Bowel Obstruction StatPearls
Bowel Obstruction StatPearls
Bowel Obstruction StatPearls
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Bowel Obstruction
Authors
Affiliations
1 Salus University/PVAMC
2 St Bernards Medical Center
Introduction
A bowel obstruction can either be a mechanical or functional obstruction of the small or large intestines. The
obstruction occurs when the lumen of the bowel becomes either partially or completely blocked. Obstruction
frequently causes abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, constipation-to-obstipation, and distention. This, in turn,
prevents the normal movement of digested products. Small bowel obstructions (SBOs) are more common than large
bowel obstructions (LBOs) and are the most frequent indication for surgery on the small intestines. Bowel
obstructions are classified as a partial, complete, or closed loop. A closed-loop obstruction refers to a type of
obstruction in the small or large bowel in which there is complete obstruction distally and proximally in the
given segment of the intestine.[1][2][3]
Etiology
There are many potential etiologies of small and large bowel obstructions that are classified as either extrinsic,
intrinsic, or intraluminal. The most common cause of SBOs in industrialized nations is from extrinsic sources, with
post-surgical adhesions being the most common. Significant adhesions can cause kinking of the bowel leading to
obstruction. It is estimated that at least two-thirds of patients with previous abdominal surgery have adhesions. Other
common extrinsic sources include cancer, which causes compression of the small bowel leading to obstruction. Less
common but still prevalent extrinsic causes are inguinal and umbilical hernias. Untreated or symptomatic hernias may
eventually become kinked as the small bowel protrudes through the defect in the abdominal wall and becomes
entrapped in the hernia sack. Hernias that are not identified or are not reducible may progress to obstruction of the
bowel and are considered a surgical emergency with the strangulated or incarcerated bowel becoming ischemic over
time. Other causes of SBO include intrinsic disease, which can create an insidious onset of bowel wall thickening.
The bowel wall slowly becomes compromised, forming a stricture. Crohn disease is the most common cause of
benign stricture seen in the adult population. [4][5]
Intraluminal causes for SBOs are less common. This process occurs when there is an ingested foreign body that
causes impaction within the lumen of the bowel or navigates to the ileocecal valve and is unable to pass, forming a
barrier to the large intestine. However, it is noted that most foreign bodies that pass through the pyloric sphincter will
be able to pass through the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. LBOs are less common and compromise only 10% to 15%
of all intestinal obstructions. The most common cause of all LBOs is adenocarcinoma, followed by diverticulitis and
volvulus. Colonic obstruction is most commonly seen in the sigmoid colon.
Epidemiology
Small and large bowel obstructions are similar in incidence in both males and females. The overriding factor affecting
incidence and distribution depends on patient risk factors, including but not limited to: prior abdominal surgery, colon
or metastatic cancer, chronic intestinal inflammatory disease, existing abdominal wall and/or an inguinal hernia,
previous irradiation, and foreign body ingestion. [6][7]
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Pathophysiology
The normal physiology of the small intestine consists of the digestion of food and the absorption of nutrients. The
large bowel continues to aid in digestion and is responsible for vitamin synthesis, water absorption, and bilirubin
breakdown. Any obstructive mechanism will hinder these physiologic components. Obstruction causes dilation of the
bowel proximal to the transition point and collapses distally. A result of partial or complete blockage of digested
products during obstruction is emesis. Frequent emesis can lead to fluid deficits and electrolyte abnormalities. As the
condition is left untreated and worsens, a bowel wall edema forms, and third-spacing begins. A serious and life-
threatening complication of bowel obstruction is strangulation. Strangulation is more commonly seen in closed-loop
obstructions. If the strangulated bowel is not treated promptly, it eventually becomes ischemic, and tissue infarction
occurs. Tissue infarction progresses to bowel necrosis, perforation, and sepsis/septic shock.
Additionally, distention is marked in LBO with obstipation more commonly present. It is important to note that in
certain situations, an LBO will mimic an SBO if the ileocecal valve is incompetent. An incompetent ileocecal valve
can allow for the insufflation of air from the large bowel into the small bowel producing symptoms of an SBO.
Evaluation
Although bowel obstruction alone can be suspected with an accurate patient history and presentation, the current
standard of care to confirm the diagnosis in small and large bowel obstruction is an abdominal CT with oral contrast.
CT allows for visualization of the transition point, the severity of obstruction, potential etiology, and assessment of
any life-threatening complications. This information enables the provider to be more effective in identifying patients
who will require surgical intervention. Laboratory evaluation is essential to evaluate for any leukocytosis, electrolyte
derangements that may be present as a result of the emesis. Labs also evaluate for elevated lactic acid that may be
suggestive of sepsis or perforation, which at times may not be visible on CT if it is a microperforation and early in the
course, blood cultures, or other signs of sepsis/septic shock. Although the lactic acid is often looked to in order to
determine if there is a sign of perforation or ischemic gut, it should be noted this can be normal even with a
microperforation present, initially. Physical examination of the patient remains an essential diagnostic tool regarding
the patient's severity and the need for emergent surgery vs. medical management.[8]
Treatment / Management
Initial management should always include an assessment of the patient's airway, breathing, and circulation. If
resuscitation is required, it should be performed with isotonic saline and electrolyte replacement. A Foley catheter
should be inserted to monitor the patient's urine output if the patient is unstable or septic. Nasogastric tube insertion
will allow for bowel decompression to relieve distention proximal to the obstruction. Nasogastric tube insertion will
also help control emesis, allow for accurate assessment of intake and output, and lower the risk of aspiration.
Management ultimately depends on the etiology and severity of the obstruction. Stable patients with partial or low-
grade obstruction resolve with nasogastric tube decompression and supportive measures. Patients who present with
reducible hernias will require non-emergent surgical intervention to prevent future recurrence. Non-reducible or
strangulated hernias require emergency surgical intervention. Complete or high-grade obstructions often require
urgent or emergent surgical intervention as the risk of ischemia increases. Chronic disease states such as Crohn
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disease and malignancy require initial supportive measures and longer periods of nonoperative management.
Treatment will ultimately depend on the patient's disposition and surgeon's acumen.
Prognosis
When bowel obstruction is managed promptly, the outcome is good. In general, when bowel obstruction is managed
non surgically the recurrence rate is much higher than those treated surgically.
Complications
Intraabdominal abscess
Sepsis
Disability
Wound dehiscence
Aspiration
Pneumonia
Bowel perforation
Respiratory failure
Anastomotic leak
Renal failure
Death
Consultations
General surgeon
Stoma nurse
Infectious disease
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Outcomes
The morbidity and mortality of bowel obstruction are dependent on early diagnosis and management. If any
strangulated bowel is left untreated, there is a mortality rate of close to 100%. However, if surgery is
undertaken within 24-48 hours, the mortality rates are less than 10%. Factors that determine the morbidity include the
age of patient, comorbidity, and delay in treatment. Today, the overall mortality of bowel obstruction is still about
5%-8%.[3][10] [Level 3]
Questions
To access free multiple choice questions on this topic, click here.
References
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