Math.

Methods FIS-380 First Homework

O. Castillo-Felisola Monday 13th April, 2020

1. Exponential expansion
Verify by direct power series expansion that:
(a) If D is a diagonal matrix, then
   
d1 ed1

 d2  
  ed2 

d3
exp(D) = exp 
 d3 =
  e .

.. ..
. .
   
   
dn edn

(b)    
0 1 cos θ sin θ
exp θ = .
−1 0 − sin θ cos θ
(c)    
0 1 cosh θ sinh θ
exp θ = .
1 0 sinh θ cosh θ

2. To be or not to be a group
Are the following duplets groups? Explain each case.

• ({ 1, −1 } , +) and ({ 1, −1 } , ·).
m
• { eı n π } , · for m ∈ Z and n a fixed integer.

• (N, +), (Z, +), (Z, ·), (Q, +), (Q, ·), (R, +), (R, ·), (C, +) and (C, ·)

3. Coordinate transformations among inertial observers

Let P1 , P2 , . . . , be various physicists observing the universe around them. To do this,
each sets up his own coordinate system CS1 , CS2 , . . . , and represents physical systems
and concepts by mathematical expressions. To be able to communicate with one another,
each physicist must be able to write down the observations of any other in terms of his
own coordinate system. Let Tji be the procedure which Pj uses to transform the data
of Pi to his own reference frame.

• Show that all possible Tji constitute a set.

• Show

Tki = Tkj Tji

Tki = Tik−1
Tii = identity
Tki Tik = identity

In other words, the set of all transformations from one physicist’s coordinate system
to another’s coordinate system constitutes a group.
• Is this group of observer coordinate system transformations Abelian?
Math. Methods FIS-380 First Homework(Continued)

• Does this set of coordinate system transformations have (or require) any other
algebraic structure on it?

4. Algebraic structure of square matrices

Show that the collection of real n × n matrices M (n) constitutes:

• A set.
• A group under matrix multiplication when we exclude those matrices with vanishing
determinant, i.e.,
det M (n) 6= 0.

• A linear vector space under matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

• An algebra under matrix addition, scalar multiplication, and matrix multiplication.
• Show that the matrices M (n) do not form a field.

5. Homomorphism or isomorphism
Let M be a set of n × n matrices. Consider the two mappings:
1
σ : M → S = (M + M t ),
2
1
α : M → A = (M − M t ),
2
where t means transpose.
Are σ and α isomorphisms, homomorphisms, or neither under the following conditions:
(a) They are considered as set mappings.
(b) They are considered as group mappings (det(M ) 6= 0).
(c) They are considered as linear vector space mappings.
(d) They are considered as algebra mappings, where the third operation 2 is matrix
multiplication in M , anticommutation in S, and commutation in A.

6. Algebraic structure of the space of functions

Show that the set of functions f (x) defined pointwise on the real line is a linear vector
space under scalar multiplication and pointwise addition,

ψ(x) = α f (x) + β g(x).

Show that this space is an algebra under pointwise multiplication of functions,

Ψ(x) = f (x)g(x).

7. Explicit example of discrete group

Consider a group with elements e, a, b, c, d and f with the multiplication table (read
columns first ab = d):

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Math. Methods FIS-380 First Homework(Continued)

e a b c d f
e e a b c d f
a a e d f b c
b b f e d c a
c c d f e a b
d d c a b f e
f f b c a e d
• Find the order of all the elements.
• Find the subgroups.
• Divide the group into cosets and verify the this can be done in a unique way.

8. Working out the permutation group

In class we have introduced the notation for elements in the group of permutations as
 
1 2 ··· n
.
a1 a2 · · · an

However, it is possible to refer to the permutations in a simplified notation.

Consider the element  
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
σ= .
2 8 3 5 4 7 6 1
Notice that if you take the first component, it is mapped to two, i.e., 1 → 2. Since it is
mapped to two, we’ll take the second component. . . which is mapped to eight (2 → 8),
and the eighth component is mapped to one, which closes a cycle! The above cycle is
denoted by (128), and since it has three component, one can called a 3-cycle.
The element presented above is decomposed into a set of cycles,

σ = (128)(3)(45)(67) = (128)(45)(67),

where in the last step the 1-cycle was omitted.

(a) Check that the order of the cycles which compose a permutation does not matter.
Explain why.
(b) Show that in general (123 · · · n) = (1n) · · · (13)(12).
Using this property, we have that σ = (18)(12)(45)(67).
(c) Take the group S4 .
i. Write down all its elements using the cycle notation.
ii. Which is the inverse of a generic element of S4 ?
iii. Show that a conjugate transformation (say a0 = bab−1 ) does not change the
cyclic “structure” of the elements.
iv. From the last question, classes of the permutation group are obtained from the
number of p-cycles composing the elements. Therefore the number of classes
equals the number of partitions of n. How many classes are in S4 ?

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Math. Methods FIS-380 First Homework(Continued)

v. Show that the set of even permutations form a subgroup. The group is called
alternating group and denoted by A4 .
vi. Show that there is a Z4 ⊂ S4 .
vii. How many Z3 ’s and Z2 ’s are in S4 ?
viii. Compute S4 /A4 , A4 /V4 , with

V4 = { Id, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23) } ,

and show that the factor groups are Abelian.

9. Dihedral groups, direct products

A presentation of a finite group is a list of its generators, their order, and whatever
further relations are needed to specify the group. The same group may have several
presentations. For example, D3 has the simple presentation

a, b  a3 = b2 = e; bab−1 = a−1 .

 

With two generators, D3 is said to have rank two. D3 is also the symmetry group of
the equilateral triangle. In general the dihedral group Dn is the symmetry group of a
regural polygon of n sides, and its presentation is given by

Dn = a, b  an = b2 = e; bab−1 = a−1 .

 

(a) Use the given presentation to find the multiplication table for D3 and D4 .
(b) What is the direct product of groups?
(c) Show that D2 = Z2 × Z2 , where Z2 is the group of two elements,1 i.e.


Z2 = a  a2 = e .


(d) Show that D6 = D3 × Z2 .

10. Cosets and conjugacy classes of D3 and D4

In the previous question, you found the multiplication table for the dihedral groups D3
and D4 . Find their cosets and conjugacy classes.

To be handled on Wednesday 29th April, 2020.

1
In general, the cyclic group Zn is rotation group of a regular n-polygon. Only rotations, no reflections.
Its presentation is Zn = ha | an = ei.

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