fused filament fabrication, expanded to
development of open source laser welding systems. [8] Such systems have been fully characterized and can be
used in a wide scale of applications while reducing conventional manufacturing costs. [9]
Lasers[edit]

 The two types of lasers commonly used are solid-state lasers (especially ruby

lasers and Nd:YAG lasers) and gas lasers.
 The first type uses one of several solid media, including synthetic ruby (chromium in aluminum
oxide), neodymium in glass (Nd:glass), and the most common
type, neodymium in yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG).
 Gas lasers use mixtures of gases such as helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide (CO2 laser) as a
medium.
 Regardless of type, however, when the medium is excited, it emits photons and forms the laser beam.
Solid state laser[edit]
Solid-state lasers operate at wavelengths on the order of 1 micrometer, much shorter than gas lasers used for
welding, and as a result require that operators wear special eyewear or use special screens to prevent retina
damage. Nd:YAG lasers can operate in both pulsed and continuous mode, but the other types are limited to
pulsed mode. The original and still popular solid-state design is a single crystal shaped as a rod
approximately 20 mm in diameter and 200 mm long, and the ends are ground flat. This rod is surrounded by
a flash tubecontaining xenon or krypton. When flashed, a pulse of light lasting about two milliseconds is
emitted by the laser. Disk shaped crystals are growing in popularity in the industry, and flashlamps are
giving way to diodes due to their high efficiency. Typical power output for ruby lasers is 10–20 W, while the
Nd:YAG laser outputs between 0.04–6,000 W. To deliver the laser beam to the weld area, fiber optics are
usually employed.
Gas laser[edit]
Gas lasers use high-voltage, low-current power sources to supply the energy needed to excite the gas mixture
used as a lasing medium. These lasers can operate in both continuous and pulsed mode, and the wavelength
of the CO2 gas laser beam is 10.6 μm, deep infrared, i.e. 'heat'. Fiber optic cable absorbs and is destroyed by
this wavelength, so a rigid lens and mirror delivery system is used. Power outputs for gas lasers can be much
higher than solid-state lasers, reaching 25 kW.[10]
Fiber laser[edit]
In fiber lasers, the main medium is the optical fiber itself. They are capable of power up to 50 kW and are
increasingly being used for robotic industrial welding.
Laser beam delivery[edit]
Modern laser beam welding machines can be grouped into two types. In the traditional type, the laser output
is moved to follow the seam. This is usually achieved with a robot. In many modern
applications, remote laser beam welding is used. In this method, the laser beam is moved along the seam
with the help of a laser scanner, so that the robotic arm does not need to follow the seam any more. The
advantages of remote laser welding are the higher speed and the higher precision of the welding process.

Thermal modeling of pulsed-laser welding[edit]

Pulsed-laser welding has advantages over continuous wave (CW) laser welding. Some of these advantages
are lower porosity and less spatter.[11] Pulsed-laser welding also has some disadvantages such as causing hot
cracking in aluminum alloys. [12] Thermal analysis of the pulsed-laser welding process can assist in prediction
of welding parameters such as depth of fusion, cooling rates, and residual stresses. Due to the complexity of
the pulsed laser process, it is necessary to employ a procedure that involves a development cycle. The cycle
involves constructing a mathematical model, calculating a thermal cycle using numerical modeling
techniques like either Finite Elemental Modeling (FEM) or Finite Difference Method (FDM) or analytical
models with simplifying assumptions, and validating the model by experimental measurements.
A methodology combining some of the published models involves:[13][14][15]

1. Determining the power absorption efficiency.

2. Calculating the recoil pressure based on temperatures and a Clausius-Clapeyron equation.
3. Calculate the fluid flow velocities using the VOF (Volume of Fluid method).
4. Calculating the temperature distribution.
5. Increment time and repeat steps 1-4.
6. Validating of results
Step 1.
Not all radiant energy is absorbed and turned into heat for welding. Some of the radiant energy is absorbed in
the plasma created by vaporizing and then subsequently ionizing the gas. In addition, the absorptivity is
affected by the wavelength of the beam, the surface composition of the material being welded, the angle of
incidence, and the temperature of the material.[11]
Rosenthal point source assumption leaves a infinitely high temperature discontinuity which is addressed by
assuming a Gaussian distribution instead. Radiant energy is also not uniformly distributed within the beam.
Some devices produce Gaussian energy distributions, whereas others can be bimodal. [11] A Gaussian energy
distribution can be applied by multiplying the power density by a function like this: [14], where r is the radial
distance from the center of the beam, =beam radius or spot size.
Using a temperature distribution instead of a point source assumption allows for easier calculation of
temperature-dependent material properties such as absorptivity. On the irradiated surface, when a keyhole is
formed, Frensel reflection (the almost complete absorption of the beam energy due to multiple reflection
within the keyhole cavity) occurs and can be modeled by , where ε is a function of dielectric constant,
electric conductivity, and laser frequency. θ is the angle of incidence. [13] Understanding the absorption
efficiency is key to calculating thermal effects.
Step 2.
Lasers can weld in one of two modes: conduction and keyhole. Which mode is in operation depends on
whether the power density is sufficiently high enough to cause evaporation. [11] Conduction mode occurs
below the vaporization point while keyhole mode occurs above the vaporization point. The keyhole is
analogous to an air pocket. The air pocket is in a state of flux. Forces such as the recoil pressure of the
evaporated metal open the keyhole[13] while gravity (aka hydrostatic forces) and metal surface tension tend to
collapse it. [15] At even higher power densities, the vapor can be ionized to form a plasma.
The recoil pressure is determined by using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. [14], where P is the equilibrium
vapor pressure, T is the liquid surface temperature, HLV is the latent heat of vaporization , TLV is the
equilibrium temperature at the liquid-vapor interface. Using the assumption that the vapor flow is limited to
sonic velocities[16], one gets that , where Po is atmospheric pressure and Pr is recoil pressure.
Step 3.
This pertains to keyhole profiles. Fluid flow velocities are determined by[13]
where  is the velocity vector, P=pressure, ρ= mass density, =viscocity, β=thermal expansion coefficient,
g=gravity, and F is the volume fraction of fluid in a simulation grid cell.
Step 4.
In order to determine the boundary temperature at the laser impingement surface, you'd apply an equation
like this. [15], where kn=the thermal conductivity normal to the surface impinged on by the laser,
h=convective heat transfer coefficient for air, σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant for radiation, and ε is the
emissivity of the material being welded on, q is laser beam heat flux.
Unlike CW (Continuous Wave) laser welding which involves one moving thermal cycle, pulsed laser
involves repetitively impinging on the same spot, thus creating multiple overlapping thermal cycles [15]. A
method of addressing this is to add a step function that multiplies the heat flux by one when the beam is on
but multiplies the heat flux by zero when the beam is off. [14] One way[15] to achieve this is by using
a Kronecker delta which modifies q as follows: , where δ= the Kronecker delta, qe=experimentally
determined heat flux. The problem with this method, is it does not allow you to see the effect of pulse
duration. One way[14] of solving this is to a use a modifier that is time-dependent function such as:
where v= pulse frequency, n=0,1, 2,...,v-1), τ= pulse duration.
Next, you would apply this boundary condition and solve for Fourier's 2nd Law to obtain the internal
temperature distribution. Assuming no internal heat generation, the solution is , where k=thermal
conductivity, ρ=density, Cp=specific heat capacity, =fluid velocity vector.
Step 5.
Incrementing is done by discretizing the governing equations presented in the previous steps and applying
the next time and length steps.
Step 6.
Results can be validated by specific experimental observations or trends from generic experiments. These
experiments have involved metallographic verification of the depth of fusion. [17]
Consequences of Simplifying Assumptions on Calculation Results
The physics of pulsed laser can be very complex and therefore, some simplifying assumptions need to be
made to either speed up calculation or compensate for a lack of materials properties. The temperature-
dependence of material properties such as specific heat are ignored to minimize computing time.
The liquid temperature can be overestimated if the amount of heat heat loss due to mass loss from vapor
leaving the liquid-metal interface is not accounted for.

Laser Hybrid welding is a type of welding process that combines the principles of laser beam
welding and arc welding.[1]
The combination of laser light and an electrical arc into an amalgamated welding process has existed since
the 1970s, but has only recently been used in industrial applications. There are three main types of hybrid
welding process, depending on the arc used: TIG, plasma arc or MIG augmented laser welding. While TIG-
augmented laser welding was the first to be researched, MIG is the first to go into industry and is commonly
known as hybrid laser welding.
Whereas in the early days laser sources still had to prove their suitability for industrial use, today they are
standard equipment in many manufacturing enterprises. The combination of laser welding with another weld
process is called a "hybrid welding process". This means that a laser beam and an electrical arc act
simultaneously in one welding zone, influencing and supporting each other.

Laser[edit]
Laser welding not only requires high laser power but also a high quality beam to obtain the desired "deep-
weld effect". The resulting higher quality of beam can be exploited either to obtain a smaller focus diameter
or a larger focal distance. A variety of laser types are used for this process, in particular Nd:YAG where the
laser light can be transmitted via a water-cooled glass fiber. The beam is projected onto the workpiece
by collimating and focusing optics. Carbon dioxide laser can also be used where the beam is transmitted via
lens or mirrors.

Laser Hybrid process[edit]

For welding metallic objects, the laser beam is focused to obtain intensities of more than 1 MW/cm 2. When
the laser beam hits the surface of the material, this spot is heated up to vaporization temperature, and a vapor
cavity is formed in the weld metal due to the escaping metal vapor. This is known as a keyhole. The
extraordinary feature of the weld seam is its high depth-to-width ratio. The energy-flow density of the freely
burning arc is slightly more than 100 kW/cm2. Unlike a dual process where two separate weld processes act
in succession, hybrid welding may be viewed as a combination of both weld processes acting simultaneously
in one and the same process zone. Depending on the kind of arc or laser process used, and depending on the
process parameters, the two systems will influence each other in different ways.
The combination of the laser process and the arc process results in an increase in both weld penetration depth
and welding speed (as compared to each process alone). The metal vapor escaping from the vapor cavity acts
upon the arc plasma. Absorption of the laser radiation in the processing plasma remains negligible.
Depending on the ratio of the two power inputs, the character of the overall process may be mainly
determined either by the laser or by the arc.
Absorption of the laser radiation is substantially influenced by the temperature of the workpiece surface.
Before the laser welding process can start, the initial reflectance must be overcome, especially
on aluminum surfaces. This can be achieved by preheating the material. In the hybrid process, the arc heats
the metal, helping the laser beam to couple in. After the vaporisation temperature has been reached, the
vapor cavity is formed, and nearly all radiation energy can be put into the workpiece. The energy required
for this is thus determined by the temperature-dependent absorption and by the amount of energy lost by
conduction into the rest of the workpiece. In Laser Hybrid welding, using MIG, vaporisation takes place not
only from the surface of the workpiece but also from the filler wire, so that more metal vapor is available to
facilitate the absorption of the laser radiation.

Fatigue Behavior[edit]
Over the years a great deal of research has been done to understand fatigue behavior, particularly for new
techniques like laser hybrid welding, but knowledge is still limited. Laser hybrid welding is an advanced
welding technology that creates narrow deep welds and offers greater freedom to control the weld surface
geometry. Therefore, fatigue analysis and life prediction of hybrid weld joints has become more important
and is the subject of ongoing research.
Percussion welding (PEW) is a type of resistance welding that blends dissimilar metals together. Percussion
welding creates a high temperature arc that is formed from a short quick electrical discharge. Immediately
following the electrical discharge, pressure is applied which forges the materials together. This type of
joining brings the materials together in a percussive manner.
Percussion welding is similar to flash welding and upset welding but is generally considered to be more
complex because it uses an electric discharge at the joint, followed by pressure being applied to join the
materials together. Percussion welding is used to join dissimilar metals together, or used when flash is not
required at the joint. Percussion welding is used on materials that have small cross sectional areas.
Advantages of using percussion welding types include a shallow heat affected zone, and the time cycle
involved is very short. Typical times can be found to be less than 16 milliseconds.

Exothermic welding, also known as exothermic bonding, thermite welding (TW),[1] and thermit welding,

[1]
 is a welding process that employs molten metal to permanently join the conductors. The process employs
an exothermic reaction of a thermite composition to heat the metal, and requires no external source of heat or
current. The chemical reaction that produces the heat is an aluminothermic
reactionbetween aluminium powder and a metal oxide.

Overview[edit]
In exothermic welding, aluminium dust reduces the oxide of another metal, most commonly iron oxide,
because aluminium is highly reactive. Iron(III) oxide is commonly used:
The products are aluminium oxide, free elemental iron,[2] and a large amount of heat. The reactants are
commonly powdered and mixed with a binder to keep the material solid and prevent separation.
Commonly the reacting composition is five parts iron oxide red (rust) powder and three
parts aluminium powder by weight, ignited at high temperatures. A strongly exothermic (heat-
generating) reaction occurs that via reduction and oxidation produces a white hot mass of
molten iron and a slag of refractory aluminium oxide. The molten iron is the actual welding material; the
aluminium oxide is much less dense than the liquid iron and so floats to the top of the reaction, so the
set-up for welding must take into account that the actual molten metal is at the bottom of the crucible and
covered by floating slag.
Other metal oxides can be used, such as chromium oxide, to generate the given metal in its elemental
form. Copper thermite, using copper oxide, is used for creating electric joints:
Thermite welding is widely used to weld railway rails. One of the first railroads to evaluate the use of
thermite welding was the Delaware and Hudson Railroad in the United States in 1935[3] The weld quality of
chemically pure thermite is low due to the low heat penetration into the joining metals and the very
low carbon and alloy content in the nearly pure molten iron. To obtain sound railroad welds, the ends of the
rails being thermite welded are preheated with a torch to an orange heat, to ensure the molten steel is not
chilled during the pour. Because the thermite reaction yields relatively pure iron, not the much stronger steel,
some small pellets or rods of high-carbon alloying metal are included in the thermite mix; these alloying
materials melt from the heat of the thermite reaction and mix into the weld metal. The alloying beads
composition will vary, according to the rail alloy being welded.
The reaction reaches very high temperatures, depending on the metal oxide used. The reactants are usually
supplied in the form of powders, with the reaction triggered using a spark from a flint lighter. The activation
energy for this reaction is very high however, and initiation requires either the use of a "booster" material
such as powdered magnesium metal or a very hot flame source. The aluminium oxide slag that it produces is
discarded.[4][5]
When welding copper conductors, the process employs a semi-permanent graphite crucible mould, in which
the molten copper, produced by the reaction, flows through the mould and over and around the conductors to
be welded, forming an electrically conductive weld between them. [6] When the copper cools, the mould is
either broken off or left in place.[4]Alternatively, hand-held graphite crucibles can be used. The advantages of
these crucibles include portability, lower cost (because they can be reused), and flexibility, especially in field
applications.

Properties[edit]
An exothermic weld has higher mechanical strength than other forms of weld, and excellent corrosion
resistance[7] It is also highly stable when subject to repeated short-circuit pulses, and does not suffer from
increased electrical resistance over the lifetime of the installation. However, the process is costly relative to
other welding processes, requires a supply of replaceable moulds, suffers from a lack of repeatability, and
can be impeded by wet conditions or bad weather (when performed outdoors).[4][6]

Applications[edit]
Exothermic welding is usually used for welding copper conductors but is suitable for welding a wide range
of metals, including stainless steel, cast iron, common steel, brass, bronze, and Monel.[4] It is especially
useful for joining dissimilar metals.[5] The process is marketed under a variety of names such as APLIWELD
(in tablet form), American Rail Weld, Harger ULTRASHOT, ERICO CADWELD, Quikweld, Tectoweld,
Ultraweld, Techweld, TerraWeld, Thermoweld, Ardo Weld, AmiableWeld, AIWeld, FurseWeld and
Kumwell.[4]
Because of the good electrical conductivity and high stability in the face of short-circuit pulses, exothermic
welds are one of the options specified by §250.7 of the United States National Electrical Code for grounding
conductors and bonding jumpers.[8] It is the preferred method of bonding, and indeed it is the only acceptable
means of bonding copper to galvanized cable.[5] The NEC does not require such exothermically welded
connections to be listed or labelled, but some engineering specifications require that completed exothermic
welds be examined using X-ray equipment.[8]

Rail welding[edit]

Tram tracks being joined

Tram tracks recently joined

Typically, the ends of the rails are cleaned, aligned flat and true, and spaced apart 25 mm (1 in).[9] This gap
between rail ends for welding is to ensure consistent results in the pouring of the molten steel into the weld
mold. In the event of a welding failure, the rail ends can be cropped to a 75 mm (3 in) gap, removing the
melted and damaged rail ends, and a new weld attempted with a special mould and larger thermite charge. A
two or three piece hardened sand mould is clamped around the rail ends, and a torch of suitable heat capacity
is used to preheat the ends of the rail and the interior of the mould. The proper amount of thermite with
alloying metal is placed in a refractory crucible, and when the rails have reached a sufficient temperature, the
thermite is ignited and allowed to react to completion (allowing time for any alloying metal to fully melt and
mix, yielding the desired molten steel or alloy). The reaction crucible is then tapped at the bottom. Modern
crucibles have a self-tapping thimble in the pouring nozzle. The molten steel flows into the mould, fusing
with the rail ends and forming the weld. The slag, being lighter than the steel flows last from the crucible and
overflows the mould into a steel catch basin, to be disposed of after cooling. The entire setup is allowed to
cool. The mould is removed and the weld is cleaned by hot chiselling and grinding to produce a smooth joint.
Typical time from start of the work until a train can run over the rail is approximately 45 minutes to more
than an hour, depending on the rail size and ambient temperature. In any case, the rail steel must be cooled to
less than 370 °C (700 °F) before it can sustain the weight of rail locomotives.
When a thermite process is used for track circuits – the bonding of wires to the rails with a copper alloy,
a graphite mould is used. The graphite mould is reusable many times, because the copper alloy is not as hot
as the steel alloys used in rail welding. In signal bonding, the volume of molten copper is quite small,
approximately 2 cm3 (0.1 cu in) and the mould is lightly clamped to the side of the rail, also holding a signal
wire in place. In rail welding, the weld charge can weigh up to 13 kg (29 lb). The hardened sand mould is
heavy and bulky, must be securely clamped in a very specific position and then subjected to intense heat for
several minutes before firing the charge. When rail is welded into long strings, the longitudinal expansion
and contraction of steel must be taken into account. British practice sometimes uses a sliding joint of some
sort at the end of long runs of continuously welded rail, to allow some movement, although by using a
heavy concrete sleeper and an extra amount of ballast at the sleeper ends, the track, which will be prestressed
according to the ambient temperature at the time of its installation, will develop compressive stress in hot
ambient temperature, or tensile stress in cold ambient temperature, its strong attachment to the heavy
sleepers preventing buckling or other deformation. Current practice is to use welded rails throughout on high
speed lines, and expansion joints are kept to a minimum, often only to protect junctions and crossings from
excessive stress. American practice appears to be very similar, a straightforward physical restraint of the rail.
The rail is prestressed, or considered "stress neutral" at some particular ambient temperature. This "neutral"
temperature will vary according to local climate conditions, taking into account lowest winter and warmest
summer temperatures. The rail is physically secured to the ties or sleepers with rail anchors, or anti-creepers.
If the track ballast is good and clean and the ties are in good condition, and the track geometry is good, then
the welded rail will withstand ambient temperature swings normal to the region.

Electrogas welding (EGW) is a continuous vertical position arc welding process developed in 1961, in

which an arc is struck between a consumable electrode and the workpiece. A shielding gas is sometimes
used, but pressure is not applied. A major difference between EGW and its cousin electroslag welding is that
the arc in EGW is not extinguished, instead remains struck throughout the welding process. It is used to
make square-groove welds for butt and t-joints, especially in the shipbuilding industry and in the
construction of storage tanks.

Operation[edit]
In EGW, the heat of the welding arc causes the electrode and workpieces to melt and flow into the cavity
between the parts being welded. This molten metal solidifies from the bottom up, joining the parts being
welded together. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a separate shielding gas, or
by the gas produced by the disintegration of a flux-cored electrode wire. The electrode is guided into the
weld area by either a consumable electrode guide tube, like the one used in electroslag welding, or a moving
head. When the consumable guide tube is used, the weld pool is composed of molten metal coming from the
parts being welded, the electrode, and the guide tube. The moving head variation uses an assembly of an
electrode guide tube which travels upwards as the weld is laid, keeping it from melting.
Electrogas welding can be applied to most steels, including low and medium carbon steels, low alloy high
strength steels, and some stainless steels. Quenched and tempered steels may also be welded by the process,
provided that the proper amount of heat is applied. Welds must be vertical, varying to either side by a
maximum of 15 degrees. In general, the workpiece must be at least 10 mm (0.4 in) thick, while the maximum
thickness for one electrode is approximately 20 mm (0.8 in). Additional electrodes make it possible to weld
thicker workpieces. The height of the weld is limited only by the mechanism used to lift the welding head—
in general, it ranges from 100 mm (4 in) to 20 m (50 ft).
Like other arc welding processes, EGW requires that the operator wear a welding helmet and proper attire to
prevent exposure to molten metal and the bright welding arc. Compared to other processes, a large amount of
molten metal is present during welding, and this poses an additional safety and fire hazard. Since the process
is often performed at great heights, the work and equipment must be properly secured, and the operator
should wear a safety harness to prevent injury in the event of a fall.

Equipment[edit]
EGW uses a constant voltage, direct current welding power supply, and the electrode has positive polarity.
The welding current can range from 100 to 800 A, and the voltage can range between 30 and 50 V. A wire
feeder is used to supply the electrode, which is selected based on the material being welded. The electrode
can be flux-cored to provide the weld with protection from atmospheric contamination, or a shielding gas—
generally carbon dioxide—can be used with a solid wire electrode. The welding head is attached to an
apparatus that elevates during the welding process. Also attached to the apparatus are backing shoes which
restrain the weld to the width of the workpieces. To prevent them from melting, they are made of copper and
are water-cooled. They must be fit tightly against the joint to prevent leaks.

Stud welding is a technique similar to flash welding where a fastener or specially formed nut is welded onto
another metal part, typically a base metal or substrate. The fastener can take different forms, but typically fall
under threaded, unthreaded or tapped. The bolts may be automatically fed into the spot welder. Weld nuts
generally have a flange with small nubs that melt to form the weld. Weld studs are used in stud welding
systems.
Capacitor discharge weld studs range from 14 gauge to 3/8" diameter. They can come in many different
lengths ranging from 1/4" to 5" and larger. The tip on the weld end of the stud serves a twofold purpose:

1. It acts as a timing device to keep the stud off the base material
2. It disintegrates when the trigger is pulled on the gun.
When the tip disintegrates, it melts and helps solidify the weld to the base material.
Arc studs range from a #8 to 11⁄4" diameter. The lengths are variable from 3/8" to 60" (for deformed bars).
Arc studs are typically loaded with an aluminium flux ball on the weld end which aids in the welding
process.
Stud welding, also known as "drawn arc stud welding", joins a stud and another piece of metal together by
heating both parts with an arc. The stud is usually joined to a flat plate by using the stud as one of
the electrodes. The polarity used in stud welding depends on the type of metal being used. Welding
aluminium, for example, would usually require direct-current electrode positive (DCEP). Welding steel
would require direct-current electrode negative (DCEN).[1]
Stud welding uses a type of flux called a ferrule, a ceramic ring which concentrates the heat generated,
prevents oxidation and retains the molten metal in the weld zone. The ferrule is broken off of the fastener
after the weld is completed. This lack of marring on the side opposite the fastener is what differentiates stud
welding from other fastening processes.[2]
Portable stud welding machines are available. Welders can also be automated, with controls for arcing and
applying pressure. Stud welding is very versatile. Typical applications include automobile bodies, electrical
panels, shipbuilding and building construction. Shipbuilding is one of the oldest uses of stud welding. Stud
welding revolutionized the shipbuilding industry. All other manufacturing industries can also use stud
welding for a variety of purposes.
A type of stud welding called capacitor-discharge (CD) stud welding differs from regular stud welding in
that capacitor-discharge welding does not require flux. The weld time is shorter, enabling the weld to bond
with little oxidation and no need for heat concentration. It also allows for small-diameter studs to be welded
to thin,lightweight materials.[3] This process uses a direct-current arc from a capacitor. The weld time in this
process is between 1 and 6 milliseconds. Capacitor discharge stud welding with the latest equipment can
create a weld without burn through showing on the opposite side of very thin metals. CD stud welding is
often used for smaller diameter studs and pins, as well as on non-standard materials and for accuracy. On the
other hand, arc stud welding is primarily for structural purposes and larger diameter weld studs.

There are 5 pieces to each Fillet weld known as the Root, Toe, Face, Leg and Throat. [2] The root of the weld is
the part of deepest penetration which is the opposite angle of the Hypotenuse. The toes of the weld are
essentially the edges or the points of the hypotenuse. The face of the weld is the outer visual or hypotenuse that
you see when looking at a fillet weld. The legs are the opposite and adjacent sides to the triangular fillet weld.
The leg length is usually designated as the size of the weld. The throat of the weld is the distance from the center
of the face to the root of the weld. Typically the depth of the throat should be at least as thick as the thickness of
metal you are welding.