Flight Planning: Flight Operations Engineering Course
Flight Planning: Flight Operations Engineering Course
ENGINEERING COURSE
FLIGHT PLANNING
July, 2007 1
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
INDEX
1. ENROUTE CLIMB..................................................................................................... 3
2. CRUISE ..................................................................................................................... 5
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
1. ENROUTE CLIMB
LIFT - L THRUST - T
γ
θ
W•cosγ
DRAG - D
WEIGHT - W
W•senγ
TRUE AIRSPEED
RATE OF CLIMB - R/C
γ
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
Climb speeds are selected taking into account the following aspects:
• maximum rate of climb: shortest time to reach cruise altitude;
• maximum climb angle: clearing obstacle, shortest distance to reach cruise altitude;
• suitable speed schedule considering usual ATC requirements.
The graph below shows the relationship between rate of climb and the thrust drag curve.
It may be observed that the speed for maximum climb gradient occurs when the aircraft
has the maximum margin between thrust and drag. In addition, it may be observed that
the maximum rate of climb will occur at a speed higher than the maximum climb gradient
speed.
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
2. CRUISE
The balance of forces in leveled unaccelerated flight:
LIFT – L
DRAG – D THRUST - T
WEIGHT - W
LIFT = WEIGHT
THRUST = DRAG
THRUST/δ
δ
DRAG/δ
δ
THRUST/δ
δ
DRAG/δ
δ
MSC SPEED
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
The primary parameter for measuring aircraft range is the Specific Range (SR) or Fuel
Mileage. It is basically the number of nautical air miles an aircraft can travel using a
certain quantity of fuel, and can also be expressed as True Air Speed divided by the Fuel
Flow:
NAM TAS
SR = =
FUEL FF
Where:
SR: specific range;
NAM: air distance range
FUEL: fuel burned
TAS: true air speed
FF: total fuel flow
The Maximum Range Cruise (MRC) is the speed at which fuel mileage reaches its
highest possible value.
Long Range Cruise (LRC) is the speed value that results in a specific range equals to
99% of the specific range defined by the MRC. Although not so fuel efficient, LRC is more
commonly used because it is considerably faster than MRC (reducing flight time) and just
1% less fuel efficient
SPECIFIC
RANGE 1%
MRC LRC
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
The Economic Cruise Speed (Econ Speed) is defined as the speed at which Direct
Operating Costs (DOC) are minimized.
The DOC are affected by the Time Related Costs (CT) and Fuel Related Costs (CF).
The Time Related Costs may consider the following items:
• Flight crew and cabin crew wages (if they are a function of flight time);
• Aircraft and Engine leasing costs;
• Time related maintenance costs (labor and airframe);
• The cost of the late arrival of a flight.
The Fuel Related Cost is the price of fuel on a particular flight leg.
The Econ Speed is the speed at which the sum of CT and CF is minimized, as it can be
shown in the graph below:
Costs X Mach
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
Total Costs
160
150
Costs - US$
140
130 Time Related Costs
120
110
100
90
80
Fuel Related Costs
70
Min. Fuel Mach
60
Min. Cost Mach
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86
Mach
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ENGINEERING COURSE
COST INDEX
The Econ Speed can be calculated as a function of a parameter called Cost Index (CI). It
expresses the relative importance of CT and CF:
Low CT
High CF
CI = 0 MRC
High CT
Low CF
CI = 999 MSC
Many aircraft manufacturers provide Econ Speeds as a function of CI. The operator can
calculate its particular CI based on formula above, and then use the manufacturers
published data to find the Mach number associated to their calculated CI.
The Embraer General Publication called “The Cost Index and Economic Cruise Mach”
brings more information and details about the relation between CI and Econ Speeds.
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ENGINEERING COURSE
The figure below shows the MRC, LRC, Econ Speed (CI = 10) and MSC, and how it is
influenced by the aircraft weight.
Altitude = 33.000 ft
ISA conditions SR X Mach
0.30
MRC
0.29 LRC
CI = 10
0.28
0.27
1%
0.26
0.25
0.24
SR - NM/kg
0.23 MSC
0.22 27.000 kg
0.21
30.000 kg
0.20
33.000 kg
0.19
0.18 36.000 kg
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86
Mach
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ENGINEERING COURSE
The Maneuver Capability (also called as Buffet Margin) represents the ability of the wing
to generate enough lift for the weight of the airplane.
The aircraft manufacturers usually publish graphs which show at which speed the aircraft
will start experiencing high and low speed buffeting for a given weight and altitude. These
graphs also show corrections for load factors greater than 1, which can be used to
determine the buffeting speed in case of banked flight or in turbulence. The figure below
shows a typical Maneuver Capability graph:
For a certain weight, load factor and altitude, the graph shows the minimum and maximum
speeds the aircraft can fly without experiencing buffeting. If the minimum and maximum
speeds coincide, it is said that the aircraft has reached the Coffin Corner. At this speed, it
is neither possible to accelerate or decelerate, otherwise buffeting would occur. In this
case, the only option left for the pilot is to descend to a lower altitude.
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ENGINEERING COURSE
The load factor margin may be expressed in terms of the level flight bank angle that
corresponds to the given loading.
L
θ
mg
In the situation shown above, the balance of forces in the vertical plan is:
L 1 1
L × cosθ = m × g ⇒ = ⇒ n=
m × g cosθ cosθ
Where:
L = lift
m = mass
g = acceleration of gravity
θ = bank angle
n = load factor
For example, an airplane flying at 40 degrees of bank while maintaining a level flight
altitude will generate a loading of approximately 1.3:
1 1
n= = = 1.3
cosθ cos40o
The Maneuver Capability chart can be used to determine the maximum weight at a certain
altitude that provides a selected maneuver margin. Many airlines prefer to limit the
operations by 1.3Gs on Buffet Margin, which, according to the example above, is
equivalent to stall the aircraft at 40º bank angle.
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ENGINEERING COURSE
The Optimum Cruise Altitude is the pressure altitude, for a given weight and speed, that
gives the maximum specific range.
35000
34000
33000
32000
31000
30000
29000
28000
27000
26000
25000
0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.3 0.31 0.32
Many times, it is not possible to fly at the optimum altitude because the available flight
level depends on the direction of the flight or may not be cleared by the ATC. In addition,
the aircraft may not have enough buffet margin to fly at that altitude.
The optimum altitude, as defined above, is based on the cruise specific range only, and
does not consider the overall fuel consumption during an entire flight. For shorter-range
flights, it makes more sense defining the Optimum Cruise Altitude as the altitude at
which the entire flight fuel burn is minimized (i.e., minimizing Climb+Cruise+Descent fuel).
In must be observed that on short flights the leveled cruise segment may be very small, or
non-existent at all (descent starting immediately after the climb to cruise altitude is
completed). Embraer publishes on its Airplane Operations Manual (AOM) a cruise altitude
table based on minimum flight fuel consumption and considering at least 5 minutes of
cruise time.
CRUISE
At least 5 minutes
in cruise
CLIMB DESCENT
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ENGINEERING COURSE
TAS N + VW N TAS A + VW A
≥
FFN FFA
Where:
TAS= True Airspeed
VW = Direct Wind Component (Positive for Tail Wind and Negative for Head Wind)
FF = Fuel Flow
Many aircraft manufactures present this equation on table format. The break-even wind
can be determined on the flight level, which is intended to climb or descent to (new flight
level), considering the wind on the actual flight level, speed, weight and altitude.
Embraer publishes on its Airplane Operations Manual (AOM) wind-altitude trade tables
and also examples of how these tables should be used.
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
3. FLIGHT PLANNING
The alternate airport is necessary if, during the time period of 1 hour before the estimated
time of arrival (ETA) and 1 hour after ETA, the destination airport ceiling is 2000 ft or
below, or visibility is less than 3 NM.
July, 2007 14
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
Fuel tankering is a procedure that may be adopted by airlines when the fuel price at the
destination airport is higher than in the origin. If it is cost effective, the airline will load
additional fuel at the origin airport in order to minimize (or even avoid) refueling at the
destination airport.
Fuel tankering causes the aircraft weight to increase, thus increasing fuel consumption.
Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the costs of the extra fuel transportation operation.
Special care must be taken in determining the total fuel quantity to be tankered. Basically,
three factors must be observed:
• The amount of fuel tankered must be such that the total fuel remaining at the end
of the flight shall not exceed the minimum fuel required for the next flight, unless a
fuel tankering analysis has been done for a multi-leg flight.
• Tankered fuel may not cause the aircraft weight to exceed the maximum takeoff
and landing weights.
In normal flight conditions, the wing produces a lift force that actuates at a point aft of the
center of gravity (CG) of the aircraft. In order to counteract the nose-down moment
caused by the wing lift and aircraft weight forces, the horizontal stabilizer needs to
generate a down force.
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ENGINEERING COURSE
When the CG of the aircraft is in a forward position, the nose-down moment caused by the
wing lift and aircraft weight forces increases, thus requiring a greater horizontal stabilizer
down force to counteract it.
In order to guarantee stabilized flight conditions, the wing lift force must be equal to the
aircraft weight plus the horizontal stabilizer down force. If the horizontal stabilizer down
force increases due to forward CG position, the wing lift force will also need to increase.
This lift increase can only be obtained by increasing the aircraft angle of attack, which will
also result in an increase of the drag forces.
Thus, in general, the best position to save fuel is an aft CG, because this condition results
in smaller stabilizer down forces and, therefore, smaller wing lift forces. The reduction on
the lift results in less drag, therefore reducing fuel consumption.
Some airplanes have an automatic system to maintain CG as aft as possible, in order to
optimize fuel consumption.
When performing the fuel and payload calculations, the airplane structural and
performance limiting weights must be observed. An easy way of guaranteeing that no limit
is exceeded is by limiting the takeoff weight to the lower of the following:
a) Maximum Structural Weight, Performance limited takeoff weight or Pavement strength
limited weight, whichever is lower;
b) Maximum Structural Landing Weight or Performance Limited Landing Weight, plus the
Trip Fuel; or
c) Maximum Zero Fuel Weight plus the Takeoff Fuel.
+ +
Trip T.O.
Fuel Fuel
(*) = Max Landing is the lowest between the Max Structural Landing Weight, Performance Limited
Landing Weight and Landing Pavement Strength Limited Weight.
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
3.9 EMERGENCY DESCENT AND OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS (JAR OPS 1.770 / 1760
and FAR 121.329/333)
An operator shall not operate a pressurized airplane at pressure altitudes above 10000 ft
unless supplemental oxygen equipment, capable of storing and dispensing the oxygen
supplies required is provided.”
Chemical Systems:
The supply pressure is constant and independent of the cabin altitude. This will lead to a
continuous and decreasing flow during the descent of the aircraft. So high flows are
provided at high altitudes and low flows at low altitudes. A period of 12 or 22 minutes of
oxygen supply is typically used on commercial aircraft.
The amount of supplementary oxygen required shall be determined on the basis of cabin
pressure altitude. It is possible to build a flight profile that represents the maximum
altitudes that the aircraft can fly in such a way that all the oxygen requirements are
respected.
The oxygen profile is then constructed considering that the supplementary oxygen time
limit is expired exactly when then aircraft reaches 10000 ft.
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The aircraft must have performance to accomplish this profile using emergency descent
speeds according to each type of aircraft. The performance descent profile must always
stand at or below the oxygen profile.
OXYGEN PROFILE
EMERGENCY
DESCENT
SPEED
10000 ft
3.10 ETOPS
Extended Range Operation with Two Engine Airplanes (ETOPS) is a special certification
that the airplane and operator must have to operate over a route that contains a point
distant farther than 60 minutes flying time (at a one-engine-inoperative cruise speed under
standard conditions in still air) from an Adequate Airport. (FAR 121.161 or JAR-OPS
1.245)
In order to have the ETOPS certification, the aircraft must be certified to comply with the
requirements for the Type Design Approval and the operator must gain the Operational
Approval. Some factors that must be considered are listed below:
• Airframe/engine designed for fail-safe criteria
• Effect of operation with a single engine
• Fuel management
• Independent sources of AC power
• Cargo fire protection system
• Equipment cooling
• Analysis of failure effects
• In-Service experience
• Manufacturer validation flight test
• Propulsion system reliability record
• Maintenance program reliability
• Operational limitations and Flight Dispatch considerations
Once ETOPS approved, the aircraft and operator gain approvals for either 75 min, 120
min or 180 min from an adequate alternative aerodrome.
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ENGINEERING COURSE
Any point along a route must be located within the ETOPS approval time range circles (or
60 min for non-ETOPS approved aircraft):
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In JAR OPS 1.245 it is defined that for aircraft without ETOPS certification, the 60 min
range circles shall be calculated based in the following conditions:
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