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THE HEIBONSHA SURVEY OF JAPANESE ART
The Art of Japanese

Calligraphy by YUJIRO NAKATA
In Japan, as in China, calligraphy has always
been regarded as one of the most important
art forms. Yet in spite of this, it is the art form
that is perhaps least familiar to the Western
reader. Professor Nakata’s book, with 184 il¬
lustrations, including 22 in color, is thus a
particularly welcome addition to the English
literature on this subject. Starting with an
account of the origins of kanji (Chinese char¬
acters) some 3,000 years ago, and the struc¬
tural principles on which they are based, the
book describes how the primitive symbols of
the earliest extant inscriptions, found on
oracle bones and tortoise shells of the Yin
period, developed into one of the principal
vehicles for the expression of the Chinese,
and eventually the Japanese, spirit.
The author shows that Japanese callig¬
raphy, although ultimately based on and
influenced by Chinese calligraphy, has a
flavor of its own and reflects admirably the
character of Japanese culture. He deals with
the introduction of kanji into Japan and the
subsequent developments in karayo (Chinese
style) calligraphy there, the evolution of the
Japanese hiragana and katakana phonetic
scripts, the emergence of a uniquely Japanese
calligraphic style (wayo), and the interrela¬
tionship of the karayo and wayo styles. Other
topics covered include types of paper used,
plaque and stele inscriptions, ornamental
script styles, seal carving, bokuseki (callig¬
raphy by 1 igh-ranking Zen priests), and
calligraphy arid the tea ceremony. Here,
presented by cne of the leading scholars in
the field, is |ll the information that the
Western reader needs for a sound under¬
standing- of the essential nature of the art of
Japanese calligraphy.
LEARNING
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The Art of
Japanese Calligraphy
THE HEIBONSHA SURVEY OF JAPANESE ART
For a list of the entire series see end of book
CONSULTING EDITORS
Katsuichiro Kamei, art critic

Seiichiro Takahashi, Chairman, Japan Art Academy
Ichimatsu Tanaka, Chairman, Cultural Properties Protection Commission
The Art of
by YUJIRO NAKATA
translated by Alan Woodhull
in collaboration with Armins Nikovskis
New York • WE ATH ER H ILL /H E I BONSH A • Tokyo

This book was originally published in Japanese by Heibon-
sha under the title Sho in the Nihon no Bijutsu series.
I
t
f? <
■
First English Edition, 1973
Jointly published by John Weatherhill, Inc., 149 Madison Avenue, New

York, New York 10016, with editorial offices at 7-6-13 Roppongi, Minato-
ku, Tokyo 106, and Heibonsha, Tokyo. Copyright © 1967, 1973, by
Heibonsha; all rights reserved. Printed in Japan.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Nakata, Yujiro, 1905- /

The art of Japanese calligraphy. / (The Heibonsha survey of Japanese
art) /Translation of Sho. / 1. Calligraphy, Japanese. I. Title. II. Series./
NK 3637. A 2 N 3213 1973 / 745.6'199'52 / 72-92096 / isbn 0-8348-
1013-1
Contents
1. The Origins and Styles of Chinese and Japanese
Calligraphy 9
The Origins of Kanji 9
The Five Basic Kanji Styles 11
Kana 25
2. Tensho: Seal Script 29

Early Tensho in Japan 29
Edo- and Meiji-period Tensho 42
3. Reisho: Scribe’s Script 51

Edo-period Reisho 51
Meiji Reisho: The New Wave 65
4. Zattaisho: Ornamental Styles 68

Zattaisho by Kukai 68
Zattaisho after Kukai 74
5. Gakuji: Plaque Inscriptions 76
6. Kaisho: Block Script 83

Sui and T’ang Influence 83
Sung, Yuan, and Ming Influence 84
Edo and Modern Periods 87
A Japanese Kaisho 99
7. Gyosho: Semicursive Script 101

Harmony of Kana and Gyosho 103
Dictionaries of Gyosho 105
8. Sosho: Cursive Script 106
Origins of Sosho 106
Sosho in Japan 106
Dictionaries of Sosho 122
The Aesthetics ol Sosho * 124
9. Hiragana 125
Man’yo-gana to Hiragana 125
The Beauty of Heian Kana 126
Kana Composition 128
Kana and Paper and Ink 138
Kamakura and After 141
10. The Karayo Tradition 145

Yamato and Asuka 145
Nara 148
Early Heian 150
Late Heian 152
Kamakura 152
Muromachi and Momoyama 155
Edo Period 156
Meiji and Taisho 162
11. The Wayo Style 164

Late Heian 164
Kamakura and Muromachi 166
Edo Period 168
Meiji and Modern Calligraphy 169
Interdependence of Karayo and Wayo 170
The Art of
CHAPTER ONE
The Origins and Styles

of Chinese and
In the West, calligraphy is generally associated Chinese and Japanese calligraphy (sho or shodo in
with penmanship, and is mainly thought of as the Japanese, shu or shufa in Chinese) is basically the
art of writing neatly, but in China and Japan, art of writing Chinese and Japanese characters
because of the flexibility of the materials used and with these materials. Nowadays, virtually all writ¬
the graphic possibilities inherent in the scripts, ing for practical purposes is done with pen or
it has attained to the status of an important art. pencil, but brush-and-ink calligraphy is still widely
The Chinese language is written in a script con¬ practiced as an independent art.
sisting basically of pictographic and ideographic
characters written downwards in vertical lines ar¬ THE ORIGINS Calligraphy is one of the most
ranged from right to left. The Japanese imported OF KANJI distinctive of East Asian art
Chinese characters, and their writing system uses forms. It originated in ancient
these in combination with phonetic symbols called China, but did not become established in Japan
kana. Like Chinese, Japanese is written in vertical until the introduction of Chinese culture in the
lines from right to left. Other arrangements do Asuka (552-646) and Nara (646-794) periods.
occur, but the one described above is the norm. Since then Japanese calligraphy has developed
Various materials have been used at various peri¬ ever influenced by Chinese styles. In Japan the
ods, but the most important of these by far is paper, so-called Chinese style (karayo) of writing, directly
which has a long history in China. Until modern influenced by China, has been practiced consis¬
times, the brush was the main writing implement, tently throughout history. However, since the two
and characters were written in a kind of ink called countries clearly differ in geography, climate, na¬
mo in Chinese, or sumi in Japanese.1 The art of tional character, and customs, a uniquely Japanese
style of calligraphy called voayo, or Japanese style,
1 With the exception of Chinese proper nouns, usually was evolved. As opposed to karayo, it was the style
only the Japanese pronunciation of Chinese words has
that expressed the real individuality of Japanese
been given in the main body of this book. For the kanji
and Chinese pronunciation of the names of script styles, calligraphy.
however, see the chart on pages 14 and 15. The Chinese style of Japanese calligraphy is
ORIGINS OF KANJI • 9
based on Chinese characters—that is, kanji. Almost originally represented by a character consisting of
all the characters used in Japan were created in two horizontal lines—a short one below a longer
China and have 3,000 years of Chinese history as one).
a background. A few “national characters” were Kai-i moji (combined-meaning characters) com¬
created in Japan, but since their structure is based bine two characters into one (e.g., the Chinese
on Chinese models, when we speak of calligraphy word hao, “to love,” was represented by picto-
there is no distinction between Japanese and Chi¬ graphs of a woman and child next to each other).
nese kanji. In other words, we should as a general Keisei moji (form-and-sound characters) are com¬
rule consider all the kanji used in Japan from the posed of two parts, one indicating pronunciation
standpoint of the principles and form of Chinese and the other meaning (e.g., the word chan, or
characters. “war,” is represented by a character consisting of
The first Chinese characters were pximitive pic- an element indicating the pronunciation chan and
tographs (shokei moji) depicting natural objects: a pictograph of a spear).
the sun and moon, mountains and rivers, plants Kashaku characters are borrowed (this is the
and animals; or things close to man’s life: dwell¬ literal meaning of the word) from the words they
ings, utensils, clothes, etc. Notions of position, originally represented, and are used for words of
quantity, etc., were indicated by characters called similar pronunciation (e.g., the word lai, or “to
shiji moji (symbolic characters; e.g., the Chinese come,” is written with a character that was origi¬
word hsia, meaning “down” or “below,” was nally a pictograph of a kind of wheat called lai).
10 • ORIGINS AND STYLES

] / f opposite page, left). Inscription engraved on
ox bone. Fourteenth to thirteenth century b.c.
Ink rubbing.
3 2 (opposite page, center). Inscription on bronze

ritual vessel. Ninth to eighth century b.c. Ink
rubbing.
C 3 (opposite page, right). Example of kobun

(“ancient writing”) in edition of Shuo Wen
Chieh Tzupublished in 1826. Top character of
second column from right is the kobun character
for “one.” Naikaku Bunko Library, Tokyo.
4. Daiten (greater seal script) inscription on

stone. About fifth century b.c. I?ik rubbing.
5. Shoten (lesser seal script) inscription on

stone. 219 b.c. Ink rubbing; height. 111 cm.
This can be regarded as a phonetic use of kanji. THE FIVE BASIC In China, styles of writing
Finally, there are tenchu characters. These are KANJI STYLES changed several times in the
characters used in senses that differ from the ori¬ course of history. The archaic
ginal ideas they represented, the change having characters of the oracle-bone (Fig. 1) and tortoise¬
come about by a process of extension of meaning shell inscriptions of the Yin dynasty (c. 1500-1100
(e.g., the character for the word e, or “evil,” can b.c.) and the inscriptions on bronze vessels and
also be used as a tenchu character for the word wu, bells (Fig. 2) of the Chou period (c. 1100-221
or “to hate”). b.c.) show an as yet vague awareness of script
Chinese characters were thus built on these six style, and it is difficult to treat them as a calli¬
principles of construction—the rikusho. A kanji, of graphic style. It is only with the appearance of two
whatever kind, includes three elements: form, new scripts in the Warring States period (403-221
sound, meaning. From the point of view of callig¬ b.c.) that we can begin to think in terms of script
raphy, form is the most important of these three styles. One is the kobun (“ancient wfiting”) script
elements because of the great potential for graphic (Fig. 3), as it is called in FIsu Shen’s2 dictionary
variation that kanji possess. Shuo Wen Chieh Tzu (c. a.d. 100), which was in use
To appreciate the graphic beauty of kanji, we
can consider them from the three aspects of script 2 All Chinese names consisting of a family name and
style, character form, and general style. Let us personal name in this book are given in Chinese order,
first look at the script styles. i.e., family name first.
FIVE BASIC KANJI STYLES • 11

in the so-called Six States (Ch’i, Ch’u, Yen, Wei, a beautiful variation of the korei created in the Han
Han, and Chao). The other is the daiten, or greater dynasty (206 b.c.-a.d. 220).
seal, script (Fig. 4), established in the state of Some examples of the supplementary scripts,
Ch’in. ones limited to special applications, are kokufu,
There was in each period a script in common used for tally inscriptions; chusho, or “serpent
use by the Chinese, as well as supplementary writing,” for banners; and shusho, or “lance writ¬
scripts for special purposes. One example of a ing,” for weapon inscriptions.
standard script is shoten (lesser seal; Fig. 5), estab¬ The five styles now considered to be the basic
lished by Li Ssu (d. 210 b.c.), prime minister under calligraphic styles—that is, tensho (seal style),
Shih Huang-ti of Ch’in, the so-called First Em¬ reisho (scribe’s style), kaisho (block, or standard,
peror. By the time of Shih Huang-ti, regional style), gyosho (semicursive, or running, style), and
variants of many characters of the greater seal sosho (cursive style)—had all appeared before the
script had appeared and the standardization of end of the fourth century. The oldest of these is
this script by Li Ssu resulting in the lesser seal tensho, which includes the greater and lesser seal
script was undertaken as part of the general policy styles.
of standardization in the Ch’in period. We know from the preface of the Shuo Wen
Other standard scripts are: korei (old reisho; Fig. Chieh Tzu that sosho (literally, “grass writing”) was
6), a simplification of the lesser seal style by Ch’eng a recognized script in the Han period. In connec¬
Mo of Ch’in to relieve the drudgery of official tion with writing, the word so (literally, “grass”)
duties; and happun (the so-called kanrei; Fig. 7), originally had the sense of “rough draft,” and it is

8. Kaisho by Wang Hsi-chih (Yueh I Lun). a.d. 384.
Copybook; height, 29.5 cm.
thought that in the Chou period, when tensho was cursive), was also in use during the Han period,
in use, a simplified version of tensho existed for note¬ and it is thought to have been created by Liu Te-
taking purposes. And in fact there are examples of sheng of the Later Han (a.d. 25-220). Later, in
modern sosho characters (like mu, “non-existence”) the Li Shu Shih by Wei Heng of Wei (220-64), we
that are cursivized tensho. The inscriptions on wood¬ find a passage that states, “The two calligraphers
en strips from the Former Han dynasty (206b.c.-a.d. Chung and Hu used gyosho at the beginning of the
8) prove that a sosho type of script called koso (“old Wei dynasty. They studied with Liu Te-sheng.
grass”; Fig. 10) was then in use. Another form of Although Chung’s gyosho is a little unusual, both
sosho is shoso (Fig. 9), which developed from koso. are skillful. They say gyosho is very popular at
This is distinguished by a vigorous undulating present.” According to this work, gyosho is a sim¬
brushwork known as hataku, or “waves breaking,” plification of reisho, and is thought to have appeared
in which strokes bounce upward sharply to the as a distinct style during the transition from the
right, accompanied by extreme variations of line Later Han to the Wei dynasty. Typical examples
width. It was a long-recognized style among of gyosho can be seen in Ta T’ang San Tsang Sheng
calligraphers. Later, abandoning hataku brush- Chiao Hsu (Fig. 18), a collection of the calligraphy
work, sosho developed into the unconnected doku- of Wang Hsi-chih of Chin (280-420). The exact
sotai (Fig. 17) and connected remmentai (Fig. 19) dates of Wang Hsi-chih’s birth and death are not
styles, and in the T’ang dynasty (618-907) the known, but they are usually given as 321-79. Al¬
“wild grass” style (kyoso ; Fig. 20) appeared. though born into a good family, his official career
Another basic style, gyosho (running, or semi¬ was not entirely successful. His reputation as a
FIVE BASIC KANJI STYLES • 13

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHINESE AND JAPANESE SCRIPTS
1 The term tensho in its wider sense refers to 3 A cursive form of tensho is thought to have
both daiten and shoten, but it is often used to refer been in use, although no examples of such a
to shoten only. script from this period have been found.
2 The term reisho in its wider sense refers to 4 The term sosho generally refers to the
both korei and kanrei, but it is often used to refer dokusotai, remmentai, and kyosotai forms, but it is
to kanrei only. also used to include koso and shoso.
9 (left). Shoso. Third century a.d. Copybook; 25.2 X 12.9
cm.
10 (right). Koso (old sosho). Wooden strip dated 62 b.c.;

19.3 X 1.1 cm.
calligrapher, however, is unequalled. He played (420-79) and Ch’i (479-502) dynasties, some of
an important part in bringing the kaisho, gyosho, and the Eastern Chin examples still show elements of
sosho scripts to their present high level of artistic kanrei style. In general, however, the script had
excellence. Although he wrote in all three scripts, become kaisho (block writing) or a style close to it.
his gyosho and sosho are particularly famed. His son From various sources we can infer that the kaisho
Wang Hsien-chih (344-88) also made important style practiced today was developed in the Eastern
contributions to calligraphy, and the two together Chin and Liu Sung periods.
are known as “the two Wangs.” The Eastern Chin dynasty was established in
I have already mentioned that korei (old reisho) 317 with its capital in the city now known as
was a simplification of shoten (lesser seal) and that Nanking, on the Yangtze River. The fresh culture
kanrei (Han reisho) was a variation of korei. The of the region south of the Yangtze was flourishing,
process by which the kanrei style was gradually and calligraphy made rapid strides, producing
simplified and developed into kaisho is evidenced many outstanding calligraphers like Wang Hsi-
by stone inscriptions and autographs dating from chih and his son Wang Hsien-chih. During this
around the Three Kingdoms (220-65) and West¬ period the five scripts were polished and were
ern Chin (265-317) periods. Of the recently dis¬ established as mature calligraphic styles.
covered monument and tomb inscriptions, ranging Around the fifth and six centuries, in addition
from the Eastern Chin (317-420) to the Liu Sung to the main styles, yet another category, zattaisho,

11. Inscription on koto. Lac¬
quered wood; characters incised
and filled in with silver paste.
Eighth century. Shoso-in, Nara.
12. Ishiyama-gire (mounted segment of Ise-shu section of Nishi Hongan-ji manuscript of Sanjuroku-nin Shu, an
anthology of waka by the so-called thirty-six poetic geniuses). Early twelfth century. Tsugigami “patched paper,”
originally detcho glued binding; 20.2 X 31.8 cm. Collection of Hikotaro Umezawa, Tokyo.
■
14. Section of waka scroll. Calligraphy by Hon’ami Koetsu, on paper decorated in gold and silver by Tawaraya Sotatsu; 33.7 X
924.1 cm. Early seventeenth century. Hatakeyama Museum, Tokyo.
< 13. Two panels of Forige Tensho Byobu. Sixfold screen; each panel 149x 56 cm.; text in feather- tensho and reisho on paper.
Eighth century. Shoso-in, Nara. (See Fig. 23for entire screen.)
15. Section 0/ Daisho O Shinseki Cho, a list of autograph calligraphies of Wang Hsi-chih and his son Wang Hsien-chih. Dated
758. Colored-paper scroll; 24.4 X 87 cm. Part of the Todai-ji Kemmotsu Cho, a catalogue of donations to Todai-ji. Shoso-in,
Nara.
I
16. Section of 1 oka Rissei Zassho Yoryaku by Empress Komyo. Mid-eighth century. Colored-paper scroll; 27.1 X 593 cm. Shoso-
in, Nara.
LRC
17. Unconnected sosho (dokusotai) by Wang Hsi- 18. Gyosho by Wang Hsi-chih (from Ta
chih. Fourth century a.d. Copybook; height, 25 cm. T’ang San Tsang Sheng Chiao Hsu; com¬
piled 672). Ink rubbing; 27.5 X 15 cm.
or ornamental scripts (literally, “miscellaneous were in use until about the T’ang dynasty, but fell
scripts”) came into fashion. This category con¬ into disuse from the Sung period (960-1126)
tains chiefly variant forms of tensho and reisho. Or¬ onward.
thodox styles are sometimes mixed among them.
Often they appear to have been done in both black KANA Japanese styles of calligraphy are equiv¬
ink and color on folding screens for decorative use alent to the basic Chinese styles I have
in palaces. We can imagine how breath-takingly been discussing. During the transmission from
beautiful they must have been. Examples of this China, however, important modifications occurred,
are found in the thirty-six kinds of old scripts and of interest is the way in which the styles were
presented in the Wen Tzu Chih by Wang Yin of accepted and the manner in which their evolution
Liu Sung and the forty-three kinds in the Chuan continued in Japanese hands.
Li Wen T’i by Hsiao Tzu-liang of Ch’i (Fig. 21 In addition to the five basic scripts of Chinese
and foldout following page 72). Sou Yuan-wei of calligraphy, the Japanese developed kana, charac¬
Liang mentions in the Lun Shu a tenfold screen ters that express sounds in contrast to characters
inscribed with one hundred script styles, fifty in used ideographically. Three types of kana have
color and fifty in black ink. The ornamental styles been developed, man’yo-gana, hiragana, and katakana.
KANA • 25
Man’yo-gana are certain kanji used phonetically to however, it is hiragana that are primarily used with
represent the syllables of Japanese, and are so kanji while katakana serve chiefly for such special
named after the eighth-century poetry collection uses as emphasis, telegrams, and foreign loanwords.
Man’yo-shu, because this method is used a great deal Man’yo-gana are no longer used except in callig¬
in the anthology. At the time this collection was raphy.
compiled, the Japanese had no writing system of Kana can also be considered from the point of
their own so that some of the Japanese poems in it view of three styles: men’s writing (onokode), wom¬
are rendered in Chinese characters that are used en’s writing (onnade), and grass writing (so). Men’s
phonetically, and in others the Chinese characters writing refers to characters in the kaisho and gyosho
are used sometimes phonetically and sometimes scripts used phonetically, while so refers to the
ideographically. Out of this kind of phonetic usage, cursive sosho script used phonetically. Women’s
and by way of drastic simplification, the two sylla¬ writing is hiragana. Kaisho, gyosho, and sosho are of
baries of hiragana and katakana evolved. At first course Chinese script styles but what was said about
katakana were used in combination with kanji to them in the context of Chinese calligraphy applies
denote verb endings while hiragana were used in¬ in principle to their use as man’yo-gana in Japan. An
dependently. Later hiragana too came to be used exception is the sex distinction just mentioned.
in combination with kanji. In present-day usage, Chinese studies came to be regarded as the special

<1 19 (opposite page, left). Connected sosho (remmentai) by
S’ » - ' * / V »■
Wang Hsi-chih. Fourth century a.d. Paper; height, 28.7cm. A**-**** £**£$
: l v f* I *
Imperial Household Collection.
£ hi J-fc -ti
< 20 (opposite page, right). “Wild” sosho (kyosotai) by
Huai Su; 777. Paper scroll.
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21. “Dragon writing,” from Hsiao Tzu-liang’s Chuan Li Wen

T’i. Bishamon-do, Kyoto.
field of men, and women were restricted to the use of buildings, gates, ponds, etc. For the most part
of hiragana. In the hands of the Japanese noble¬ the origins of these applications are to be found in
women, hiragana developed by the greatest possible China. The uta-e (literally, “poem picture”) is
simplification and refinement oi sosho. This beauti¬ a version of the type of landscape painting known
ful script can justly be called the unique calli¬ as ashide (literally, “reed hand”) and is a purely
graphic style of Japan. Japanese ornamental use of characters. Typically
The other Japanese syllabary, katakana, devel¬ this kind of picture would consist of a riverside or
oped from the diacritical marks used by Japanese lakeside scene showing reeds, and would have a
men as aids to reading Chinese texts. And though text some of whose characters, written so as to
katakana is in some respects of practical significance, resemble reeds, are partly hidden in the reeds.
its range of application is narrow and it need not be Later, characters were written and positioned so
considered here as an important style. as to suggest not only reeds but also flowing water,
An interesting application of hiragana is as an waterfowl, banks, rocks, etc. This type of callig¬
ornamental device. In Japan ornamental charac¬ raphy is rather different in character from the
ters corresponding to the zattaisho ornamental Chinese zattaisho. The presence of the element of
scripts of Chinese calligraphy are preserved on nature makes it something special, unknown in
wooden plaques or signboards that carry the names China.
KANA • 27
22. Section o/Hou Ch’ih Pi Fu (poem by Su Tung-p’o). Calligraphy by Nukina Kaioku; 1855. Paper; 28.5 X 23.3 cm.
The many styles of Chinese characters show a are weak in tensho and reisho but good in gyosho and
great deal of variety; in contrast, hiragana is simple sosho. This seems to stem from the essence of Japa¬
yet beautiful. And Japanese calligraphy shows it¬ nese calligraphy; that is, even in kanji the grass
self most characteristically in hiragana. It was origi¬ style best expresses the nature of Japanese callig¬
nally an offshoot of sosho, and for this reason we raphy. Thus it is most appropriate to regard the
may say that Japanese calligraphy is most closely essence of Japanese calligraphy as the art of sosho.
related to the grass style. This relationship is also In the following chapters, we will take up Japa¬
shown in the varying degrees of Japanese facility nese calligraphy by script styles, examining each
with different styles of kanji, for it is generally in more detail, and enlarging upon the theories
recognized that of the five basic styles the Japanese touched on here.

CHAPTER TWO
Tensho: Seal Script
EARLY TENSHO As I mentioned earlier, a In Japan we first come across the tensho style in
IN JAPAN tensho script was in common an extraordinary work from the Nara period (646
use during the Chou and Ch’in -794). The sixfold feathered folding screen known
periods in China. Later on it was no longer ordi¬ as Torige Tensho Byobu (Figs. 13, 23) in the Shoso-in
narily used, but became instead a special-purpose Repository, a storehouse of Emperor Shomu’s
calligraphic style. For example, from the Han relics, is a splendid example of this style. It is
period on, titles called tengaku, or tensho plaques, one of the hundred screens and other objects
on stone monuments were often inscribed in tensho. bequeathed by Emperor Shomu to Todai-ji temple
Curiously, even though the title of the inscription in 756, and is listed in the Catalogue of National
on the tengaku may be in tensho, the body is in Treasures (Kokka Chimpo Cho; Fig. 85), one of
reisho. (See Figs. 64, 65.) The classic and graphic Todai-ji’s catalogues of donations. Fortunately
nature of tensho is well suited for writing titles, and this screen, together with another sixfold screen
its use as such is now a long-established custom. known as Torige Josei Bunsho Byobu and bearing
Since Chinese characters were introduced into an inscription in block kaisho (Fig. 163), is pre¬
Japan much later than the Chou and Ch’in pe¬ served at the Shoso-in. Everything about the
riods, tensho never figured as a common script Torige Tensho Byobu—calligraphy, paper, and fit¬
there. Probably the earliest record of tensho in tings—is beautiful. The paper has been prepared
Japan is the gold seal (Fig. 24) bestowed on the by blowing green and brown pigments onto it in
king of Kan-no-Wa-no-Na, a small independent such a way that bird and flower motifs are formed.
region of northern Kyushu, by the Chinese em¬ Upon this background, tensho and reisho characters
peror Kuang Wu in a.d. 57. It was discovered at are alternately inscribed—that is, each tensho char¬
the bottom of a stone chamber in Shikanoshima, acter is followed underneath by its reisho equivalent.
Fukuoka Prefecture, in 1784, and even then at¬ There are eight characters in each column and two
tracted the interest of many antiquarians. Detailed columns on each panel of the screen. The inscrip¬
studies have been made of it and it has been often tion advises the ruler to conduct righteous govern¬
copied. The script style used for this seal resembles ment through wise ministers, and for this reason
byuten or moin, Han-period tensho variants whose it is classified with the so-called ruler-minister
use is restricted to seals of the period. This gold screens. The tensho style used is an ornamental
seal should be regarded as having been made in variety, one of the zattaisho. The characters are
China and, consequently, its existence is not evi¬ outlined with pieces of black feather and filled in
dence that tensho was used in ancient Japan. with gold leaf. The reisho is actually a kind of
EARLY TENSHO IN JAPAN • 29

archaic kaisho style, and the pigment used for it zattaisho type of tensho. Perhaps this single panel
has been blown onto the green background, caus¬ represents the remains of a screen listed in Todai-
ing it to float up in relief. Scattered spots of ji’s catalogue of donations as a “sixfold bird-script
vermilion further decorate the screen. screen” originally in the Shoso-in.
There are two other “feather” screens at the In China, these zattaisho-script screens can be
Shoso-in: one panel of the Torige Josei Byobu and traced as far back as the Six Dynasties period
one that is called by the same name as the screen (a.d. 222-589). In the Lun Shu, Sou Yuan-wei of
we have been discussing: Torige Tensho Byobu. The Liang (502-57) reports that the magnificence of a
Torige Josei Byobu is in block kaisho; unfortunately tenfold screen inscribed with a hundred different
it has peeled badly. The Torige Tensho Byobu, like script styles astounded the people of the time. The
the one with the same name, has its inscription first fifty scripts were in black ink, while the re¬
alternately in tensho and reisho. This one, however, maining fifty were colored. The scripts used were
consists of only a single panel bearing two columns: zattaisho styles with names like needle script, drip¬
tensho and reisho versions of a four-character in¬ ping-dew script, gazing-to-Chin script, drawing-
scription. The paint of the tensho column has peeled well-water-on-a-hill script, gold-mixed script, etc.
badly, but it appears to have been done in a Actual examples of these styles can be seen in the
30 • tens no: seal script

23. Torige Tensho Byobu. Sixfold screen, each panel 149 X 56 cm.; text
in feather- tensho and reisho on paper. Eighth century. Shoso-in, Nara. (See
also Fig. 13.)
Chuan Li Wen T’i (Fig. 21 and foldout following culture was just being introduced, this sumptuous
page 72) compiled by Hsiao Tzu-liang of the Ch’i style of furnishing from the T’ang court was carried
dynasty (479-502). There are also extant sosho over. In fact, among the hundred folding screens
screens said to be by Emperor T’ai Tsung of the in the Shoso-in there are six panels of a screen
T’ang dynasty (618-907). And there is a record called Relaxing in Front of the Great Ch’in Cheng
in the Ku Chi Chi by Hsu Hao of the T’ang dynasty Pavilion by Ch’ien Ch’iu-chieh which, historically
that states that in the reign of Chung Tsung of speaking, must have been painted after 729. We
T’ang, the official Tsung Ch’u-k’e presented the can speculate from these examples that the hun¬
emperor with some calligraphy by the two Wangs dred screens of the Shoso-in are a reflection of the
that was used in a twelvefold screen. The Hsien luxurious T’ang culture at the time of Emperor
Ch’ing Fu and K’u Shu Fu, written by Ch’u Chu- Hsuan Tsung.
liang, were used for the lower part of the screen. Old seals are another medium that preserves
We can imagine that in the beginning of Hsuan examples of Nara- and Heian-period tensho. In
Tsung’s reign, at the magnificent height of T’ang ancient China, letters and documents were bound
culture, the screens used in the court must have with a cord and the closure was sealed by attach¬
been superb. In eighth-century Japan, when T’ang ing a piece of soft clay. Before it hardened the clay

24. (Above) gold seal of the king of Kan-no-Wa-no-Na; (be- 25. Yamatokoin (old seal). Eighth century. Actual size. (See
low, left) imprint of seal; (below, right) engraved surface of also Fig. 35.)
seal. About a.d. 57.
was marked with an impression of some distin¬ the deep black of the characters added a further
guishing device, usually an inscription of one or dimension to the beauty of calligraphy. Eventually
more characters. From about the end of the Six calligraphers started using additional seals in¬
Dynasties period (222-589), the impression was scribed with mottoes or elegant phrases. Ulti¬
made directly on the paper, using ink applied to mately, with the literati of the Ming period, the
the inscribed surface of the seal. The functions of seals became an end in themselves, and folios of
such seals were many: to indicate that a document seal imprints were made for appreciation by
issued from an official agency, to indicate assent to connoisseurs.
the content, etc. In the case of calligraphies and The materials used for the seals themselves are
paintings, seals bearing the name or soubriquet of very varied. Cast metal seals in brass, silver, or
the user were used in lieu of signatures, to indicate gold, and engraved seals in brass or jade, could
ownership, to indicate an expert’s certification of only be made by specialist craftsmen, but other
the authorship of a work, etc. The custom of using materials—like ivory, bone, wood, bamboo roots,
seals was introduced into Japan in the Asuka and stone—were more easily workable. Seals were
period. also made in porcelain. In the Ming period, stone
The ink used for seal impressions was made suitable for seal engraving, especially alabaster,
from cinnabar (a compound of mercury) and the became readily available, and this gave a strong
contrast of the splash of vermilion of the seal and impetus to the growing popularity of seal carving
26. Detail of Hakurakuten Shiku (Poems of Po Chu-i), by Emperor Daigo. Early tenth century. Paper scroll; 32 X 179.2 cm. [>
Imperial Household Collection. (See also Fig. 117.)
32 • TENSHO: SEAL SCRIPT

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27■ Sectl0n o/Naigubu ni Atsuru no Chibusho Clio. Paper scroll; 850. Height, 29 cm.; length, 139 cm. Tokyo National Mu-
seum.
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28. Section of I to Naishinno Gammon, attributed to Tachibana Hayanari. Dedication written on behalj oj Princess Ito in 833
when she donated estates to Yamashina-dera temple. Hand imprints made by the princess in seal ink can be seen. Paper scroll; height,
29.1 cm. Imperial Household Collection.
*
29. Rikyo Hyakuei Dankan, attri¬

buted to Emperor Saga. Fragment of an¬
thology of poetry by Li Chiao, a T’ang
poet. Early ninth century. Paper; 26.1 X
13 cm. Yomei Bunko Library, Kyoto.
30. Section of Kojokaicho, by Emperor \>

Saga; 823. Paper scroll; 36.9 X 148.1
an. Enryaku-ji, Shiga Prefecture.
&5T
32. Section of letter in Fushinjo (collection of three letters written by Kukai). About 812. Paper scroll; height, 28.5 cm. Kyo-o-
gokoku-ji (popularly known as To-ji), Kyoto.
<1 31. Hihaku inscription by Kukai on portrait of Kongochi, one of the patriarchs of the Shingon sect. Early ninth century. Silk ; overall
size, 212.7 x 150.9 cm. Kyo-o-gokoku-ji (popularly known as To-ji), Kyoto.
34. Study by Gochiku Nakabayashi of
bronze-vessel inscription. Late nineteenth to
early twentieth century. Paper.
as an independent artistic activity, since the ma¬ the custom having been introduced from the con¬
terial could be easily worked by amateurs. Great tinent at the time the legal framework was estab¬
care and ingenuity were expended on some seals, lished. The use of private seals, however, seems
the grip part of the seal being cast or carved into not to have been so widespread.
highly decorative forms. (See Fig. 24.) Properly speaking, tensho should be used on
Seals from the Nara and Heian periods are seals, and the style is usually the lesser seal script,
numerous, and public seals range from the Tenno shoten. There seem to have been people in Japan
Gyoji, or Seal of the Interior (Fig. 46), and Dajokan, at the time who could write in the shoten style, but
or Seal of the Exterior, to the various ministerial by the Heian period the use of tensho for seal in¬
seals, and seals of the provinces, counties, villages, scriptions seems to have decreased in favor of
shrines, and temples. There were also clan and kaisho. Presumably this was because the easy-to-
personal name seals for private use. These old write and easy-to-read kaisho script was more
seals are collectively called Yamato koin (Fig. 35) suited to Japan. Furthermore, because of the sim¬
and are treasured by collectors. It appears that plicity of style, these old kaisho seals are often
official seals were widely used in the Nara period, prized by collectors.
<| 33. Section from letter in Kyukaku Jo, by Saicho; 813. Paper; 28.2 X 52.2 cm. Nara National Museum.

under Hui Kuo, and returned to Japan in 806,
bringing much Chinese calligraphic material with
him. Three years later he started propagating
esoteric doctrines and in 816 he established Kon-
gobu-ji on Mount Koya, becoming the first patri¬
arch of the Shingon sect. Kukai died in 835. One
of the books brought back by him is the above-
mentioned Chuan Li Wen T’i. Kukai is also the
author of Tenrei Bansho Meigi, a six-volume dic¬
tionary of tensho and reisho that is the oldest extant
character dictionary compiled in Japan. His
Masuda no Ike no Himei (Fig. 68) is the text of a
pillar inscription written in each basic style as well
as in zattaisho and includes several varieties of
tensho. Today, however, the major part of surviving
calligraphy attributed to him is in kaisho, gyosho,
and sosho styles. Examples of his decorative hihaku
style (Fig. 69) and other zattaisho are also to be
35. Yamato koin (old seal). Eighth century. Actual size. (See found, but virtually no “proper” tensho by Kukai
also Fig. 25.)
is extant. His work is discussed at greater length
in Chapter Four.
In the Heian period, when the Japanese style of
calligraphy arose, calligraphy in the Chinese tradi¬
tion no longer prospered, and inevitably the devel¬
We can pass from the Nara through the Heian opment of the tensho style was cut short. In the
period without seeing much significant develop¬ final analysis, we can say that aside from the
ment of tensho seals. Finally though, in the Kama¬ examples introduced here (Figs. 38, 68), Heian-
kura (1185-1336) and Muromachi (1336-1568) period tensho is practically nonexistent.
periods, the seal-carving (tenkoku) style of the Sung In the Kamakura period there were some out¬
and Yuan dynasties in China was brought over, standing calligraphers among Japanese Zen priests
and in the Edo period (1603-1868), tenkoku as it is who had studied in Sung China and also among
known today was developed by priests of the Obaku naturalized priests of Chinese origin. However,
sect of Zen Buddhism and by immigrants in Naga¬ these men were out of the mainstream of callig¬
saki. With this development, for the first time, the raphy and were basically not much concerned
tensho script became established in Japan. with technique. There were, consequently, prac¬
The Buddhist priest Kukai, often referred to by tically no Kamakura calligraphers who wrote in
the posthumous title Kobo Daishi, is a man of the tensho and reisho styles even for the sake of
vast importance not only in Japanese religion but variety of script style.
also in the field of calligraphy—he was one of the
sampitsu, or three outstanding calligraphers of the EDO- AND MEIJi- Tensho became popular in Ja-
early Heian period. Born in 774 in the province PERIOD TENSHO pan after the arrival of priests
of Sanuki on the island of Shikoku, he crossed to of the Obaku Zen sect in the
the main island of Honshu at the age of fifteen, Edo period. In 1653 Dokuryu (in Chinese, Tu Li)
and studied avidly in Nara. He took his final vows came to Japan and later became an Obaku priest
at Todai-ji at the age of twenty-two. In 804 he under Ingen (in Chinese, Yin Yuan), the founder
went to China, where he studied esoteric Buddhism of Mampuku-ji temple. Although he was primarily
42 • tensho: seal script

36. Tensho seals. Left, top and bottom: two seals by Ko Fuyo, eighteenth
century. Center and right: two seals by Hosoi Kotaku, seventeenth to eighteenth
century. Actual size.
a calligrapher, he was also well trained in seal “Shin’etsu Branch” of Soto. In addition to being
carving and was the first to introduce its techniques a talented poet, musician, and painter, Shin’etsu
into Japan. Dokuryu had a thorough knowledge of was a skillful seal carver, and together with Doku¬
characters and in his work Shibun Taihon (in Chi¬ ryu is considered to be the founder of seal carving
nese, Ssu Wen Ta Pen) stressed that the Shuo Wen in Japan. His tensho can be seen on plaques at
Chieh Tzu was to be considered the fundamental Gion-ji. When he came to Japan he brought rare
authority on characters. He himself wrote princi¬ Chinese impu (collections of seal impressions) and
pally in sosho, although some tensho is also to be tensho dictionaries, and the spread of these materials
seen in his work. made a large contribution to Japanese seal carving.
Shin’etsu (in Chines, Hsin Yueh; 1640-96) ar¬ Among the tensho dictionaries he brought is Yun
rived in Japan in 1677, twenty-four years after Fu Ku Chuan Hui FIsuan, published by Ch’en Ts’e
Dokuryu. A high-ranking priest of the Soto sect of of Ch’ing (1644-1912). This dictionary arranged
Zen, he was invited by Tokugawa Mitsukuni,3 various old styles of tensho by the four tones of the
daimyo of Mito, to become the first abbot of Chinese language. It was a real treasure in an age
Gion-ji on Mount Jusho in Mito. The tradition when there were very few tensho dictionaries. The
founded by him later came to be known as the blocks for this book were carved in 1713 at the
Ryushiken in Kyoto, and published at the Shoko-
kan, established by Tokugawa Mitsukuni. After
3 The names of all premodern Japanese in this book, seal carving was introduced by Dokuryu and
where they consist of a family name and a personal
Shin’etsu, the art became fashionable in Edo (pres¬
name, are given in Japanese order (family name first);
those of all modern (post-1868) Japanese are given in ent Tokyo). At the same time many people who
Western order (family name last). engaged in this activity undertook the study of
EDO- AND MEIJI-PERIOD TENSHO • 43

37. Tensho by Ko Fuyo. One panel of fold¬
ing screen formerly in the Kimura Kenkado
collection. Eighteenth century.
44 • tensiio: seal script

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38. Fragment of the Thousand Character Essay

in tensho and reisho, attributed to Ono no
Michikaze. About tenth to eleventh century. Paper;
24.1 X 36 cm. Imperial Household Collection.
40. Tensho by Yamanashi Tosen (“Lan T’ing

Hsu”). Paper; 1824.
39. Tensho from Tensetsu, by

Sawada Toko. Published 1780.

41. Two pages from Itto Bansho, by Ikenaga Doun. Published 1713.
tensho and many of them became quite skilled. ters. At a later date it was published in a single
Hosoi Kotaku (1658-1735), a student of Kitajima volume together with Ikenaga Doun’s Tenzui
Setsuzan, was the best known calligrapher of the Furoku.
day in the Chinese tradition. Known as a Con- In addition to Kotaku, Dokuryu’s pupil Ko
fucian scholar, he was originally a physician. He Gentai and the above-mentioned Ikenaga Doun
wrote waka poetry, painted well, and was also an (1674-1737), famous as a seal carver and as the
accomplished archer. Kotaku was a good seal author of the pioneering collection of seal imprints
carver and wrote tensho as well. The Mangan-ji Itto Bansho, were also skillful tensho writers (Fig.
in Tokyo is his family temple, and the characters 42). Mitsui Shinna (1703-82), a student of Hosoi
“Chi Ko Zan” written by him on the plaque at Kotaku and also known as an exponent of the
the gate of the temple show a free and powerful martial arts, was another calligrapher who wrote
brushwork. Kotaku compiled Tentai Ido no Uta, a fine tensho and reisho. At one time, when ornamental
work based on a book of the same name (in tensho and reisho styles were the fashion in Edo,
Chinese read Chuan T’i I T’ung Ke) by Ving Tsai cloth dyed with his characters was in great demand
of the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). It clarifies the under the name Shinna-zomr.
differences between easily confused tensho charac¬ The first names that come to mind as models

43 (left). Tensho by Mitsui Shinna.
1775. Paper; 100 X 28.2 cm.
44. Tensho by Itsuzan. Eighteenth century. Paper; 131.5 X 14 cm.

of tensho in China are Li Ssu, Prime Minister of A number of Chinese reference works on tensho
Ch’in (221-200 b.c.), and Li Yang-ping of T’ang were republished in Japan, among them Shou Wen
(618-907). We know from contemporary cata¬ Chieh Tzu Chuan Yun P’u (5 volumes; 1663) com¬
logues that tensho in the form of printed editions piled by Hsu Chieh of Southern T’ang (937-75).
of Li Ssu’s I Shan Pei inscription and Li Yang-ping’s A basic knowledge of tensho was gradually spread¬
monument inscriptions were circulated in Edo- ing, and knowledge of this style reached a level
period Japan. The famous karayo calligrapher and where a whole work of literature could be published
seal carver Sawada Toko (1732-96) is the author in it. People like the priest Itsuzan (Fig. 44) and
of Tensetsu (Fig. 39), a book written in tensho and Niioki Mosho, were well known as seal engravers
expressing the view that Li Ssu and Li Yang-ping and at the same time were good at written tensho.
should be the basic models for tensho. Toko’s stu¬ In 1765, Kyukokan Shosoku, a book compiled by Den
dents carved the treatise on wooden blocks and Ko, was published in Kyoto. It was a collection of
white-on-black copies were taken from it. Matsu¬ karayo calligraphy written in Japan, but included
shita Useki was another well-known calligrapher Li Ssu’s Hui Chi K’e Shih, (a stone inscription for
who had a flair for seal carving. In 1737 he Emperor Shih Huang-ti of Ch’in, dating from 210
revised the Japanese edition of the Ming-dynasty b.c.). The calligrapher Ko Fuyo was best known as
Kuang Chin Shih Yun Fu compiled by Lin Shang- a seal engraver (Fig. 36) with a wide knowledge of
k’uei and Li Ken. The book is a dictionary of the tensho writing. He published in 1796 the Kanten
bell inscriptions and other ancient precursers of Senjimon. A sixfold screen (Fig. 37) originally in the
the tensho style. possession of his close friend Kimura Kenkado, and
48 • tensho; seal script

45. Tensho by Tokugawa Nariaki (memorial stele in Kairakuen park, Mito, Ibaragi Prefecture) ; 1836. From reproduction of ink
rubbing; height, 32 cm. Naikaku Bunko Library, Tokyo.
bearing various tensho styles written by Ko Fuyo, is tures rebuilt after World War II. The Kairakuen
extant. Ko Fuyo’s friend Ike no Taiga (1723-76), memorial inscription (Fig. 45) in a corner of the
the great eccentric painter of the nanga, or Southern garden is a splendid work: the title in kobun-ten and
school, was another good tensho calligrapher. text in “dripping dew” suiro-ten. There are other
Parallel with the popularity of seal engraving, tensho plaques by Nariaki such as “Kobuntei” (Pa¬
written tensho also saw a brief period of activity with vilion for Enjoying Literature) or “Kosa wa sessei
the appearance of good tensho calligraphers in the ni shikazu” (What is skilled but insincere is no
ranks of seal engravers, literati, and scholars. Pre¬ match for something rude but sincere). For neat
sumably it attained its popularity with this class of beauty his is the outstanding work of the period.
people as a “brush and ink” pastime because of its Ichikawa Beian (1779-1855) was also a famous
attractive graphic qualities. In this way seal tensho calligrapher at the end of the Edo period, and was
finally came into its own as a fully Japanese style. the author of a prolific output of books on calligra¬
Even at the end of this period there were some phy and ink painting. He was attracted by the cal¬
notable tensho writers. The famous statesman Toku¬ ligraphy of Mi Fu of Sung, but his kaisho is said to
gawa Nariaki (1800-1860), daimyo of Mito, whose have been influenced by the T’ang calligrapher
son Yoshinobu became the last shogun before the Yen Chen-ch’ing. At the age of twenty-six he went
Imperial restoration in 1868, practiced calligraphy to Nagasaki and studied there under the Ch’ing
and was skilled in tensho and reisho. In Kairakuen calligrapher Hu T’iao-hsin. He wrote very correct,
Park in Mito City his inscriptions appear on reliable calligraphy in all five styles and was con¬
plaques here and there among the elegant struc¬ sidered exemplary throughout Japan. The “Yufu

46. Imprint of the Imperial seal, from the Horyu-ji catalogue of donations
(756). The characters read “tenno gyoji,” or “the emperor’s seal. ’ Actual
size.
Tz’u” in the possession of the Ichikawa family is Nakabayashi (Fig. 34) and Shinsen Kitakata were
representative of his tensho. among the calligraphers who followed this trend.
Another calligrapher with an excellent knowl¬ A stream of good books was published: Mokuho
edge of the various styles was Yamanashi Tosen Maeda’s Imbungaku, Chushu Takada’s Choyokaku
The “Lan T’ing Hsu” by him (Fig. 40) is a fine Jikan (1901), Kanji Shokai (1912), Kochu Hen (1925),
example of his work in tensho. and Koseki Hattori’s Tenkoku Jirin (1927), are
In the Meiji period (1868-1912), stimulated by typical. Thus a body of Chinese and Japanese
the arrival of the Ch’ing-dynasty scholar Yang materials on tensho became available.
Shou-ching, Hokuhi, or Northern Inscription Since tensho is an unusual, archaic script with
school, calligraphy spread in Japan. Following richly graphic features, it has been popular with
this, the Japanese literati and seal engravers who calligraphers even in recent times and is often used
crossed over to Ch’ing China were influenced by in calligraphic works. In addition to being the main
calligraphers of the Ch’ing-period Hokuhi school, style for seal inscriptions it is still in use among
and started writing in this new style. Gochiku brush calligraphers in Japan today.

CHAPTER THREE
Reisho: Scribe's Script

The term reisho has had several meanings the Shisen-do, leading the elegant life of a man
throughout history and nowadays it is simply used of letters of the early Edo period. He always wrote
as the name of one of the five basic scripts. The his poems in a style of reisho so distinctive that it is
reisho variant of the Han dynasty, kanrei, is repre¬ instantly recognizable (Fig. 47). The reisho he
sentative of the style as a whole. Like tensho it is not practiced, however, was not that of the distin¬
one of the common scripts, and is written only in guished style to be seen on good Han monuments.
special contexts. Reisho exhibits an extreme exag¬ It seems, in fact, that Jozan’s reisho must have been
geration of the start and finish of each stroke, and based on the unorthodox, mediocre models that
has a rude, yet stern and imposing appearance. We circulated in the Ming period (1368-1644). As in
are reminded of the ceremonial solernnity of Han- his life style at the Shisen-do he gave himself the
dynasty officials governed by Confucian precepts. airs of a Ming literary man, so there is in his cal¬
This style has no lyrical softness, only a display of ligraphy something unpalatable. The bad taste of
intense seriousness and commanding dignity. For his calligraphy is dispelled however by the richness
this reason it is a suitable plaque style, where the of his talent and the beauty of his way of life, and it
characters must be on a large scale to give the is not a real cause for complaint. When one gazes
impression of strength. Appropriately enough, at the peaceful garden of the Shisen-do on its little
reisho is used mainly for plaques, signboards, titles hill covered in greenery, and looks at the framed
of calligraphic works or paintings, book-cover reisho hung here and there in the rooms while
titles or title pages, prefaces, etc. All these applica¬ listening to the sound of the valley stream and the
tions derive naturally from the essential nature of periodic clack of a bamboo bird-scarer, any dis¬
this style. pleasure about his calligraphic taste seems to melt
In Japan, hardly any reisho is seen before the away.
Muromachi period, only a few examples being Ishikawa Jozan was not the only Japanese cal¬
found on plaques, so that for works that can be ap¬ ligrapher writing in the reisho style. The contem¬
preciated as calligraphy we must wait until the Edo porary Confucian scholar Hitomi Chikudo wrote
period. reisho in a style resembling Jozan’s, and the clois¬
tered Prince Ryosho at the Manju-in monastery
EDO-PERIOD Ishikawa Jozan (1583-1672), who wrote well in reisho (Fig. 48) in a style identical to
REISHO was particularly fond of reisho, Jozan’s. The plaque at the Senso-ji at Edo’s Asa-
lived at the Ichijo-ji temple on the kusa shows an example of Prince Ryosho’s reisho.
northeast outskirts of Kyoto, in a retreat he called Another calligrapher, Shokado Shojo (1584-1639)
EDO-PERIOD REISHO • 51
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#7. Reisho fry Ishikawa Jozan. Seventeenth century. Paper. Shisen-do, Kyoto.
of Yawata on the southern outskirts of Kyoto, at (phoenix’s wings), wanjun (curved bamboo), kanju
first studied Kukai’s calligraphy and was good at (strung pearls), gyokuan (jeweled table), tetchu (iron
kana. He also wrote some reisho (Fig. 50) resembling pillar), and shingetsu (new moon). It is clear that
Jozan’s. Kobori Enshu (1579—1647), the famous these are the Ming, unorthodox kind of reisho I
Edo-period landscape gardener and tea-ceremony mentioned earlier, and that the reisho of the early
master, also had an interest in this style of reisho. Edo period must have been modeled on these basic
His style was passed on to the daimyo of Matsue, variants. These variant styles applied to tea
Matsudaira Fumai (1751-1818; Fig. 49), who was ceremony wares, evoke feelings rather different
also a famous tea master. Reisho by tea masters is from those of the older Chinese reisho, which is
often seen on plaques or boxes for tea utensils. based on the Chinese calligraphers’ appreciation
Honcho Jifu Hiden (1907), by Tonan Maeda, il¬ of the Han-dynasty kanrei. In the same way, im¬
lustrates sixteen types of Japanese reisho used by plements brought over from China, where they
Edo-period calligraphers: hogai (jewelled canopy), were not associated with the tea ceremony, and
shusui (gathered water), saikaku (rhinoceros horn), used as utensils in the Japanese tea ceremony pro¬
kinto (gold sword), tetsujo (iron castle), tetsurei (iron duce an atmosphere entirely suited to Japanese
bell), banryu (coiling dragons),yokaku (ram’s horn), tastes. The adaptations made by the masters show
shiko (lion’s mouth), fuga (swimming goose), hoshi us that calligraphy is not good simply as calligraphy
52 • reisho: scribe’s script

48. Reisho by Prince Ryosho. Seventeenth century. Paper; each character on sheet 16.5 X 16.5 cm. Manju-in, Kyoto.
—if it is put to proper use it becomes a living in such a way that the softened paper takes on the
thing. shape of the carved surface. After allowing the
Konoe Yoraku-in Iehiro (1667-1736) was a cal¬ paper to dry, still against the stone surface, ink is
ligrapher well versed in the various styles of Japa¬ applied to those parts of the paper not pressed into
nese and Chinese calligraphy who wrote a correct, the hollows of the carved out strokes of the char¬
genuine reisho. It had the refined kind of beauty to acters. Thus on the resulting rubbing the characters
be seen in the Han-dynasty Ts’ao Ch’uan Pei in¬ stand out in white against a black ground.
scription (Fig. 7) or the Shih T’ai Hsiao Ching of In the Edo period the study of kanrei was ex¬
Hsuan Tsung of T’ang. An example of his reisho can tremely difficult because of the scarcity of good col¬
be seen on the back of the monument known as the lections of ink rubbings. It was about the middle of
Obaku Zenso Kosen Osho no Hi (Fig. 63) at the the eighteenth century that Hosoi Kotaku’s pupil
Bukkoku-ji in Kyoto. Seki Shikyo republished the Han Li Tzu Yuan, a
six-volume work by Lou Chi of Sung; with this the
Ink rubbings were one of the principal forms of wide field of kanrei finally gained recognition. In
reproduction of monument inscriptions. One 1792, Kamata Kansai of the Osaka area published
method of making such rubbings is to wet a sheet a revised edition of the two-volume Li Pien by Ku
of paper and press it against the carved inscription Ai-chi of Ch’ing-dynasty China. Okuda Mototsugu
49. Reisho by Matsudaira Fumai. Late eighteenth to early nineteenth century. Paper;
33.1 X 58.8 cm.
50. Reisho by Shokado Shojo. Early seventeenth century. Paper; 101.8 X 24.2 cm.
and Sawada Toko wrote prefaces praising the book

because they felt that kanrei had been clarified for
the first time by its publication. In the same pre¬
face they announce the forthcoming publication of
four other books on reisho. We can judge from this
that progress had been made in the study of reisho
and that there were plans to eventually republish
all the well-known works on reisho.
Sawada Toko was principally an admirer of
Chin- and T’ang-dynasty calligraphy who also
had some insight into tensho and reisho. In his
Reisetsu (Comments on Reisho; Fig. 52), he ex¬
plains that the terms reisho and happun refer to the
same script, and in his preface to Reiben he goes
into this theory in greater detail, explains the

meanings of the terms, and argues that the word exhibit many kanrei characteristics and it is doubt¬
happun came into use around the Chin period. ful whether it is a rubbing from the original
(265-420). monument. The copy brought to Japan in the
Of the reisho monument inscriptions that Toko Edo period is marked as being Ts’ai Yung’s callig¬
was able to see, he cited Ts’ai Yung’s Hsia Ch’eng raphy and thus is probably a rubbing of the
Pei as an exemplar of old reisho and, remarking replacement that was engraved in the Ming period.
that the works of the four T’ang calligraphers Han The fact that kanrei was then represented by this
Tse-mu, Li Ch’ao, Ts’ai Yu-lin, and Shih Wei-tse kind of calligraphy indicates clearly the low state
were impossible for him to obtain, he gave Emperor of reisho, although scholarly works like Kanrei
Hsuan Tsung’s Shih T’ai Hsiao Ching as a model of Jigen and Reiben had been published.
T’ang monument inscriptions. The original Hsia The example of reisho given in Kyukokan Shosoku
Ch’eng Pei monument was destroyed in the Ming (1765) is also the Hsia Ch’eng Pei. Kan Tenju
period, and the calligraphy of the replacement is (1727-95) of Ise, who put his efforts into printing
by Ts’ai Yung. There is a rubbing extant that is reproductions of copybooks of monument inscrip¬
said to be of the Sung period, but it does not tions, also used the Hsia Ch’eng Pei and Ts’ao
52. Reisho /rom Reisetsu, by Sawada Toko. Published 1780.
Ch’uan Pei as models of reisho. The famous painter Ch’uan Pei with deliberate strokes, as if drawing
and calligrapher Ike no Taiga sometimes wrote something fat and heavy, one will achieve the
reisho (Fig. 51), and his model seems also to have feeling of “a lean, craggy strength in great suffer¬
been the Hsia Ch’eng Pei. The inscription on the ing.” He considered his own Han-dynasty in¬
monument is in rough fleshy kanrei, but Taiga’s scriptions very rare, listing the following: Wu Feng
brush transforms it into something free and easy. Erh Nien K’e Shih, carved by Lu Hsiao-wang (Fig.
Although the material is so unpromising, the 6); the P i Hsien Pei monument; the Tun Huang
result in fact serves to impress on us Taiga’s T’ai Shou Pei monument; and the Wang Chih Tzu
determination. Bronze has been turned into gold. Erh Ch’ueh. We can imagine from this how difficult
1 he quality of Bdo-period reisho continued to be it must have been to get hold of good rubbings of
poor until the end of the period. Even Ichikawa outstanding inscriptions of the Han dynasty. In
Beian, who made efforts to collect reproductions spite of these conditions he applied himself to the
of monument inscriptions (Fig. 61), considered the collection and classification of materials concern¬
Ts’ao Ch’uan Pei a peerless treasure. He said that ing not only reisho but also all the other script
Wang Shu of the Gh’ing period praised the Li Ch’i styles, publishing such works as the Gotai Bokujo
Pei, Hsi Yueh Hua Shan Miao Pei, Lou Shou Pei, and Hikkei. Ichikawa Beian’s friend Togawa Ren’an
other inscriptions, but he himself had not yet been was. also skilled in reisho. The inscription on the
able to see them. He writes that in order to master monument Juzo no Hi (erected by Beian in 1855)
the style of the Ts’ao Ch’uan Pei one should first was written by Ren’an in reisho. There are many
make a careful study of the ample beauty of the other examples of Ren’an’s reisho, such as the
T’ang emperor Hsuan Tsung’s Shih T’ai Hsiao preface to Beian’s work, Shozanrindo Shoga Bumbo
Ching, Liu Sheng’s Hua Yueh Ching Hsiang Pei (a Zuroku. Tokugawa Nariaki of Mito, a tensho expert,
monument erected by Hsuan Tsung), etc. If one also wrote outstanding reisho. JTany examples of
then copies the lean, tense characters of the Ts’ao his reisho are extant: the Kodokan no Ki (Fig. 65)
56 • reisho: scrtbe’s script

54. Section of Akihagi-jo, attributed to Ono no Michikaze. Tenth century. Colored-paper scroll; height, 22.6 cm. Tokyo National
Museum.
55. Section of Ganouta-gire, by Fujiwara Sukemasa. Late tenth century. Figured silk: 28.8 x 47.7 cm.
56. One of a set o/'shikishi known as the
Sunshoan Shikishi, attributed to Ki no
Tsurayuki. About tenth century. Colored
paper; 12.9 > 12.3 cm.; originally
detcho glued binding. Goto Art Muse¬
um, Tokyo.
57. One of a set of joined shikishi known as Tsugi-jikishi, attributed to Ono no Michikaze. About tenth century. Colored paper
each shikishi square, 13Ay. 13.2 cm.; originally detcho glued binding. Goto Art Museum, Tokyo.
— —
59. Section of\ lon’ami-gire, attributed to Ono no Alichikaze. Fragment oj Kokin-shu transcription. Eleventh century. Karakami-
paper scroll; height, 16.6 cm. Imperial Household Collection.
<] j8. Section of Man yo-shu fKatsura-bon transcription), attributed to Kino Tsurayuki. Eleventh century. Scroll of paper decorated
in gold and silver; height, 26.8 cm. Imperial Household Collection.
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61. Reisho by Ichikawa Beian (“Yufu Tz’u”) ; 1799. Paper.
and the Shubaiki pillar at the Kodokan in Mito, selves as writers of memorial inscriptions is Mei-
the Senko Bosetsu pillar at the Kairakuen park. kaku Kusakabe (1838-1922). He went to Ch’ing
China and studied with Yang Chien-shan (1819—
MEIJI REISHO : With the advent of the Meiji 96); his debt to Yang Shou-ching is equally great.
THE NEW WAVE period in 1868, Yang Shou- The thousand or so steles bearing his inscriptions
ching came to Japan from are widespread in Japan. The Enjoken Doshi Iseki
China, bringing reproductions of many memorial pillar at the Gotoku-ji temple in Tokyo’s Setagaya
inscriptions. Immediately Japan’s calligraphic Ward, the Yushima Tenjin Issennen Sai no Hi pillar
field of vision broadened, and along with increased in the grounds of Tokyo’s Yushima Tenjin shrine,
contact between China and Japan, the style of the the Iwaya Ichiroku no Hi pillar (Fig. 62) in the
Hokuhi school was introduced into Japan, changing Daiko-ji temple in Minakuchi-machi, Shiga Pre¬
Japanese reisho forms drastically. First among the fecture, and the Ono Kazan Bohi pillar in the Dairyo-
calligraphers of the day who made names for them¬ in, a subtemple of the Myoshin-ji in Kyoto, are
<1 60. Section of Wakan Roei-shu (Konoe-bon transcription), attributed to Fujiwara Yukinari. About mid-eleventh century.
Karakami-/«/>er scroll; height, 25.8 cm. Yomei Bunko Library, Kyoto.
meiji reisho: the new wave • 65

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62. Section of I way a Ichiroku no Hi. Reisho by Meikaku Kusakabe; 63. Reisho by Konoe lehiro.
1911. Ink rubbing of memorial stele; height, 250 cm. Daiko-ji, Shiga Pre¬ Draft for stele inscription; 1711.
fecture. Paper. Yomei Bunko Library, Kyoto.
64. Kodokan no Ki (1838), by Tokugawa Nariaki. Ink rubbing of

heading in tensho script. (See Fig. 65for main inscription.)

65. Section of Kodokan no Ki, by Tokugawa Nariaki. Reisho;
1838. Ink rubbing in Naikaku Bunko Library, Tokyo. (See also Fig.
64.)
famous examples of his reisho. Many of Meikaku’s Ts’ui Pien (Ch’ing dynasty), and Yang Shou-
disciples were also skilled in reisho. ching’s Huan Yu Chen Shih T’u (Ch’ing dynasty),
Nowadays most of the famous Han-dynasty are widely read, so that there is no lack of Han
stele inscriptions can be seen in the many Chinese inscriptions for appreciation and study.
and Japanese reproductions of monument rub¬ Essentially reisho is a special-use script that still
bings. Works like Hung Kua’s Li Shih (Sung functions in society. As long as kanji are used,
dynasty), Weng Fang-kang’s Liang Han Chin Shih reisho will continue to be used and further refined
Chi (Ch’ing dynasty), Wang Ch’ang’s Chin Shih as both an artistic and a practical style.
meiji reisho: the new wave • 67

CHAPTER FOUR
Zattaisho: Ornamental Styles
ZATTAISHO Zattaisho are ornamental variants colored silk and the script styles used are reminis¬
BY KUKAI of seal tensho and scribe’s reisho. cent of the forty-three styles in Hsiao Tzu-liang’s
T hey were fashionable in the Chi¬ Chuan Li Wen T’i (Fig. 21). The keynote of the
nese Southern dynasties of the Ch’i (479-502) and calligraphy is sosho, but this is varied with scripts
Liang (502-57) periods and persisted into the like “cloud writing,” “dripping dew,” “snake
T’ang period; the number of variants are said to writing,” “goose head,” “hanging needles,” “ti¬
have been 100 or 120. The Torige Tensho Byobu ger’s claws,” “dragon’s claws,” etc. In particular
(Figs. 13, 23) in the Shoso-in Repository marks the the characters at the end of the scroll, which seem
introduction of this style to Japan. After this to be gyrating and jumping about, clearly corre¬
screen, the best example of zattaisho is the in¬ spond to the “snake writing” style. The diversity
scription on the monument at the Masuda Pond, of the numberless variations of scripts employed in
Masuda no Ike no Himei, by Kukai. the scroll seems truly suited to the expression of
The text of this inscription (Fig. 68) is presented joyous felicitations on an auspicious occasion such
in the Shoryo-shu, a collection of Kukai’s writings. as this.
The stele was erected in 825 to commemorate the By imperial command in 816, Kukai wrote an
completion of the Masuda Pond in Kyoto. One inscription on a fourfold screen that is five feet
passage extols the blessings of heaven and the high. The inscription is written on five shades of
virtues of the people, describing the uncontrolled Wu damask with a brocade border and it con¬
delight of high and low alike. It goes: “Mandarin tains references to “goose heads,” “dragon’s
ducks and snipe sport on the waters, singing. The claws,” “auspicious grasses,” etc. Judging from
long-lived black crane and the snow goose vie with this passage, the inscription on this screen seems
each other in dancing playfully at the water’s edge. to have been written in zattaisho styles to be seen
The turtle stretches its neck. Roach and carp flip in the Chuan Li Wen T’i such as: “bird script,”
their tails. The otter of the depths spreads out its “dragon’s claws,” “snake script,” “serpent script,”
catch of fish on the bank like votive offerings. The “cloud script,” “falling leeks,” “dripping dew,”
crow in the woods feeds its nestlings.” Another “hanging needles,” “cranes’ heads,” “crescent
passage says: “When the one man has joy, the waves,” “camelopards,” “phoenix,” “auspicious
myriad people put their faith in him. They dance grasses,” “special luck,” etc. Through the use of
and skip, slap their bellies, and, clapping their a variety of zattaisho scripts, Kukai seems to have
hands and stamping their feet, shout ‘Long live,’ expressed the true spirit of the relationship be¬
and so forget their labors.” The scroll is of five- tween ruler and subject, husband and wife, young
68 • zattaisho: ornamental styles

66. Camelopard (kirin) in hihaku
brushwork. Eighth century. Shoso-in,
Nara.
'
Wm.
67. Detail from Ju Nyoze, attributed

to Kukai. Hihaku ornamental script.
Early ninth century. Paper. (See also
Fig. 69.)
and old, brothers and sisters, etc. As mentioned inscription based on this scroll was erected behind
earlier, the Chinese custom of using zattaisho for the Kume-dera temple in Nara.
writing on brightly colored, richly decorated Among the famous Portraits of the Seven Patri¬
screens appears to have found its way to Japan. archs of Shingon Buddhism, those of Ryumyo,
The scroll of the text of the Masuda no Ike no Himei Kongochi, Fuku-Kongo, and Zemmui have in¬
preserved in Shakamon-in on Mount Koya, the scriptions attributed to Kukai in the hihaku script
Shingon sect’s head temple built by Kukai, may style (Fig. 31). Hihaku is sometimes treated as an
not actually be by Kukai. Compared with the text independent calligraphic style, but it is also in¬
in the Shoryo-shu anthology, the Shakamon-in cluded among zattaisho. The skill with which these
version reveals many omissions and inversions. inscriptions are written varies to a certain extent,
Moreover there are some things about the calli¬ but the writing on each displays a subtle touch,
graphic style that make it impossible to believe and the beautiful hihaku brushstrokes swirl mag¬
that the text is actually Kukai’s; it is most prob¬ nificently, suggesting the nuno-sarashi dance, in
ably a later copy. In 1906, a stele with a carved which dancers manipulate long, ribbonlike pieces
70 • zattaisho: ornamental styles

68. Section of Masuda no Ike no Himei, attributed to Kukai. Text of memorial inscription in mixture of zattaisho
ornamental scripts and standard scripts; 825. Colored-silk scroll; height, 28.3 cm. Shakamon-in, Mount Koya, Waka¬
yama Prefecture.
of bleached cloth in fluttering, undulating move¬ seen in the Ju Nyoze (lit., “ten nyoze”; Fig. 69),
ments. a passage from the chapter of the Lotus Sutra
Hihaku calligraphy was also known in China; dealing with “skillful means”; the passage lists
for example, in the title of the Chin Tz’u monument ten Buddhist expressions beginning with the word
by Emperor T’ai Tsung of T’ang, and the title of nyoze, hence the name of this passage. The Ju Nyoze
the Sheng Hsien T’ai Tzu memorial by Empress Tse was at one time kept in the Jingo-ji temple at
T’ien-wu. But there is nothing as fine as Kukai’s Takao in Kyoto, but has since been lost. The
inscriptions. There are, too, instances of Chinese history of the transmission of this calligraphy is
emperors using hihaku in written communications given in detail in Sodo Murakami’s Kobo Daishi
to their ministers, and reproductions of some of Shimpitsu Hihaku Ju Nyoze Kaisetsu (A Commentary
these are preserved, but there are no examples to on Kukai’s Ju Nyoze), 1935. The characters are
match the wonderful calligraphy of the Seven written in hihaku brush strokes, but some are un¬
Patriarch series. usual in that they utilize a kind of rebus device.
Another example of hihaku by Kukai can be For example, in Figure 69 the left-hand element
ZATTAISHO BY KUKAI • 71
69. Section of Ju Nyoze, attri¬
buted to Kukai. Hihaku ornamental
script. Early ninth century. Paper.
(See also Fig. 67.)
72 • ZATTAISHO: ORNAMENTAL STYLES

5i • a
4
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Dragon Ancient¬ Turtle Cloud Phoenix Hermit Tadpole Pictograph Falling leek Tiger Bird
writing tosAo tensho
VARIETIES OF ORNAMENTAL SCR
From Chuan Li Wen T’i by Hsiao Tzu-lian
Signs of the zodiac Title Special luck “Gold-mixed” Apothecary’s Goose head Crescent Dripping dew Hanging Devil
script wave needle
Fish “Filled up” Ornamental Double tensho Lance Chou-period Camelopard Revolving- Serpent Carrier Ornamental Tally
script greater seal ; bronze-inscrip- stars tensho pigeon lesser seal
C tion tensho
P'iy) F ■
‘Flying white” “Foreign” Ornamental “Indian” Snake One stroke “Scattered” Dragon’s Propitious
(hihaku) script gyosho script reisho claw flower
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A* CALLIGRAPHIC DICTIONARIES
^ Is The dictionaries illustrated here are a kind of calligraphic manual and give
the forms and variants of kanji in script styles other than kaisho. In Japan,
printed editions of calligraphic dictionaries and the Thousand Character Essay
(which served a similar purpose) in various script styles began to be pub¬
lished in large numbers in the Edo period. Tensho dictionaries were used
mainly by seal engravers. The particularly large number of sosho dictionaries
is no doubt due to the complexity and rich variety of sosho forms, but it is
also an indication of the popularity that this script style enjoyed with the
karayo-style calligraphers of the Edo period. It is interesting to note the
existence of dictionaries of gyosho, since these do not appear to have been used
in China. The printed editions given here—both Chinese and Japanese
V> ^ ^
compilations—are a representative selection of the more important ones
published in Japan during the Edo period and constitute invaluable source
material for the study of calligraphy.
vols. 1829. By Shih Liang Sosho Kaku, 2 vols. 1849. By Rekidai Sosho Sen, 5 vols. 1849. By
Hoshi Kendo. Haku Shizan.
1689, Li Chao Sheng Hsien Chuan Shu Pai T’i Ch’ien portrait of Toto Tenjin (the deified courtier Suga-
Tzu Wen (Fig. 70), compiled by Sun Chih-hsiu, wara Michizane) drawn with only one wetting of
also gives the “Thousand Character Essay,” in 125 the brush. Another example is a sketch of the poet
different styles. A Japanese edition of this book Kakinomoto Hitomaro made from characters
appeared during the Edo period, and it was called Moji Hitomaro (“Characters” Hitomaro;
reissued in the Meiji period. This work was prin¬ Fig. 71). There is a calligraphy by the painter
cipally produced for the convenience of seal en¬ Tomioka Tessai in which the three characters
gravers of the modern-style school, and it was used fuku-roku-ju (luck, wealth, long-life) are skillfully
as a sourcebook for making the type of seals known fitted together into one character. Like zattaisho,
as fukuju-in (good luck seals) or hyakuju-in (hundred this is a form of recreation. Still many other
long-life seals). The common custom of presenting unofficial, playful characters are to be seen in
on auspicious occasions a calligraphy consisting of graffiti and doodles.
the character ju (long life) written out in a hundred The zattaisho scripts that are ornamental variants
different styles is an expression of good wishes, and of tensho and reisho are used with considerable
for this too, the zattaisho scripts are used. The freedom of form and coloring. They are widely
calligraphy by Konoe Iehiro (Fig. 118) written used as decorative designs on other media like
in gold on satin is a beautiful example of this cus¬ pottery or lacquerware. Recently, ornamental
tom. characters and lettering have become a specialized
There are, in addition, many other forms of field of study, but there should be wider recogni¬
“playful characters,” although these are different tion of the fact that scripts of this kind have been
in feeling from zattaisho. An old example is a used in the East since ancient times.
H O
ZATTAISHO AFTER KUKAI • 75

CHAPTER FIVE
Gakuji: Plaque Inscriptions

When visiting old temples and shrines, one often title writing arose in the Ch’in and Han dynasties.
sees calligraphy on plaques, usually giving the Outstanding practitioners of this country received
names of the structures on which they are hung. the tradition from talented calligraphers of the Sui
The calligraphy on these tablets is generally at¬ and T’ang dynasties. Palace plaques brilliantly
tributed to famous calligraphers of the past like manifested the rulers’ glory. However, from the
Kukai, Ono no Michikaze, Kanko, and others. middle period the strands of the great hawser of
Sometimes a calligrapher writes the inscription di¬ the ruler’s authority broke and the palaces fell into
rectly on the wood in ink. Sometimes he writes it disrepair. Due to this, the famous writings were
on paper and has a facsimile carved on the board lost. The few remaining vestiges are in the form
by a professional carver. Occasionally, a callig¬ of copies by calligraphers of various schools. I
rapher may do the carving himself. We know that include them all here. To be seen from time to
the practice of hanging plaques, or hengaku, as they time are some that escaped the ravages of war by
are called in Japanese, existed in palace pavilions reason of being in remote temples and shrines.
in China as early as the Han dynasty. In Japan Reproductions of these are also included here.”
too, the custom prevailed from early times, and The plaque inscriptions presented in this work are
examples of such early plaques are extant. “Kon- from the Nara, Heian, Kamakura, Muromachi,
komyo Shitenno Gokoku no Tera” (Fig. 73) at and Edo periods. There are quite a few examples
Todai-ji in Nara, an inscription attributed to Em¬ from the Nara and Heian periods, although many
peror Shomu, and the inscription of the temple’s of the plaques have long since been replaced by
name at Toshodai-ji, attributed to Empress Koken, later copies. Included are works by Emperor
are outstanding examples. Many more hengaku Shomu (Nara); the sampitsu (three great callig¬
examples are still to be seen at old temples and raphers) of Heian; the sanseki (Ono no Michikaze,
shrines in Nara and Kyoto, and there are many Fujiwara Sukemasa, and Fujiwara Yukinari); re¬
large ones at Zen temples of the Kamakura and presentatives of the Seson-ji, Shoren-in, and Jimyo-
Muromachi periods. Surviving from the Edo in schools; Fujiki Atsunao of the Daishi school;
period on are countless hengaku used by inns and various emperors, members of the shogun’s
and tea houses. family, gifted calligraphers, and high-ranking Chi¬
Matsudaira Sadanobu’s Shuko Jusshu (85 vols.) nese and Japanese monks. There is frequently no
includes a section on the principal inscriptions on signature on the older works, but starting in the
plaques found in Japanese palaces, shrines, and Edo period signatures and seals were occasionally
temples. In this the author tells us: “The style for used, so the authorship of the latter works is clear.
76 GAKUJII PLAQUE INSCRIPTIONS

73. “Konkomyo Shitenno Gokoku no I'era.” Plaque giving a
temple name. Attributed to Emperor Shomu. Eighth century.
Wood, 154 X 113 cm. Todai-ji, Nara.
Among all the calligraphers represented in this pai k’e. This actually refers to the spacing of char¬
collection, works attributed to Kukai are probably acters used for seal carving, so it is not a correct
the most numerous, and among these are large appellation. However that may be, there is no
amounts of his strange, unique zattaisho. Some of doubt that there was a special writing method for
the calligraphic specimens that appear here closely hengaku. From early times there are stories of the
resemble the styles of covers from Chinese tomb trials and tribulations involved in writing plaques
epitaphs and lengaku (stone-inscription titles in for high palace buildings. For instance, in the Wei
tensho script) from the Six Dynasties to the T’ang dynasty when the Ling Yun T’ai —a recreation
period. This is probably because they were in¬ pavilion “as high as the clouds”—was being built,
fluenced by Chinese models. Emperor Ming had the famous calligrapher Wei
Originally, writing on plaques was mainly in Tan write the plaque inscription. Wei had a plat¬
tensho, reisho, and zattaisho; however, later on kaisho form built at a height of seventy-five meters and
was often used for this purpose. In China large climbing to it, wrote the inscription. When he got
characters were often called by the special term down his hair had turned white from unbearable
GAKUJI : PLAQUE INSCRIPTIONS • 77

74. “Shishii-den.” Plaque by Okamoto Yasutaka. Early
nineteenth century. Wood; overall size, 137 X 104 cm.
Kyoto Imperial Palace.
fright. He admonished his children not to become gates. Figures 76 and 77 show five building
calligraphers. inscriptions: Shunko-den, Ninju-den, Shishii-den,
The Yakaku Teikinsho, by Fujiwara Koreyuki, Jonei-den, Ummei-den. Figure 78 shows four of
lists the inscriptions on the gates of the Imperial the gate inscriptions: Choraku-mon, Sen’yo-mon,
Palace in Kyoto, all of which are by famous Gishu-mon, Kenrei-mon. There is a note for the
calligraphers of the past, including Kukai, Ono Sen’yo gate saying: “Tenth month, 1255. Copied
no Yoshiki, Emperor Saga, Michikaze, and many from a book in the collection of Rengeo-in.” For
others. We know from this work that all the the Choraku-mon gate there is a similar note,
buildings and gates of the palace originally had showing that these inscriptions go back to the
plaques. The present palace buildings date from mid-thirteenth century. It appears that many of
the reconstruction in 1855, and only the plaques these copies and tracings were passed down in the
of the Shishii-den (Fig. 74) and the Jomei-mon families of sho-hakase, or doctors of calligraphy at
gate (Fig. 75) are still there. the Government University, and the families of
The Shukozu, a work issued by the scholar and courtiers serving as official scribes. The names of
seal engraver To Teikan in 1768, includes copies of the Jimyo-in and the Kazano-in families appear
the plaque inscriptions of palace buildings and in these books of reproductions, as does also that
78 • GAKUJi: PLAQUE INSCRIPTIONS

75. “Jomei-mon.” Plaque by Okamoto Yasumasa.
About 1855. Wood; overall size, 183 X 116 cm. Kyoto
Imperial Palace.
of Okamoto Yasutaka (1818-51), a sho-hakase. den and the Kenrei-mon in zattaisho. The character
Matsudaira Sadanobu, the compiler of Shuko ken of the Kenrei-mon plaque is identical with one
Jusshu (see page 76), was in charge of the recon¬ appearing at the end of Kukai’s Masuda no Ike in¬
struction of the Kyoto palace at the end of the scription (Fig. 68 shows a part of this), and for this
eighteenth century, and must have investigated reason this plaque inscription is thought to derive
the history of palace plaques. His Shuko Jusshu from Kukai. The Sen’yo-mon inscription is in a
includes plaque inscriptions from these buildings similar style. The Shishii-den, Ninju-den, Shunko-
and gates, and he attributes the plaques of the den, Gishu-mon, and other inscriptions use a kind
Sen’yo-mon and Choraku-mon gates, and the of reisho, but one which is stylized and different
Shogyo-den and Jokan-den halls, to Kukai. from the normal form. The characters have the
The Myogi-mon gate inscription is attributed to imposing gravity proper to plaque inscriptions. The
the Minister of the Left Horikawa Toshifusa. form of the characters of the Shishii-den plaque is
Matsudaira says it is not clear who wrote the particularly fine. The present plaque inscription of
other inscriptions. the Shishii-den hall is by Okamoto Yasutaka of the
The Kyosho-den plaque is in sosho script, the Daishi school, and it is not the same as the repro¬
Myogi-mon and Ueki-mon in gyosho, and the Jonei- duction in the Shuko Jusshu. Nevertheless it is also
GAKUJI I PLAQUE INSCRIPTIONS • 79

76. Reproductions of plaque inscriptions from Shukozu,
cofnpiled by To Teikan; 1768. (Left) Shunko-den ,
(center) “Ninju-den”; (right) “Shishiiden.” Kyoto
City University of Arts.
77. Reproductions of plaque inscriptions from Shukozu,

compiled by To Teikan; 1768. (Left) “ Jonei-den”;
(right) “Ummei-den.” Kyoto City University of Arts.

78. Reproductions of plaque inscriptions from Shukozu, compiled by To Teikan; 1768. (From left to right) “ Choraku-mon”;
“Sen’yo-mon” ; “Gishu-mon” ; “Kenrei-mon.” Kyotjj City University of Arts.
written in a beautiful style. The works passed down a symbolic significance. Thus the ancient, some¬
in these books of copies are traced reproductions, times bizarre techniques-transmitted for writing
so although some distortion is unavoidable, they plaque inscriptions involved religious conventions,
are essentially accurate copies. and were not purely ornamental.
The methods of plaque writing in Japan have The plaques at the Kencho-ji and Enkaku-ji
been passed down in detail in the manuals of the temples in Kamakura written by, among others,
various shools. Examples of such manuals are Ki- the Chinese Zen monk Wu-chun Shih-fan of the
rinsho and Kingyoku Sekidenshu Shogaku Shidai. Some Southern Sung period, and the plaque by Chang
of the methods have magical implications. Volume Chi-chih (1186-1266) at Tofuku-ji in Kyoto (Fig.
three of Kirinsho, for instance, instructs that plaques 79) are fine examples of plaques at Kamakura-
for temple pagodas should be written with char¬ period Zen temples. Beautiful ones by the Ashikaga
acters resembling devils, as this will keep devils shoguns Yoshimitsu and Yoshimasa at Kinkaku-ji,
away. Other methods are more of a symbolic na¬ Ginkaku-ji, Rokuo-in, and Rinsen-ji at Kyoto re-
ture. All characters should be written in soft and present the Muromachi period. At the Mampuku-
supple strokes so as to symbolize the compassionate ji in Uji there are an immense number of plaques
mercy of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. We can and one can appreciate to one’s heart’s content the
see that methods for writing every kind of stroke works of the Chinese monks of the Obaku sect who
were passed down and that each kind of stroke had came to Japan: Hiin, Ingen, Mokuan, Sokuhi,
GAKUJi: PLAQUE INSCRIPTIONS • 81

Rosen, Essan, and others (in Chinese: Fei \ in, \ in Plaque inscriptions are mainly in variants of
Yuan, Mu An, Chi Fei, Kao Ch’uan, Yueh Shan). tensho and reisho, or kaisho; moreover they can be
The two huge characters of the building’s name on divided into Chinese (karayo) and Japanese (wayo)
a plaque hanging in Mampuku-ji’s Hatto (Dharma styles. The phrases used have a profound flavor,
Flail) are known throughout Japan. They were and one can find all kinds of variation of form and
done by Ingen in kaisho. Most of these plaques are style in these inscriptions. Even within Japanese
written in a special Obaku style of gyosho, but calligraphy, plaque inscriptions are a genre with a
Rosen has plaques in tensho and reisho. flavor all its own.

CHAPTER SIX
Kaisho: Block Script
Kaisho—in many ways comparable in function so-called Ou technique, a characteristic and re¬
and feeling to block capitals in Roman script—is markable style. The above Japanese inscriptions
the basic form of kanji and its most important use must be understood as works based on Chinese
is as an easily legible workaday style. Japanese influence. Their background is the world of sutra
kaisho is based on Chinese kaisho, and we will copying. And Japanese kaisho reached its high level
examine it from the basic Chinese concepts. under the influence of Sui and T’ang sutra copy¬
ing.
SUI AND T'ANG The Sui- and T’ang-dynasty Many of the stone and metal inscriptions of the
INFLUENCE culture was introduced into Nara period are extant. Among these the callig¬
Japan in the Asuka period. raphy of the Oharida no Yasumaro Boshi (729; Fig.
The extant examples of Japanese calligraphy from 82) is particularly good. This piece is also thought
that period are mostly inscriptions on stone or to be influenced by the study of the old style of Sui
metal. Among these are: the inscription on the and early T’ang calligraphy. The bell inscription
statue of Yakushi at Horyu-ji (c. 607); the in¬ at the monastery of Kobuku-ji (727) is unfortu¬
scription on the statue of Shaka Buddha (623; nately worn down but seems to be in the same fine
Horyu-ji; Fig. 81); and the pillar inscription of the style. The calligraphy of the catalogue of donations
Uji bridge (646; Fig. 83) at the Hashi-dera temple in to Todai-ji (Figs. 15, 85) is the finest example of cal¬
Uji. The style of these has much in common with ligraphy in this tradition.
that of Sui and early T’ang times. Representative In the early Heian period we can see the influ¬
of the many copied sutras brought from Sui China ence of T’ang calligraphy. Representative kaisho of
is the Kengokyo dated 610. The script style bears a the time are the brass lantern inscription at the
close resemblance to that of the above-mentioned Kobuku-ji (Nan’endo Dotodai Mei; 816; Fig. 94)
stone and metal inscriptions. As well there is the attributed to Tachibana Hayanari, the bell in¬
bronze-plaque inscription of a commentary on the scription at Jingo-ji by Fujiwara Toshiyuki (Fig.
Lotus Sutra (686) at Hase-dera (Hokke Sesso Doban 95), and the Docho-ji bell inscription attributed to
no Mei; Fig. 159) and the Kongojo Darani Kyo (686; Ono no Michikaze (Fig. 96). The technique of the
Fig. 88). These are in a style identical with the two brass-lantern inscription best achieves the ideal of
inscriptions by Ou Yang-t’ung of T’ang (his father traditional Chinese techniques, closely resembling
was Ou Yang-hsun): Tao Yin Fa Shih Pei (a monu¬ the Hsiao Tan Pei by Pei I-yuan of Liang. When¬
ment to the priest Tao Yin; 663) and Ch’uan Nan ever there are two appearances of the same char¬
Sheng Mu Chih (679). They are written with the acter in close proximity, some variation is intro-
sui and t’ang INFLUENCE • 83

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80. Section q/Kengokyo, dated Paper, 25.9 X 50 cm. Shoso-in, Nara.
duced—at times even gyosho brushwork being used. the Detcho-bon Wakan Roei-shu (Fig. 124) are in the
This kind of detail is in accordance with the old same tradition. (The Wakan Roei-shu is an anthol¬
techniques and shows that the writer of this ogy of waka and Chinese poems compiled by
inscription was no mediocre calligrapher. The bell Fujiwara Kinto. The calligraphy of this particular
inscription at Jingo-ji reminds us of the T’ang version in the detcho-bon format is attributed to
writer Hsu Hao and the Docho-ji bell inscription Fujiwara Yukinari.) These accord with the tra¬
is in the style of fine sutra copies. From these we ditional kaisho technique—the brushwork sharp
can see that early Heian kaisho took in the best of and powerful, cohesive in structure, and somehow
the traditional Chinese technique. acquiring a Japanese flavor. Along with kana we
From the time of Emperor Daigo in the early can think of this style of kaisho as most suitable to
900s, along with the development of kana there was Japan.
a movement toward the wayo style. The Poems by
Po Chu-i in Three Scripts (Fig. 98) written by Ono SUNG, YUAN, AND The calligraphy of Sung
no Michikaze is a good example in kaisho of this MING INFLUENCE and Yuan China inundated
tendency. Besides this, volume three of the Hoku- Japan for a second time in
zansho (calligraphy by Fujiwara Kinto—a discourse the Kamakura and Muromachi periods (1185—
on official etiquette; Fig. 100) and the kaisho parts of 1568). It was mainly carried over by Zen monks,
84 • kaisho: block script

81. Engraved inscription on gilt-bronze nimbus of statue of Shaka Buddha. Dated 623. Size of inscription, 33.9 X 33.9 cm. Ink
rubbing. Horyu-ji, Nara.
SUNG, YUAN, AND MING INFLUENCE 85

82. Oharida no Yasumaro
Boshi. Tomb inscription; 729.
Engraved on gilt bronze. Height,
29.6 cm. Tokyo National Museum.
83. Ujibashi Dampi. Inscrip¬

tion on memorial stele at Hashi-dera
temple in Uji. Dated 646. Size op
inscription, 36.3 X 14.8 cm. Ink
rubbing. Hashi-dera, Kyoto.
so extant works from that period are largely theirs.

Proper kaisho from this time is scarce because the
technique of Zen monks is based on Zen inspiration
and thus differs from the ordinary style. Dogen
(1200-1253), the great Buddhist priest who founded
the Eihei-ji temple and established the Soto sect of
Zen in Japan, like the scholar-monk Kokan Shiren
of Tofuku-ji, had studied the calligraphy of Huang
Shan-ku, but the kaisho calligraphy of these priests
also is basically not the orthodox style.
During the time of the Northern and Southern
Courts period (1336—92), works that took on the
Yuan styles of Chao Tzu-ang and others were pro¬
duced by Zen monks who had studied in China.
But, as before, there is not much good kaisho among
these works. In the Muromachi period, Zen monks
appeared who had traveled to Ming China and
studied early-Ming kaisho. Zekkai Chushin (1336-

84. Buddhist verse. Calligraphy by Zekkai Chu-
shin. About late fourteenth century. Paper, 33.4 x
33.4 cm. Shokoku-ji, Kyoto.
1405) studied calligraphy under Ch’ing-yuan diligently. However, since clear copies of monu¬
Huai-wei; he wrote a T’ang style of kaisho (Fig. ments were scarce, and Japanese printed editions
84). While in China, Chuho Chusei, who was shoddily done, there could be no expectation of
accomplished in kaisho, was asked by the Ming real development. One such widely used book was
emperor Ch’eng Tsu to write the characters to be Nei Ke Mi Ch’uan Tzu Fu, compiled by a Ming
used on the coins of that era. At that time Yu Chinese—an introduction to brushwork at a very
Shih-nan’s style of writing was practiced in the popular level that is of little use for high-level
Ming court and Shen Tu and Shen Ts’an emerged appreciation. However, Sawada Toko, who was
as masters. We also know that Japanese monks who known as a leading karayo exponent, was a callig¬
crossed over to China studied Yu Shih-nan’s style. rapher well-practiced in kaisho (Fig. 97). He recom¬
Perhaps for these reasons, in the Zen temples and mended the following as models for this style. For
monasteries of Muromachi times, we can some¬ small kaisho: Chung Yu’s Chien Chi Chih Piao and
times see his kind of T’ang kaisho. Jung Lu Piao; Wang Hsi-chih’s Lin Li Ming Piao,
Hsuan Shih Piao, Yueh I Lun, Huang T’ing Ching,
EDO AND MODERN Accompanying the rise Ts’ao Wo Pei, and Tung Fang Shuo Hua Tsan; Wang
PERIODS of Chinese-style callig¬ Hsien-chih’s Lo Shen Fu; and Yu Shih-nan’s P’o
raphy in Edo, copybooks Hsieh Lun. For medium kaisho: Yu Shih-nan’s
were obtained from China and kaisho was studied K’ung Tzu Miao T’ang Pei, and Ou Yang-hsun’s
EDO AND MODERN PERIODS • 87

85. Todai-ji Kemmotsu Cho Kokka Chimpo Cho (section of a catalogue of donations to Todai-ji) ; 756. Paper, 25.7 X
147 cm. Shoso-in, Nara.
Chiu CR eng Rung Li Ch’uan Ming and Yu Rung Rung styles to their sources. Kaioku concentrated on the
Pei. For large kaisho: T’ao Hung-ching’s I He Ming, old Chinese works that had been passed down to
Yen Chen-ch’ing’s Yen Shih Chia Miao Pei, and Liu Japan, and excelled among other calligraphers
Kung-ch’uan’s Hsuan Mi T’a Pei. These are selec¬ because of his elegant manner and interest in the
tions suitable for a copybook, carefully considered old techniques. He is most famous for having
as to range and types of calligraphy. copied the calligraphy of Cheng Shen Tse, a T’ang
The three prominent calligraphers at the end of manuscript at Enryaku-ji. Ryoko set forth a de¬
the Edo period were Ichikawa Beian, Nukina tailed study of characters in his Juttai Genryu. His
Kaioku, and Maki Ryoko (Fig. 99). Beian had calligraphy derived from the T’ang kaisho style and
studied all the scripts and was particularly well was uniquely his own.
versed in kaisho and gyosho. In his great work Raigyo In the Meiji period, the two famous calligraphers
Waihen in fifteen volumes he pursues the script KojimaSeisai (Fig. 101), who studied Yu Shih-nan,
86. Section of Yueh I Lun. Copied by Empress Romyo; 744. Paper scroll, 25.3 X 126.6 cm. Shoso-in, Nara. o

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Shoso-in, Nara.
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88. Section of Kongojo Darani Kyo. Paper scroll; 686. Height, 27 cm.; length, 670 cm. Collection of Hiromi Ogawa, Kyoto.
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90. Section o/'Tsuki-no-Usagi Jo, by Ryokan; 1821. Paper; 27.2 X 28.5 cm. Collection of Rvoji Kuroda, Kanagawa Prefecture.
< 89. Section q/Hokke Giso, by Shotoku Taishi. Paper scroll; 615. Height, 25.5 cm. Imperial Household Collection.
91. Poem by Wang Wei.
Calligraphy by Ike no Tai¬
ga. Late eighteenth century.
Paper; 130.9 X 57.5 cm.
Shisen-do, Kyoto.
92. Buddhist maxim by Jiun.
Late eighteenth to early nine¬
teenth century. Paper; 109.5x
51.2 cm. Collection of Ryoji
Kuroda, Kanagawa Prefecture.
94 (top left). Nan’endo Dotodai Mei.
Attributed to Tachibana Hayanari. In¬
scription on brass lantern; 816. Ink rub¬
&
bing; height 45 cm. Kobuku-ji, Kyoto.
+ ¥ i
95 (top right). Jingo-ji Shomei. Bell

3-e*s*»* •fe
inscription attributed to Fujiwara Toshi-
yuki; 875. Ink rubbing; height, 26.2
cm. Jingo-ji, Kyoto. if *
96 (bottom left). Docho-ji Shomei. & at k
Bell inscription attributed to Ono no
Michikaze; 917. Ink rubbing; height,
35 cm. Eizan-ji, Nara.
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97 (bottom right). Section of Kokyo no

Hi, by Sawada Toko. Stele inscription of
the Classic of Filial Piety; 1787. Ink
§
rubbing; overall size, 179 X 81 cm.
Hayashizaki Bunko Library, Mie Pre¬ 4
fecture.
EDO AND MODERN PERIODS • 97

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100. Hokuzansho (section of Vol. 3). Attributed to Fujiwara Kinto.
Early eleventh century. Paper scroll; height, 29.5 cm. Maeda Ikutoku-kai,
Tokyo.

101. Section of inscription by Kojima Seisai; 1835. Ink rub¬
bing; overall size, 162 X 80.6 cm. Hofuku-ji, Tokyo.
and Cho Sanshu, who studied Yen Chen-ch’ing, handicap of a lack of good source materials and it
appeared. Meikaku Kusakabe was the first person was not until the Meiji period, when the study of
to study the Chinese Northern Monuments and his Hokuhi calligraphy was taken up, that conditions
work Tanikawa Kiroku-hi, a giant monument in a improved. Nowadays reproductions of Sung-period
paddy field near the Nara Great Buddha Hall, is and other old rubbings of all kinds of monument
an unequalled ambitious work showing the influ¬ inscriptions, as also facsimiles of original, brush-
ence of Cheng Tao-chao of Northern Wei. We written masterpieces, are easily available, and
mentioned in the chapter on reisho that Meikaku there is no scarcity of materials for the study of
wrote many monument inscriptions. Representa¬ good kaisho.
tive of his kaisho is the Okubo-ko Shindohi (Fig. 102) Although kaisho has been used in Japan for a
at the Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo. This and the thousand years or so, it has always been based on
Mito-ko Shindohi (Fig. 103) by Soken Nomura at Chinese models and has never developed uniquely
Ryozen in Kyoto form a matchless pair. Japanese characteristics. From the Heian period
onward, it is true, kaisho of the wayo style did show
A JAPANESE The specialist appreciation and a suggestion of qualities not to be seen in Chinese
KAISHO study of kaisho in Japan started works, but these were not all that noticeable and
with the karayo calligraphers of the the style can reasonably be regarded as a subtradi¬
Edo period. The latter, however, labored under the tion of T’ang kaisho. However, it is only natural
A JAPANESE KAISHO ■ 99
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102. Section of Okubo-ko Shindohi. Memorial in¬ 103. Section of Mito-ko Shindohi. Memorial
scription by Meikaku Kusakabe; 1910. Ink rubbing; inscription by Soken Nomura; 1906. Ink rubbing;
overall size, 274 X 141 cm. Aoyama Cemetery, Tokyo. overall size, 275 X 97 cm. Ryozen, Kyoto.
that Japan should have a kaisho style that reflects style of Hsu Hao to the lofty spiritual qualities of
the Japanese character and culture. To attempt to Ou Yang-hsun, the profound gentleness of Yu
apply Chinese models, unchanged, to the Japanese Shih-nan to the dry, robust effect of Yen Chen-
situation could only result in something forced. ch’ing. But these preferences are not unchangeable.
What is desirable is the development of an ideal Its use as the script for printed matter gives
Japanese kaisho—extracting and incorporating the kaisho great importance, and being the script style
essence of all good Chinese kaisho styles. There that is most familiar to the Japanese in their daily
seems to be a tendency to prefer the plain, honest lives, it deserves careful attention.

CHAPTER SEVEN
Gyosho: Semicursive Script

The term gyosho refers to a script style that is e.g., K’uai Hsueh Shih Ch’ing T’ieh, written with
somewhat more cursive than kaisho. Its origins go Wang’s traditional “hidden tip” technique, and
back to the reisho scribe’s script practiced in the the similarity of these to Michikaze’s Santai Haku¬
Han and Wei periods. Today the gyosho of the Chin rakuten Shikan allows us to ascertain that the latter
dynasty (fourth century a.d.) is considered to be originated from the same technique. However,
typical. According to the degree of cursivization, the gyosho written by Michikaze is no longer a
three stages are distinguished: seigyo, gyo, and Chinese calligraphic style—it has a strong distinctly
gyoso. Seigyo is between kaisho and gyosho, and gyoso Japanese flavor. This is because Wang’s methods
is between gyosho and sosho. Gyosho does not strictly were not accepted as they were, but were consid¬
preserve the shapes of every dot and stroke. Avoid¬ erably altered to become a Japanese style. The
ing sharp angles, it uses a soft, rounded technique, Shikaishi (Fig. 106) by Sukemasa is already com¬
creating a feeling of warmth and openness. pletely Japanized. Nearly seventy years later we
One can see superb T’ang-style gyosho in such can see in Fujiwara Nariyuki’s Hakurakuten Shikan
early Heian works as Kukai’s Fushinjo (Figs. 32, (Fig. 104), Honnoji-gire, and Hakushi Dankan a totally
108) or Tachibana Hayanari’s Ito Naishinno Gammon Japanized gyosho; it is more gentle and alluring
(Fig. 28) and Nakatsukasa Iki (Fig. 162). From the even than that of Michikaze. Yukinari was the
time of Emperor Uda in 894, since official embas¬ founder of the Seson-ji school and this style of
sies were discontinued and contact with T’ang gyosho was carried on by followers of the school.
China halted, a Japanese (wayo) calligraphy style This became the root of Japanese-style kanji and
began to develop. out of it the various branches and schools of callig¬
Ono no Michikaze and Fujiwara Sukemasa are raphy in Japan grew and flourished.
of this period. The Byobu Dodai (Fig. 107) and It is recorded in the Jubokusho by Son’en Shinno
Chisho Daishi Shigo Chokusho (Fig. 123; an imperial of the Seson-ji school that, “One must first study
document awarding posthumously the new name gyosho because it is the middle way. After learning
and title Chisho Daishi to Enchin, the fifth head of a little gyo, then one can study kai and so.” In
Enryaku-ji) are works by Michikaze. The gyosho China the order of study is kai and gyo then so, but
section of the Santai Hakurakuten Shikan (Fig. 109) is in the traditional Japanese schools of calligraphy
also attributed to Michikaze. It is a warm style, first gyo, then, once that is learned, kai and so. In
fleshy and powerful. There are examples of a Son’en Shinno’s copybook, Shukasho (Fig. 105),
similar warm style in Wang Hsi-chih’s Chi Tzu one’s first steps in beginning calligraphy are the
Sheng Chiao Hsu (Fig. 18), and other gyosho writings, soft techniques of gyo. The movement of the brush
gyosho: semicursive script • 101

wii 4
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/ 104. Section of Hakurakutcn Shikan (Poems of Po Chu-i), by Fnji-
wara Yukinari; 1018. Colored-paper scroll; height, 25.3 cm. Tokyo
National Museum.
105. Section of Shukasho. Copybook by Son’en Shinno; 1343. Paper,

32.2 X 25 cm. Shoren-in, Kyoto.
102 • GYOSHO: SEMICURSIVE SCRIPT

106. Shikaishi, by Fujiwara Sukemasa; 966-69. Paper, 32.2 X 45.1 cm.
is fat and round and smooth; even youngsters feeling of unnaturalness. When Japanese is written
advance rapidly, able to write in a warm, full hand. in kanji, the use of gyo or sosho is only the natural
This has been the traditional Japanese style of course of events. We can surmise that the reason
calligraphy ever since Michikaze’s Byobu Dodai and for having learners begin with gyosho lies some¬
Shi go Chokusho. where in this naturalness. The Japanese literary
arts tend generally toward peaceful simplicity, and
HARMONY OF KANA Japanese is written us- in calligraphy too, the combination of hiragana and
AND GYOSHO ing kanji mixed with gyosho well expresses the harmonized tranquility
kana. Hiragana were typical of Japan.
originally produced from grass sosho and they can In the Sekido transcription of the Kokin-shu (Fig.
be considered one type of sosho. Block kaisho is much 152) there are, for example, quite a few kanji used in
too stiff a style to mix in with the more fluid, grassy the waka poems. The style of the kanji is of course
kana style, but running gyosho makes quite an appro¬ gyosho, blending perfectly with the connected kana
priate combination. Whengjyo or sosho are used with style without the slightest awkwardness. One would
hiragana they fuse together and there is not the least never notice that the kanji in this work are Chinese.
HARMONY OF KANA AND GYOSHO • 103

107. Section of Byobu Dodai
(draft for inscription on folding
screen), by Ono no Michikaze;
928. Paper scroll; height, 22.7
cm. Imperial Household Collec¬
tion.
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'4 s 108. Section of letter in Fushinjo
(collection of three letters written
ft & 4" l a %
by Kukai). About 812. Paper
scroll; height, 28.5 cm. Kyo-o-
s ft V /a % gokoku-ji (popularly known as

To-ji), Kyoto.
109. Santai Hakurakuten Shikan (Poems by Po Chu-i in Three Scripts). Attri¬
buted to Ono no Michikaze. From the gyosho section. Tenth century. Paper; height,
30 cm.
The harmonized beauty of kanji and kana was nese calligraphy, or rather Japanese scripts in
achieved with the kana of the Heian period. Kaisho general.
was used for writing Chinese—with no kana—and
the Japanese-style gyosho kanji were used for writing DICTIONARIES In Japan there are dictionaries
Japanese, that is, with kana. This is best understood OF GYOSHO that give solely gyosho charac¬
by looking at the texts accompanying e-maki picture ters. One of these is the Gyosho
scrolls or the introductory remarks (kotobagaki) to Ruisan (12 vols.; 1833) edited by Seki Kokumei and
poems, etc., of the Heian and Kamakura periods. his son Shiryo. The characters were taken from
This custom of gyosho joined with kana continued copybooks of various periods and arranged accord¬
clear into the Edo period, when all the woodblock- ing to the number of strokes of each kanji, with the
printed books connected with literature were writ¬ name of the writer below each character. Ichikawa
ten in this method. Today, vestiges of this tradition Beian’s Kaigyo Waihen (15 vols.; 1855) is a com¬
are to be seen only in the texts of Noh plays. bined dictionary for kaisho and gyosho; it is also a
The fact that the most suitable kanji script styles useful dictionary for gyosho studies. This type of
for use together with hiragana are gyosho and sosho dictionary is another indication that Japanese
throws an interesting light on the nature of Japa¬ writing customs differ from those of China.
DICTIONARIES OF GYOSHO • 105

CHAPTER EIGHT
Sosho: Cursive Script
ORIGINS OF Sosho, which originated in China style has also been common since the appearance
SOSHO during the Han dynasty, is a of copybooks of calligraphy by the two Wangs. The
contracted note-taking form of unconnected and connected styles of the Wangs
the scribe’s reisho used at the time. Occasionally continued into the T’ang period, when the con¬
we find cursivized tensho characters too, but strictly nected remmentai further developed into the “wild
speaking, sosho is related only to reisho. It is thought grass” kyoso of Chang Hsu and Huai Su (Fig. 20).
that the breaking-wave style, in which the ends of In summary, there are “old sosho” and shoso, and
some strokes sweep up to the right, was character¬ there are the unconnected dokuso and connected
istic of early sosho, as it is of reisho. Today examples remmentai, the latter of which also includes wild
of this are to be found on the inscribed wood and grass kyoso. While showing stylistically creative
bamboo strips (Fig. 10) from the Han dynasty, alterations in later times, they evolved into di¬
which may be designated “old sosho.” There is verging variations.
another ancient style called shoso, that is also a type
of sosho characterized by the breaking-wave style, SOSHO IN The study of sosho in Japan came of
and probably a variant of old sosho (Fig. 9). Sosho JAPAN course after the introduction of Chi¬
subsequently became a distinct script style, perhaps nese characters, but there are no
through a process of gradual emphasis of the break¬ specimens from the Yamato period (300-710), and
ing-wave element. we cannot be sure of the exact date of introduction.
Toward the end of the Han period, a form of A writing technique had already been developed
sosho evolved that was written slowly, character by by the Asuka period, and some exquisite works
character, in contrast with the fast, abbreviated survive today. Such work is to be seen here and
sosho that had been used until then. This was there in the Hokke Giso (a Lotus Sutra commentary)
probably a result of the realization of the value of by Shotoku Taishi (Fig. 89), a mature piece that
sosho as a beautiful form of writing. It became an does not fare badly even in comparison with top-
independent script style called dokuso, or uncon¬ rank Chinese calligraphy.
nected so, and is to be seen in works like Wang Man’yo-gana, the kana of the Man’yo-shu, are
Hsi-chih’s Shih Ch’i T’ieh (Fig. 17). For a long actually kanji in kai, gyo, and so styles that were
time after, this type of sosho was carried on by use as phonetic symbols. The oldest works of this
those upholding the Wang Hsi-chih tradition. kind are the two Man’yo-gana Monjo (documents in
Thereafter, aside from the dokuso there evolved man’yo-gana) in the Shoso-in Repository. The style
the “connected” style, or remmentai (Fig. 19). This is a contracted, smoothed down sosho (Fig. 129)
106 • sosho: cursive script

110. Section q/Kongo Hannyakyo Kaidai, by Kukai; 813. Paper; height, 27.8 cm. Kyoto National
Museum.
highly reminiscent of the unconnected style seen Shu P’u (687) by Sun Kuo-t’ing of T’ang, who was
in Wang Hsi-chih’s Shih Ch’i T’ieh (Fig. 17). Also, in the Wang tradition. Kukai’s Kongo Hannyakyo
because of the T’ang- and Chin-style calligraphy Kaidai (a discourse on the Diamond Sutra; Fig. 110)
practiced in the Nara period it is justifiable to see is also in a style belonging to the tradition of the
a resemblance between grass kana styles and those Shu P’u. The Shu P’u copy in the imperial possession
of Wang’s calligraphy. The method of abbreviating (Fig. 112), the inscriptions on the portraits of the
the characters in these two documents is very simi¬ Seven Shingon Patriarchs, and the entry for No¬
lar to the Wang technique used in the T’ang dyn¬ vember 15, 812 in the Kanjoki all reputedly by
asty. Kukai, are all in the same style. The closest Chi¬
In the same volume as these two man’yo-gana nese example along these lines is the Sheng Hsien
documents is another document that has forty-six T’ai Tzu pillar inscription by the empress Tse
characters written in T’ang-style sosho with their T’ien-wu in 699.
kaisho equivalent written beneath each one. This Also attributed to Kukai is a large-charactered
example shows that a T’ang-style sosho was widely sosho copy of Tsuo Yu Ming by Ts’ui Tzu-yu of
studied in the Nara period. Later Han (Fig. 111). It is an extraordinary work,
In the early Heian period, Kukai went to China technically skilled, with a kind of bursting energy
and studied T’ang-style sosho. He copied out the that exhausts the technical subtleties of the tradi-
SOSHO IN JAPAN • 107

V
\
111. Fragment of Ts’ui Tzu-yu’s Tsuo Yu Ming, attributed to Kukai. About early ninth century. Paper, 28.5 X 71A cm.
Hoki-in, Mount Koya, Wakayama Prefecture.
tionalist school. Kukai himself mentioned that he scale, reminiscent of the wild grass of the T’ang
studied “crazy grass writing,” and he may have calligrapher Chang Hsu. It is said that Chang Hsu
been referring to this type of work. The various would get drunk, and while shouting at the top of
“new wave” T’ang styles of writing that Kukai his voice would slap huge sosho characters on any¬
learned held great sway over Japanese calligraphy, thing that came to hand—pots, clothes, anything.
and constitute the foundation of sosho in Japan. It is also said that at times he would soak his hair
Further, another work reputed to be Kukai’s is in ink and write with it. Huai Su, a monk who took
the Shinsen Ruirin Sho (Fig. 113). This is actually not up this technique, wrote in a similar sosho style, and
by Kukai but it is an excellently done, genuine this is the so-called wild grass. Poems of Po Chu-i
sosho piece by a calligrapher of the T’ang tradi¬ undisputably matches this style. The final stroke
tionalist school, this kind of fine sosho calligraphy of the character shu, meaning “wine,” is taken
having been introduced in the early Heian period. upwards like a dragon’s tail. This is a special device
This, along with the much later imported Classic found in Chang Hsu’s calligraphy, called che ch’ai
of Filial Piety (Hsiao Ching) by Ho Chih-chang is in ku (“broken hairpin”). The similarity could not be
an excellent, correctly written T’ang sosho not to be a coincidence. We can take it as an unusual ex¬
seen on the mainland today. ample of Chang Hsu’s technique of “wild grass”
One more focal point in Heian-period sosho is the entering Japan.
Hakurakuten Shiku (Poems of Po Chu-i; Figs. 26, Other examples of Heian sosho are found on the
117) reputedly by Emperor Daigo (897-930). At a brocades and silks that carry mainly the poems of
glance the script looks like the work of a drunk, Po Chu-i and which are attributed to Ono no
with a splattering, uninhibited style on a grand Michikaze and Fujiwara Sukemasa. Ayaji-gire (Fig.

112. Section of transcription of Sun Kuo-t’ing’s Shu P’u attributed to Kukai. Early ninth century. Paper,
29.3 X 45.8 cm. Imperial Household Collection.
128), beautiful figured silk occasionally decorated kura period however, Zen monks who had gone to
with colored flowers or birds, as in the Sokanjo (Fig. Sung China reintroduced the calligraphy of the
126), is one kind. The other type, kinuji-gire, is mainland. The Kan’ enso (Fig. 127) written by Shun-
usually written on plain silk. The sosho on these is jo, the founder of the Sennyu-ji temple in Kyoto,
a refined style with a gentle flowerlike charm. is a fine sosho work in the style of Huang Shan-ku.
Writing these poems of Po Chu-i in sosho for one’s Its technical subtlety is said to have amazed the
pleasure was probably learned from the custom courtiers of the day, and even today it is thought to
practiced among the Chinese literati. The brush- be a superb work. The Zen monks of the Rinzai
work of this medium closely resembles the Sheng Mu branch in the latter part of the Kamakura period
T’ieh and Shih Yu T’ieh by the above-mentioned were also versed in sosho. Among them the natu¬
Huai Su, which also cannot be considered a coin¬ ralized monk Issan Ichinei (Fig. 138) and Muso
cidence. It is not unnatural that there should be Soseki, the founder of the Tenryu temple in Kyoto
styles like Chang Hsu’s and Huai Su’s in Japan, were particularly skillful.
and we can see that this is one more type of work However, the calligraphy of the Zen monks in
stemming from the sosho styles of the T’ang period. general is a technically free style that values Zen
The sosho popularity at the T’ang court probably ideals highest, its natural spontaneity contrasting
also played an important background role in the with that of the technique-ridden specialist. Ikkyu
development of kana. Sojun, prominent in the Muromachi period, fa¬
The latter half of the Heian period, due to the vored a rough bamboofiber brush and wrote
cessation of relations with China, was completely strange, unorthodox calligraphy. This style (Fig.
given over to the pursuit of kana. During the Kama¬ 134), brimming with vitality, represents his own

114. Poem by Dokuryu (Tu Li) ; 1655. Paper. Four panels of sixfold screen; each panel, 125.2 X 50 cm.
<1 113. Section of Shinsen Ruirin Sho,
traditionally attributed to Kukai. About early
ninth century. Paper; height, 27.9 cm.
115. Section of Santai Hakurakuten

Shikan (Poems by Po Chu-i in Three
Script Styles), attributed to Ono no Michi-
kaze. Tenth century. Paper scroll; height,
30 cm. MMii
116. Tengusetsu, by Ogyu Sorai. Early eighteenth century. Paper. Four panels of sixfold screen; each panel, 133.7 X 51.5cm.
117. Detail of Hakurakuten Shiku (Poems of Po Chu-i), attributed to
Emperor Daigo. About early tenth century. Paper, 32X 179.2 cm. Imperial
Household Collection. (See also Fig. 26.)
human nature. The style of the Zen monks, who school, which studied more “modern” calligra¬
did not concern themselves with the technicalities phers: .Chang Hsu, Huai Su, and the “reformist”
of calligraphy, opened up a new spiritual facet of calligraphers of the Sung, Ming, and Ch’ing dyn¬
calligraphy based on a kind of written enlighten¬ asties. Those of the Chin-T’ang school used Wang
ment. For Japanese calligraphy this is truly a Hsi-chih’s Shih Ch’i T’ieh and Ch’un Hua Ke T’ieh
special form of great historical value. as well as other old copybooks. They studied the
In the Edo period the karayo style of calligraphy Shu P’u of Sun Kuo-t’ing and admired the tradi¬
arose. Copybooks from China came to be assidu¬ tionalist Chao Tzu-ang of Yuan and Wen Cheng-
ously studied and the field of sosho also split into a rning of Ming. The “reformist” group inclined to
number of traditions. In general terms there were Huai Su’s Tzu Hsu T’ieh and Sheng Mu T’ieh, and
two streams: the “old” school, which studied the to Chu Yun-ming and Tung Ch’i-ch’ang of Ming.
Chin and T’ang calligraphers, and the “modern” In the modern-oriented group, Dokuryu (Fig. 114),
118. Hyakuju (a hundred versions of the character for “long life,” )\x), by Konoe lehiro. About early eighteenth century. Gold paste |>
on satin; heading written in sumi; 124.5 X 95.1 cm. Yomei Bunko Library, Kyoto.
4
“S.
119. Section of Sanjurokkasen Shikishi, by Shokado Shojn. About early seventeenth century. Paper decorated in gold and silver
17.6 cm. Collection of Hikotaro Umezawa, Tokyo. •
120. Section o/'Wakan Roei Shikishi Jo, by Konoe Nobutada. About 1600. Paper decorated in gold; 21.2 17.8 cm. YomeiBunko
Library, Kyoto.
121. Genji Monogatari Emaki (Tale oj Genjl Picture Scroll), kotoba-gaki of “Kashiwagi” section. Attributed to Fujiwara
korefusa. Twelfth century. Decorated paper; height, 21.9 cm. Tokugawa Reimei-kai Collection, Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture.
122. Section oj Koya-gire (an incomplete transcripli'on ofthe Kokin-shuJ, attributed to Ki no Tsurayuki. About mid-eleventh t>
century. Paper decorated with mica paste; originally in scroll format. Height, 25.8 cm. Goto Art Museum, Tokyo.
ilitfWff1
124. Two pages of the Detcho-bon Wakan Roei-shu, attributed to Fujiwara Yukinari. About mid-eleventh century. Karakami
paper in detcho glued binding; each page 20 X 12 cm. Imperial Household Collection.
<] 123. Section of Chisho Daishi Shigo Chokusho, by Ono no Michikaze; 927. Colored-paper scroll; 28.7 ■ 154.9 cm. Tokyo
National Museum.
till
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125. Waka-shikishi, by Hon’ami Koetsu; 1606. Waka on gold- and silver-decorated paper; 20 X 18 cm. Yamato Bunkakan,
Nara.
126. Hakushi Monju Dan-
kan (Fragment of Anthology of
the Works of Po Chu-i), at¬
tributed to Ono no Michikaze.
About tenth century. Figured
silk; height, 27.6 cm. Maeda
Ikutoku-kai, Tokyo.

Ogyu Sorai (Fig. 116), and Cho Tosai (Fig. 171) m.
were the experts at sosho. At the end of the
Edo period Ichikawa Beian (Fig. 175) and Nukina
Kaioku (Fig. 176) appeared. Beian prized the
work of the Sung calligrapher Mi Fu and also
studied Ming and Ch’ing calligraphy. He brought
the “reformist” tradition to maturity. Kaioku, by
valuing the old T’ang works and studying the
techniques of the Chin and T’ang periods, became
the leader of the “old” school.
DICTIONARIES The intelligentsia of the Edo

OF SOSHO period liked sosho, and in line
with this preference, aside from
the copies of Senjimon (Thousand Character
Essay), which showed each script, there were a
fair number of dictionaries printed in sosho alone.
(A number of these important works are illustrated
on the foldout facing page 73.) The earliest of
these is the Sosho Inne (5 vols.; early Edo period) by
Chang T’ien-hsi of the state of Chin in north China
(1122~ 1234). The next, not dictionaries, are Ritaku-
goSensei Hitsu Shinkan Soji Senka Shi (2 vols.; 1660),
and Sosho Yoryo (Essentials of Sosho; 5 vols.; 1664).
The latter is a printed edition of a scroll of sosho
copied by T’ang masters. It has a preface by a man
named Cheng I-ch’i. The characters are classified
according to their components. There are sections
on variant forms, unusual characters, characters
whose kaisho forms are the same but having differ¬
ent sosho forms, etc. The above dictionaries are
relatively early reprints of Chinese printed editions. Hitto in 1745, has each character of the Thousand
Other works are Sosho Enkai (4 vols.; 1675; by Character Essay in ten different styles of sosho. Hitto
Ide Gakei); Sorokanshu (22 vols.; 1696; compiled by is said to have studied with Den Kanran and
the Mito Shokokan), which has 6,070 kaisho char¬ Niioki Mosho, and is known for his paintings and
acters and 49,500 sosho characters (republished in calligraphy. There is the Sosho Hoyo (5 vols.; 1817)
1913 as Sosho Daijiten); and the Wakan Soji Ben compiled by Wakita Jun, with prefaces by Yama¬
(1734), by the Kyoto calligrapher Kuwabara Ku¬ moto Hokuzan, Minagawa Kien, and Nakai Todo,
do. These works also arrange the characters accord¬ and an epilogue by Ono Kunzan. It arranges the
ing to the number of strokes and the component characters according to their components and the
elements, and included too is a poem relating to the writer of each character is indicated. There is also
history of characters, the Shotai Enkaku no Uta. It is the Soi (4 vols.; 1817) compiled by Shinozaki Santo
thought that these dictionaries were used as copy¬ and arranged by the four tones of the Chinese
books by Ike no Taiga and his contemporaries, and language, with a preface by Koga Seiri. The Sojii
this tells us much about the provenance of Taiga’s (12 vols.; 1829), compiled by Shih Liang of the
style. The Sosho Juttai Senjimon, compiled by Izumi Ch’ing dynasty, also arranges its characters accord-
122 • SOSHO : CURSIVE SCRIPT

127. Section o/Kan’enso, by Shunjo; 1219. Scroll of wax-decorated paper; 40.8 X 293 cm. Sennyu-ji, Kyoto.
ing to the number of strokes, and gives the writer of is material that has been misclassified. Moreover,
each character. Its useful contents skillfully ar¬ the crudity of the woodblock prints for the most
ranged, it became widely circulated in the Meiji part limits them to merely indicating the route of
period. The Sosho Kaku (2 vols.; 1849), by Hoshi the brush. Inaccuracy is a problem here. Even so,
Kendo of Aizu, has titles written by Togawa since these were the materials at hand for the
Ren’an and an introduction by Otsuki Bankei. scholars of the time, they are useful reference works
Arranged by the number of strokes, it is a very for Edo sosho. Even in the Meiji period the same
handy dictionary with sections on variants, mis¬ kind of publications appeared, but they were often
leading characters, etc. Soso (12 vols.; 1854), edited no more than an extension of the Edo works. Only
by Senoo Shozo, extracts the essentials of Sorokanshu in the modern period (since 1912) has it become
(see above) and has an introduction by Koga possible to make dictionaries of sosho and other
Sakei. There were of course many other diction¬ script styles based on reliable models. But most of
aries published. the sosho characters in these are still based on the
On the whole, the data on the sosho dictionaries copybooks or dictionaries, and we can expect more
of the Edo period needs reexamination and there accurate dictionaries to be produced.
DICTIONARIES OF SOSHO • 123

128. Hakushi Monju Dankan (Fragment of Anthology of the Works of Po Chu-i), attributed to Ono
no Michikaze. About tenth century. Figured silk; 27 X 32 cm. Yomei Bunko Library, Kyoto.
THE AESTHETICS Sosho developed originally as Jakugon (1702-71; Fig. 93), Jiun (1718-1804;
OF SOSHO an abbreviated style for writ¬ Fig. 92), Ike no Taiga (Fig. 91), and Ryokan
ing quickly, but in certain (1758-1831; Fig. 90) because they grasped the
aspects it is endowed with an aesthetic nature. essential aesthetic nature of sosho. From Meiji to
Although it is difficult to read, its inherent flexi¬ the present there has been a strong tendency to
bility of form is most suited to artistic works, and study the seventeenth-century Ming and Ch’ing
many exquisite works have been produced in it. calligraphers Chang Jui-t’u, Ni Yuan-lu, Hsu Yu,
Furthermore, sosho being the parent from which Fu Shan, and Wang Tuo, whose sosho shows the
Japan’s own hiragana were born, its ties with Japa¬ richest creativity.
nese calligraphy are deep, and much excellent The feeling is very strong that there is a deep
Japanese calligraphy is in this script. bond between Japanese calligraphy and sosho. Jap¬
The sosho that is prized today is not that of the anese art as a whole is said to be characterized by
traditional Confucianists of the Edo period; it is a sosho kind of feeling. We can see now that this is
rather that of radical monks and literati like quite literally true of Japanese calligraphy.

CHAPTER NINE
Hiragana
MAN'YO-GANA Man’yo-gana are kanji used to regent Fujiwara Michinaga; 1004; Fig. 146), also
TO HIRAGANA represent the syllables of the have passages of connected hiragana. The Kana
Japanese language. In this Shosoku (996-1001; Fig. 153) on the back of the
writing system, every Japanese syllable was as¬ Hokuzansho is written in a polished, flowing hiragana.
signed a number of kanji, any of which could be These reliably dated materials enable us to trace
used to represent that syllable. Thus in the early the main stages in the development of hiragana.
stages of its development, the kana system was quite With the arrival of hiragana, kana separated into
complicated. The style of early kana as in the two three types—onokode (men’s writing), so (sosho), and
Man’yo-gana Monjo (Man’yo-gana documents; Fig. onnade (women’s writing). Men’s writing consists
129), the Kara-ai no Uta (Fig. 142), the Bussokuseki of the kaisho and gyosho forms of kanji, so is sosho
no Uta pillar (Fig. 132), the graffiti of the five-story kanji, and women’s writing is hiragana. Since Chi¬
pagoda at Horyu-ji, and other works is all kaisho, nese studies were the special province of men, they
gyosho, and sosho borrowed from China. In the concentrated on kaisho and gyosho. As women
early Heian period the Aritoshi Moshibumi (867; Fig. specialized in waka literature instead of Chinese
133) is written in the same style of “grass kana” as studies, they came to use hiragana, which they
the Man’yo-gana Monjo. It is thought that kana had developed by “softening” kanji to fit the graceful,
already developed at this time, but we have no courtly feeling of waka poetry. Eventually men also
certain proof. In a copy of Ki no Tsurayuki’s Tosa came to use “women’s writing.” On reflection it
Diary copied by Fujiwara Sadaie (1162-1241), and seems reasonable enough to consider kaisho and
in one of Ono no Michikaze’s letters included in gyosho as suitable for men, and hiragana for women,
the Naniwa Jo (1819; a copybook printed from with so as an intermediate style. But I have never
woodblocks carved by Morikawa Chikuso), there heard of such a distribution of script styles accord¬
are already passages in connected hiragana. A ing to sex in China. Kaisho there was a formal style
scrap of paper recording the date of birth of Clio- whereas sosho was an abbreviated style used for a
nen (938; Fig. 130), founder of Shoryo-ji temple feeling of freedom or escape; this was the only
in Saga, Kyoto, and believed to have been attached division between the two. In the Nara period, the
to his umbilical cord, has some beautiful hiragana Chinese usage was still maintained in Japan. Em¬
written on it. The Kana Shosoku (Kana letter; 966; press Komyo was copying out Wang Hsi-chih’s
Fig. 145) on the back of the Kokuzo Bosatsu Nenju Yueh I Lun in small kaisho (Fig. 86). Evidently,
Shidai in the Ishiyama-dera, Shiga Prefecture, and then, kaisho was not limited to men at this time.
the Mido Kampaku Michinaga Nikki (diary of the The male-female distinction probably came about
man’yo-gana to hiragana • 125

129. Section oj Man’yo-gana Monjo (Man’yo-gana Documents). About 762. 130. Paper scrap bearing Chonen’s
Paper, 29.1 X 30 cm. Shoso-in, Nara. date of birth; 938. Length, 14 cm.
Seiryo-ji, Kyoto.
in the Heian period when hiragana was refined into women writing in the environment of the Japanese
an unexcelled, graceful form in the hands of sen¬ climate and the Japanese national character, more
sitive court ladies. specifically, among the nobles of the Heian court.
The love letters exchanged between men and wom¬
THE BEAUTY OF Let us consider a little more en,—their elegant, gentle nobility, their neat, pure
HEIAN KAN A deeply the underlying char¬ form, the alluring, elegant beauty of the natures
acteristics of the beauty of of their writers—brought into being this peerless
Heian kana. Originally characters developed basi¬ script—hiragana. Their beauty is parallel to that of
cally in the direction of concise, speedy writing. Of the waka poetry of the time.
the three styles of early kana (man’yo-gana)—kaisho, The second characteristic of the beauty of kana
gyosho, and sosho—sosho most fits this principle. And is to be found in remmentai. This connected style
by developing this script style further in the same also occurs in China, but when kana are written in
direction, hiragana were produced. remmentai, a fine line is used, producing threadlike
Moreover, in addition to being a refinement of subtleties of technique with a lyrical beauty and
the simple, soft beauty of sosho, hiragana received pure refinement unseen in that country.
their final polish from the beautiful sentiments of I have already mentionded that in the kana-usage
126 • HIRAGANA
131. Section o/'Semmen Hoke-kyo ("Lotus Sutra copied on fan-shaped paper). Twelfth century. Decorated paper; height, 25.2
cm. Shitenno-ji, Osaka.
system of this time many characters could be used kanji were used in greater numbers. The disposition
to represent the same sound. Consequently there of kanji and connected kana is truly beautiful, the
was room for considerable graphic variation, and kanji having been assimilated to the Japanese feel¬
judicious choice of the kana character to be used ing so thoroughly that one is not conscious that
for any given syllable gave added beauty to the kanji came from China.
remmentai style. And while grammatical rules re¬ During the Heian period kana was intimately
stricted somewhat the choice of kana, the practical linked to waka court poetry. This form of poetry
application of the new script was wide, allowing emerged in the Nara period, the literal meaning
considerable freedom in heightening the beauty of of the name being “Japanese poetry,” as opposed
the connected style. to kanshi, or Chinese poetry. Many of the works
Examples of kana among which some kanji have written in kana are either anthologies of waka or
been interspersed, such as the Shunshoan Shikishi include some waka, for example, Man’yo-shu, Ko¬
(Fig. 56) and the Sekido manuscript of the Kokin- kin-shu, Wakan Roei-shu, etc. The natures of waka and
shu (Fig. 152) still exist from the Heian period. In kana have important points in common, and we can
writings from the end of this period, as seen in the derive a knowledge of the essence of kana from that
Gen’ei manuscript of the Kokin-shu (Fig. 150), of waka.
THE BEAUTY OF HEIAN KANA • 127

132. Section of Bussokuseki
no Uta no Hi. Poem in¬
scribed on stele. About 770.
Size of inscription, 146 X 41
cm. Ink rubbing. Yakushi-ji,
Nara.
133. Section of Aritoshi Mo-

shibumi; 867. Paper scroll,
30 X 45.5 cm. Tokyo National
Museum.
KANA COMPOSITION In the format of kana normal vertical ones; or one line may partially
writings, too, great skill overlap with the previous line; or the lines may be
is shown. When writing kanji, each character is stacked so that their tops do not align, etc. The
written within an imaginary square frame. But Sunshoan Shikishi (Fig. 56), Tsugi-jikishi (Fig. 57),
kana are usually written in connected form, and Gen’ei-bon manuscript of the Kokin-shu (Fig. 150),
this gives kana works the same kind of beautiful Masu-jikishi (Fig. 144), and the kotoba-gaki (intro¬
freedom of disposition of characters and overall ductory and explanatory passages) of the Sanjuroku-
composition that can be seen in paintings. This is nin Shu (Anthology of the Thirty-six Poetic Gen¬
partly the result of the elegantly graceful, sosho-Wke iuses) and the Genji Monogatari Emaki (Tale of
nature of kana, but at the same time there must Genji Picture Scroll; Fig. 121) are examples of
have been a conscious effort to create objects various line arrangements.
beautiful as applied art. The blank spaces created by this kind of writing
The irregular positioning of characters and lines give the same kind of effect as a painting. The waka
takes various forms. For example, the characters poem of the Masu-jikishi shown in Figure 144 sug¬
may be written in slanting lines, in place of the gests visually the effect of the moon rising through
134. Section of Buddhist verse. Calligraphy by Ikkyu Sojun. Fifteenth century. Paper; each column, 133.4 X 41.4 cm. Shinju-an, >
Daitoku-ji, Kyoto.
128 • HIRAGANA
135. Section o/Daikaku-ji Ketsuge Shumeitan, by Son’en Shinno ; 1335. Paper scroll; height, 43cm. Imperial Household Collec¬
tion.
136. Inscription on painting of the Zen patriarch Bodhidharma, by Emperor Hanazono. Early fourteenth century. Paper, 40.6 X 42.1
cm. Chofuku-ji, Kyoto.
137. Section of calligraphy by Shuho Myocho (Daito Kokushi). About 1334. Paper scroll, 32.8 X 835.9 cm. Shinju-an, Daitoku-ji,
Kyoto.
o
138. Buddhist verse by the

Chinese Zen master Hui-neng
(638-713). Calligraphy by
Issan Ichinei (1-shan I-ning).
About early fourteenth century.
:~r Paper, 87.8 X 26.8 cm. Col¬

lection of Toyohiko Inui, Hyogo
> Prefecture.
139. Section of Sarashina Nikki (Sarashina Diary), transcribed by Fujiwara Sadaie. Late thirteenth century. Paper,
16.3 X 14.5 cm.; sewn binding. Imperial Household Collection.
140. Hino-gire, by Fujiwara Toshinari. Fragment of Senzai YVaka-shu, an anthology of waka compiled by Toshinari.
About 1188. Paper, 22.5 X 15.7 cm.; originally sewn binding.
141. Section o/Kumano Kaishi, by the Buddhist priest and waka poet Jakuren. Two waka; about 1200. Paper, 30 X 43.5 cm.
Yomei Bunko LibraryKyoto.
142 (top left). Kara-ai no Uta. Waka draft on paper scrap; 27.6 X 16.1 cm. About mid-eighth century. Shoso-in, Nara.
143 (top right). Section o/Kokin Waka-shu (Manjuin-bon transcription), attributed to Fujiwara Yukinari. About eleventh cen¬
tury. Colored-paper scroll; height, 14.2 cm. Manju-in, Kyoto.
144 (bottom left). Masu-jikishi, attributed to Fujiwara Yukinari. About eleventh century. Mica-decorated paper, 13.8 X 11.8 cm.
145 (bottom right). Section of letter written on back of“Kokuzo Bosatsu Nenju Shidai.” About 966. Height, 33.2 cm. Ishiyama-
dera, Shiga Prefecture.
146 (left). Section of Mido
Kampaku Michinaga Nikki
(diary of the regent Fujiwara
Michinaga); 1004. Paper
scroll; height, 30 cm. Yomei
Bunko Library, Kyoto.
147 (right). Section oj Daiji

Wakan Roei-shu, attributed
to Fujiwara Yukinari. About
mid-eleventh century. Colored
paper; height, 26.5 cm.
148-49 (opposite page). Sec¬ >

tions of Koya-gire (an incom¬
plete transcription of the Kokin-
shu), attributed to Ki no
Tsurayuki. About mid-eleventh
century. Paper decorated with
mica paste; height, 26.5 cm.
the trees, and this is made an integral part of the In Chinese calligraphy there are rules of com¬
composition of the work. The free play of the position that govern such things as spacing of
intellect here gives a very fresh effect. Kana works characters, slant of writing, relative sizes of char¬
of the Heian period are characterized by this kind acters, and so on. In the case of kana, harmony of
of brilliant freedom in composition, quite lacking character size, slant, stroke thickness, etc. can be
in Chinese calligraphy. From the Kamakura period achieved with considerable freedom on account of
onward, with the development of the so-called the gracefulness of the script itself and by means of
ryugi calligraphy (the calligraphy of the various the subtle lyrical beauty of the remmen connected
“schools” of calligraphy), great importance was style. This again is something lacking in Chinese
attached to the format of works. Students of these calligraphy.
traditions simply copied the formats handed down
in them and any creative qualities were lost. In the KANA AND PAPER Another major character-
early Edo period, however, with the appearance of AND INK istic of kana calligraphy is,
calligraphers like Hon’ami Koetsu, Konoe Nobu¬ the paper used. In China
tada, and Shokado Shojo, the unique beauty of as well, during the T’ang period, beautiful and
“scattered writing” returned (Figs. 119, 120, 125). finely made paper was used for calligraphy. Some
138 • HIRAGANA
famous Chinese papers are: hsueh t’ao chien of Sze¬ techniques. Karakami is especially beautiful, and
chuan province and the ch1eng hsin t’ang chih of the comes to mind whenever kana are mentioned, since
Li family of Southern T’ang. In the Sung dynasty they go so well together. Surprisingly, however, in
also, colored and figured papers were used. The its homeland karakami was not much used, so one
Japanese karakami (literally, “Chinese paper”), was feels as if it were a Japanese possession all along.
first imported from China, but later was produced The exquisite beauty of karakami was admired
in Japan. It is paper decorated with designs printed by the court nobility and is truly suited to kana. The
in mica paste. In his work K’ao P’an Yu Shih, Ch’u Detcho-bon Wakan Roei-shu in the Imperial House¬
Lung of Ming gives detailed instructions for mak¬ hold Collection (Fig. 124), the Konoe-bon Wakansho
ing similar paper decorated with gold and silver (Fig. 60), the Hon’ami-gire Kokin-shu (Fig. 59),
flower motifs, and we can consider that this is the Gen’ei transcription of the Kokin-shu (Fig. 150),
method for making karakami handed down to Ming the Jugo-ban Uta-awase (Fig. 151), and others, are
paper makers. beautiful examples of karakami. Good examples of
The variety of paper for writing kana included dyed paper are the Tsugi-jikishi (Fig. 57), the
dyed paper, karakami, “cloud paper,” and some Sekido manuscript of the Kokin-shu (Fig. 152), and
like “flowing ink” (Fig. 155) which required special the Manju-in Kokin-shu (Fig. 143).
KANA AND PAPER AND INK • 139

150. Two pages of Kokin Waka-shu (Gcn’ei-bon transcription), attributed to Alinamoto Toshiyori; 1120. Karakami
paper in sewn binding, 21 X 15.2 cm.
Elegant paper of indisputably high quality is infinite variety is achieved reaches a dazzling level.
found in the Nishi Hongan-ji manuscript of the The wealth of ideas applied to this sumptuous book
Sanjuroku-nin Shu (Figs. 12, 154, 155). This poetry indicates that it is the work of someone with quite
anthology used a variety of papers in addition to outstanding artistic talent.
karakami, such as michinoku-garni, (wrinkled paper The use of these gorgeous papers was not limited
from the present Tohoku region); atsu-gami (thick to kana calligraphy, but was used for sutra copying
paper); koya-gami (paper reconstituted from used also. Examples of these so-called decorated sutras
paper). Further variety is added by the methods are: Heike Nokyo (Fig. 53), Semmen Hoke-kyo (Fig.
used to join the pieces of paper together. Some¬ 131).
times irregular, fuzzy edges (obtained by tearing) The graphic beauty of Fleian-period paper leads
are joined; sometimes straight, cut edges. At times us back to the applied arts of the Nara period
collage effects are used, the joins being either edge- where we can see reflected the naturalistic depic¬
to-edge or slightly overlapping. In addition, the tion of T’ang-period arts. The natural scenes—
paper is sometimes decorated with painted patterns flowers, birds, trees, and landscapes—that appear
or pictures, sometimes with pieces of gold and on the Nara-period musical instruments,
silver leaf scattered on it. The skill with which the decorated boxes, and mirrors in the Shoso-in,
140 • HIRAGANA
151. Section q/Jugo-ban Uta-awase, attributed to Fujiwara Kinto. Late eleventh century. Karakami-paper scroll; height,
25 cm.
as well as those on sutras, have qualities in com¬ gradually runs out of ink the tone gets lighter and
mon with Heian-period paper. And by the Heian lighter. In this way variation of ink tone is achieved.
period, the essence of these T’ang creations had The distribution of ink tones also requires a careful
been so well assimilated that it was beautified and eye toward the harmony of the total composition,
Japanized to an even greater degree, in accordance and must be done so as not to create an unbalanced
with the aesthetic standards of the Heian nobility. effect. For example, parts of the Koya-gire Kokin-shu
The ink used in calligraphy is called sumi and is (Figs. 122, 148) are most scrupulous in this regard.
similar to India ink. In China, ink which has the In the Heian period, much attention was paid to
color of black lacquer is highly valued. In the this technique, which is called sumi-zuki.
words of the Sung calligrapher Chao Hsi-ku, “Dark
ink is a must for kai, so, ten, or rei writing. When KAMAKURA AND Once we pass the Heian
the brush makes a crossover in grass or running AFTER period, kana in general do
style, even where it is the breadth of a hair, the ink not thrive. In the Kamakura
must remain dark.” On the other hand, in Japa¬ period a strong individualistic kana appeared, but
nese kana modulation of ink tone is prized. The this did not last. One reason for this is that the
first stroke starts out dark, then as the brush “schools” calligraphy practiced from the Kama-
KAMAKURA AND AFTER • 141

152. Section 0/Kokin Waka-shu ('Sekido-bon transcrip¬
tion), attributed to Fujiwara Yukinari. About eleventh
century. Colored paper in sewn binding; height, 20.5 cm.
153 (bottom). Section of letter written on back o/Hokuzan-

sho; 996-1001. Paper; 30.9x46.7 cm.
154 (opposite page). Two pages of Sanjuroku-nin Shu [>

(Nishi Honganji-bon transcription; Shigeyuki-shu sec¬
tion). About 1112. “ Torn-and-patched” decorated paper in
detcho glued binding; 20.1 X 31.8 cm. Nishi Hongan-ji,
Kyoto.
> y
142 • HIRAGANA
kura period to the Muromachi period was limited on, along with a sudden surge in research of Heian-
to conventional formalism, and the original con¬ period wayo, the essential nature of Japanese kana
cept of calligraphy as an art was weakened. (The was once again recognized. And today, in pace
major schools of the time were the Sesonji-ryu, with the spreading popularity of the old calligra¬
which was founded in Kyoto by Fujiwara Yukinari phers, a number of fine calligraphers have ap¬
and based on the style of Ono no Michikaze; the peared.
Shoren’in-ryu, which was founded in Kyoto by
Son’en, the son of Emperor Fushimi, who lived As we have explained, among the script styles
from 1265 to 1317; and the Jimyoin-ryu, a branch brought to Japan, some were little used, but others
of the Sesonji-ryu, which started in the Muromachi took root in Japanese soil and thrived, and from
period.) this hardy stock the uniquely Japanese kana were
Beginning with the three outstanding calligra¬ produced. Reviewing the whole situation, we can
phers of the early Edo period, the beauty of Fleian- see a basic pattern like this:
and Kamakura-period kana was revived, and new, Because of Japanese customs, tensho and reisho
creative works were produced. After this revival, were not successful; they were by and large used
however, practice was once again limited to low- only for special purposes. Since kaisho, being the
level “schools” calligraphy. From the Meiji period basic script style, has great practical significance,
KAMAKURA AND AFTER • 143

155. Two pages of Sanjuroku-nin Shu (Nishi Honganji-bon transcription; Tsurayuki-shu section). About 1112.
'‘Flowing-ink” decorated paper in detcho glued binding; 20.1 X 31.8 cm. Nishi Hongan-ji, Kyoto.
it always has been and continues to be important. can say that the art of Japanese calligraphy is the
Because running gyosho blends well with kana and art of sosho. However, the script that incorporates
suits the Japanese personality, it is a style that the highest essence of Japanese calligraphy is kana,
should continue to increase in importance. The and in particular the hiragana of the Heian period.
sosho script is closely connected with hiragana, and Our debt to the women of the Heian period, who
is the most important style from the point of view conceived and realized the phonetic symbols called
of the future development of Japanese calligraphy hiragana, is tremendous. And the artistic develop¬
as an art. The fact that it tends to be emphasized ment of kana is a feat equally worthy of gratitude.
in Japan comes from the essential nature of Japa¬ It is our duty to preserve the beauty of hiragana and
nese calligraphy. In other words, the bond between to continue the task of developing this beautiful
Japanese calligraphy and sosho is so firm that we script to even further heights.
144 • HIRAGANA
CHAPTER TEN
The Karayo Tradition

Japanese culture as a whole matured under Chi¬ YAMATO AND ASUKA About a.d. 400, Achi-
nese influence, and in calligraphy this influence is ki and Wani, two
of particular importance. As I mentioned earlier, envoys from Paekche (one of the four ancient
Japanese calligraphy can be broadly divided into Korean Kingdoms) arrived in Japan, and with
two traditions, the karayo tradition that developed the subsequent adoption of continental literary
under Chinese influence, and the wayo tradition culture came a system of political organization.
with its uniquely Japanese characteristics. From At that early date there must already have been
this point, I will consider the growth of these two some officials proficient in writing characters, but
traditions, the connections between them, and the historical examples of such writing are scarce. The
fundamental nature of Japanese calligraphy. In only ones extant are the Eda Kofun Tachi Mei
this chapter I will deal with karayo, in the final (Fig. 156), an inscription on a sword excavated
chapter with wayo. from the Funayama burial mound in Kumamoto
During its long history Japanese calligraphy has Prefecture, and the Suda Hachiman Kyo Mei (Fig.
received much from the Asian continent. The list 158), an inscription on a bronze mirror that is
that follows shows the continental sources of Japa¬ preserved at the Suda Hachiman shrine in Waka¬
nese calligraphy. yama Prefecture. Judging from the inscriptions,
the sword dates from about a.d. 438 and the
mirror from 503. In both cases the inscription is
Japan Asian Continent
written on special utensils, and the script style is
Yamato Paekche (south¬ a simple kaisho.
west Korea) At that time many Buddhist priests and sculp¬
Asuka Sui and T’ang tors, temple builders, painters, and other craftsmen
Nara Chin and T’ang and artists from Paekche arrived in Japan and
Early Heian T’ang became naturalized. It is said that these two in¬
Early Kamakura Sung scriptions are probably the work of naturalized
Late Kamakura Yuan (Mongol) craftsmen or their descendants. Apart from these
Muromachi and Ming two items, the only historical materials giving us
Momoyama information about the calligraphy of that period
Edo Karayo-sty\e are documentary references, but actual examples
Meiji and Taisho “Ancient school” of this writing are virtually nonexistent.
and “new school” The Asuka period covers the one hundred seven-
YAMATO AND ASUKA • 145

156 (left). Eda Kofun Tachi Mei.
Tip half (left) and hilt half (right) of
iron sword with silver-inlay inscription.
About 438. Length of blade, 90.7 cm. Si#
Tokyo National Museum.
157 (top right) Section of Kengu-kyo,

attributed to Emperor Shomu. About mill- ft
m5 * s
eighth century. Paper scroll; height, 28
& dt W-
cm. Todai-ji, Nara.
1 x*
i *
ft
w* * ft m5
m
**
% ■ft-T «
, rV'> * & *
158 (bottom right). Suda Hachiman

Kyo. Mirror with inscription around the
edge. About 503. Cast bronze; diameter,
19.8 cm. Suda Hachiman Shrine, Waka¬
yama Prefecture.
146 • KARAYO TRADITION

159. Section of Hokke Sesso Doban Mei. Engraved inscription on gilt bronze; 686. Size of inscription, 14.2X 42.4 cm. Hase-
dera, Nara.
teen year span from 593, when Crown Prince at Hasedera (686; Fig. 159); Kongojo Darani-kyo,
Shotoku became prince regent, to 710, when the a sutra (686; Fig. 88); Jomyo Genron, a discourse on
capital was moved to Nara. During this period the Vimalakirti Sutra (706); Obotsu Shijo, a fore¬
there was frequent contact with the continent. Ono word to the poems of Wang Po (707; Fig. 170).
no Imoko was sent as envoy to the Sui court in . The examples that survive are inscriptions on
China in 607-08 and, along with scholars and stone and metal in the form of monuments, tomb¬
monks who traveled to the continent, he played an stones, and statuary, and “direct” writing in the
important role in introducing Chinese culture to form of copies of sutras and the Obotsu Shijo fore¬
Japan. In 618 the Sui dynasty fell and the T’ang word. In addition there are statue inscriptions and
dynasty arose. Ambassadors to the T’ang court examples of a rather special nature, like a tapestry
were duly dispatched from the Japanese court and mandala and graffiti. The characters of the in¬
relations with the continent became even closer. scriptions on stone and metal have many aspects
In 646, the faction of Prince Naka no Oe and in common with Chinese Sui-dynasty copies of
Fujiwara Kamatari initiated the Taika Reform sutras, but the Kengo-kyo (Fig. 80) sutra, which
whereby the T’ang administrative system was put dates from 610 and explains the Hindu-Buddhist
into practice in Japan. Inevitably T’ang culture pantheon and is kept in the Shoso-in Repository, is
was widely reflected in the calligraphy of the time. closest to this style. The Ujibashi fragment gives
A few of the most important calligraphic works very much the impression of the Chinese Hokuhi
of this period are: Ujibashi Dampi, a monumental monument style. As mentioned in an earlier chap¬
column on the bridge at the Hashidera temple in ter, the Hasedera bronze plaque and the Kongojo
Uji (646; Fig. 83); Hasedera Hokke Sesso Doban Mei, Darani-kyo are written in a style almost identical
a bronze plaque inscription from the Lotus Sutra to that of Ou Yang-t’ung. The Jomyo Genron, a
YAMATO AND ASUKA • 147

161 (top). Tako-gori no Hi. Inscription on stone stele; 711.
Size, 127 X 61 cm. Yoshii-cho, Gumma Prefecture.
160 (left). Engraved inscription on gilt-bronze nimbus of statue

of Yakushi Buddha. About 607. Size of inscription, 29 X 13.5
cm. Ink rubbing. Horyu-ji, Nara.
sutra manuscript in small characters of a note¬ of T’ang, when T’ang culture flourished at its most
taking style, closely resembles sutras of the Chinese spectacular, and, in Japan, the Tempyo era
Northern Dynasties period. The Obotsu Shijo ex¬ (729-49) of Emperor Shomu. Embassies were
hibits a traditional Chinese calligraphic style of frequently dispatched to T’ang China, and Nara,
sharp brushwork. The calligraphy of the Asuka like a blossom’s fragrance, reflected T’ang culture.
period is virtually all based on that of Sui and Important examples of metal and stone inscriptions
T’ang China and many of these works deserve from this period are: Tako-gori no Hi, a monument
examination. in the Tako district (711; Fig. 161); Kanaizawa no
Hi, a monument at Kanaizawa (726); Kofuku-ji
NARA This period covers the eighty-four years Kanzen-in Shomei, a bell inscription at Kofuku-ji
between the removal of the capital to temple (727); and Oharida no Yasumaro Boshi, a
Nara in 710 and the move to the Heian-period tomb inscription (729; Fig. 82).
capital, Kyoto, in 794. During this time the Examples from the Kanto area (around present
greatest introduction into Japan of Chinese po¬ Tokyo), like the Tako-gori no Hi and the Kanaizawa
litical, social, literary, and other institutions oc¬ no Hi inscriptions, are in a simple style, but the
curred. It corresponds to the reign of Hsuan Tsuan rest are in the same tradition of writing as the

162. Section o/ Enchin Dento Daihoshii Iki. About 851. Figured-silk scroll; 29.5 X 53.2 cm. Onjo-ji (Mii-dera), Shiga Pre¬
fecture.
metal and stone inscriptions of the Asuka period Chimpo Cho, a catalogue of donations to Todai-ji
although with a more exquisite beauty. Some of (756; Fig. 85); and Daisho 0 Shinseki Cho, a list of
the finest sutra copies in Japan appear in this the writings of the two Wangs (758; Fig. 15).
period: Nagaya no Okimi Gangyo (712 and 728; Fig. These are works of outstanding quality, all based
165), and three works from the late Nara period: on the traditional Chinese styles of the Chin and
Shomu Tenno Gangyo, Komyo Kogo Gogatsu Tsuitachi T’ang periods, and masterpieces of the first rank.
Gangyo, and Kengu-kyo (Fig. 157). The calligraphy They represent complete technical mastery, not
of these gangyo (sutras copied out as an act of pious only in the exquisiteness of their calligraphy but
devotion to acquire merit) is truly magnificent. also in their paper, seal impressions, and bindings.
However the most important materials in connec¬ Works of this quality were not to be seen in China,
tion with the calligraphy of this period are the so we can see that Chinese calligraphy had been
numerous manuscripts preserved in the Shoso-in assimilated to a high degree by Japanese during
Repository, works like Shomu Tenno Shinkan Zasshu this period. Mentioned in the catalogue of dona¬
(731; Fig. 87); Toka Rissei Zassho Yoryaku, by Em¬ tions to Todai-ji are twenty volumes of rubbings
press Komyo (Fig. 16); Yueh 1 Lun, also by Empress of Wang Hsi-chih’s calligraphy, screens inscribed
Komyo (744; Fig. 86); Todai-ji Kemmotsu Cho Kokka with copies of his calligraphy, and screens inscribed
NARA • 149
163. Torige Josei Bunsho Byobu. Sixfold screen. Eighth centu¬
ry. Paper; text in feathered kaisho. Each panel, 149 X 56.3 cm.
Shoso-in, Nara.
with the calligraphy of Ou Yang-hsun of T’ang. (823; Fig. 30) and Rikyo Hyakuei Dankan (Fig. 29).
Unfortunately, these have been lost. The latter faithfully carries on the style of Ou
Yang-hsun of T’ang. Extant works by Tachibana
EARLY HEIAN This spans the century or so be¬ Hayanari are: one part of Sanjujo Sasshi (c. 805),
tween the transfer of the capital the Nan’endo Dotodai Mei (inscription on a bronze
to Kyoto in 794 and Emperor Daigo’s accession to lantern at Nan’endo; 816; Fig. 94) and Ito Nai-
the throne in 897. As before, contact with the shinno Gammon (833; Fig. 28), all outstanding ex¬
continent was carried on by ambassadors to the amples of the traditional Chin-T’ang style. Kukai
T’ang court, but the dispatch of these embassies had learned the Chin-T’ang style from childhood
was broken off in 894. The priests Saicho (founder and in China he studied not only the traditional
of the Tendai sect at Mount Hiei) and Kukai, calligraphic style of Wang Hsi-chih and his son but
together with Tachibana Hayanari, went to T’ang also a new T’ang style, which he introduced to
in 804 on the boat of the ambassador Fujiwara Japan. Roko Shiiki, written before his trip to China,
Kadonomaro. We know from Saicho’s Shorai Moku- one part of Sanjujo Sasshi (c. 805; Fig. 173), and
roku (an inventory of materials brought back from Fushinjo (Figs. 32, 108) exemplify the traditionalist
China), Kukai’s collection of poetry Shoryo-shu, and school of the Chin-T’ang style. From the style of
other biographical records that they brought back Kukai’s Fushinjo it appears he had carefully studied
to Japan a great deal of material relating to callig¬ the kind of gyosho style that is engraved on the Ta
raphy. T’ang San Tsang Sheng Chiao Hsu Pei, a pillar
Among Emperor Saga’s works are Kojokaicho erected in 672 and inscribed with Wang Hsi-chih’s

calligraphy. The entry for November 15, 812, in dhism in Japan, went with Kukai to China.
the Kanjoki (Fig. 164), the copy of Shu P’u in the Examples of his calligraphy are Kyukaku Jo (Fig.
Imperial Household Collection (Fig. 112), and the 33), Shorai Mokuroku, and Tendai Hokke-shu Nembun
calligraphy appended to the representations of Engi. The gyosho style of the letters in the Kyukaku
Fukukongo, Ichigyo, and Eka in the Portraits of Jo is reminiscent of the Ta T’ang San Tsang Sheng
the Seven Shingon Patriarchs are in similar styles Chiao Hsu stele (Fig. 18), but it has no equal for
and would seem to be based on the T’ang sosho dignity and immaculate beauty.
style. The Sheng Hsien T’ai Tzu Pei by Empress Tse Somewhat later, the priests Ennin, in 838, and
T’ien-wu of T’ang is similar to these, and this type Enchin, in 853, crossed over to T’ang China. Many
of sosho was probably taken from Chinese models. of the extant documents relating to Onjo-ji temple
Kukai’s copy of Tsuo Yu Ming (Fig. Ill) is a really (Mii-dera), with which these two priests were closely
beautiful example of this sosho technique. Another connected, such as: Enchin Bosatsu Kaicho (833),
of Kukai’s studies was zattaisho, examples of which Ennin Sanju Jo Kaiji (848-60), Enchin Dento Daiho-
are Masuda no Ike no Himei (Fig. 68) and Ju Nyoze shii Iki (known as Nakatsukasa Iki, with copies on
(Figs. 67, 69). A more detailed account has already paper and damask; c. 851; Fig. 162), and Naigubu
been given in Chapter Four. Kukai’s achievements ni Atsuru no Chibusho Cho (850; Fig. 27) are out¬
in calligraphy were prodigious and his writing, standing calligraphic specimens. Enchin took the
which became the nucleus of the Japanese tradi¬ last two (Nakatsukasa Iki Chibusho Cho) with him
tion, was an inspiration to later generations. to China, and reports tell us that they were admired
Saicho, who founded the Tendai sect of Bud¬ by all the high T’ang officials who saw them, and
EARLY HEIAN • 151

apparently copies were made. Since their style is arose in Japan and a unique calligraphic art was
similar to that of the Ito Naishinno Gammon (Fig. formed. Toward the end of the Heian period there
28), we can gather that a master of this tradition was some appreciation of Sung calligraphy shown
lived in Japan and transmitted this style. This by Japanese calligraphers, but before this influence
shows that the finest Chinese tradition had taken had sufficiently penetrated, the Kamakura period
deep root in Japan. An example of fine kaisho began.
calligraphy from the end of the early Heian period As mentioned above, Japanese calligraphy since
is Fujiwara Toshiyuki’s Jingo-ji Shomei (bell in¬ Kukai’s time has been characterized by a move
scription at Jingo-ji temple; 875; Fig. 95). It is toward sosho, exemplified by the Hakurakuten Shiku
truly fortunate that many of the masterpieces of (Figs. 26, 117), attributed to Emperor Daigo, which
early Heian calligraphy, which carry the finest shows the influence of the T’ang calligrapher
T’ang style, are extant today. Chang Hsu’s kyoso, and by the ayaji-gire (Figs. 126,
128) and kinuji-gire attributed to Ono no Michikaze
LATE HEIAN This covers the period from Em¬ and Fujiwara Sukemasa, which show the influence
peror Daigo’s accession to the of a T’ang sosho resembling that of Huai Su. The
throne in 897 until the destruction of the Taira movement toward the sosho originating with
clan in 1185. With the fall of the T’ang dynasty Kukai is the foundation of Japanese calligraphy.
in 907, contact between Japan and China ceased,
and Chinese influence after this is not apparent. KAMAKURA The first part of this period begins
After the disorder of the Five Dynasties period, the with the destruction of the Taira
Sung dynasty was established in 960. During this clan in 1185 and ends with the fall of the Southern
time the wayo, or Japanese, style of calligraphy Sung dynasty in 1279. During the Kamakura

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165. Nagaya no Okimi Gangyo; faf *f at tr
ft
712. Paper scroll; height, 23 cm. Nezu *- | ^ ft ^ ft vt
Art Museum, Tokyo.
period there was a resurgence of traffic between influence on the development of calligraphy then.
Japan and the continent. Due to the military We have the Kan’enso (1219; Fig. 127) done at the
government instituted at the onset of this period time Sennyu-ji was constructed. It is a splendid
by the Minamoto family, we see hereafter a change piece done in gyosho of the Huang Shan-ku style on
from the refined, gentle beauty of the Imperial paper decorated with a colored design. After this,
court culture to the straightforward strength of a Kigen Dogen went to Sung in 1223. Known as the
military establishment. founder of Eihei-ji near Fukui, in calligraphy his
The calligraphy of Sung China was brought back Fukan Zazen-gi (Fig. 166) is famous. This work is
principally by the famous monks who had studied written in kaisho on Sung wax-decorated paper,
in China. The monk Myoan Eisai who founded the and is in a pure style that resembles Huang Shan-
Kennin-ji temple in Kyoto, crossed over to China ku’s brushwork. At the time these monks went to
twice in the years 1168 and 1187 and became the China, in the first half of the Southern Sung period,
successor in the line of patriarchs for the Oryo the styles of Su Tung-p’o and Huang Shan-ku were
branch of the Rinzai Zen sect, bringing these very popular, and this influence reached into Ja¬
teachings to Japan. His Urabon Ippon-gyo Engi is pan. Following this, in 1235, Enni Ben’en went to
written in kaisho on colored paper and in the style Sung China and was pronounced a Zen master by
of Huang Shan-ku. his teacher Wu-chun Shih-fan of Ching Shan. He
The Zen monk Shunjo of the Ritsu sect went to returned and established Tofuku-ji temple. It is
Sung China in 1199 and studied for thirteen years. said that he studied Chang Chi-chih, who was close
Upon his return to Japan he founded the Sennyu-ji to the Zen monks, so that today his works seem to
in Kyoto. The seventy-six scrolls of copybooks and be written in a Zen style, diverging from the estab¬
inscriptions that he brought back exerted a great lished techniques. After Enni Ben’en’s visit to Sung
KAMAKURA • 153
166. Section of Fukan Zazen-gi,
by Kigen Dogen; 1233. Scroll of
wax-decorated paper; 28.7 x 319
cm. Eihei-ji, Fukui Prefecture.
a succession of famous Sung monks came to Japan directly expressing his personality. Issan Ichinei
and were naturalized. In 1246 Rankei Doryu (in (I-shan I-ning in Chinese), who was ambassador
Chinese, Lan-ch’i Tao-lung) was invited to come between Yuan China and Japan after the at¬
by the regent Hojo Tokiyori. He came, was natu¬ tempted Mongol invasions of Japan, came to Japan
ralized, and founded Kencho-ji, a Zen temple in in 1299, was naturalized, and converted Hojo
Kamakura. He was proficient in the style of Chang Sadatoki to Zen. He resided at both Kencho-ji
Chi-chih and many of his works (Fig. 167) are and Enkaku-ji temples but later, at the request of
extant today. Emperor Go-Uda, moved to the Nanzen-ji in
During late Kamakura the Southern Sung dyn¬ Kyoto. He did good sosho and was exceptional
asty was demolished and the Mongol Yuan dynasty among Zen monks for his flowing style of callig¬
arose in 1279, lasting until 1368. There is an anec¬ raphy (Fig. 138).
dote to the effect that Mugaku Sogen (Wu-hsueh With the rise of the Rinzai sect of Zen Buddhism,
Tsu-yuan in Chinese), in the midst of the Mongol Japanese Zen monks who could do good calligra¬
versus Sung war, dispatched threatening Mongol phy appeared. The three especially prominent
warriors with the verse, “a highly valued three- calligraphers of the time were: Muso Soseki, the
foot Mongol sword, in a (lash of lightning, cuts the founder of Kyoto’s Tenryu-ji; the scholar-monk
spring breeze.” He followed Rankei Doryu, the from Tofuku-ji, Kokan Shiren (Fig. 172); and the
founder of Kencho-ji, to Japan in 1279 at the founder of Daitoku-ji, Shuho Myocho (also known
request of Hojo Tokimune, was naturalized, and as Daito Kokushi; Fig. 137). Muso excelled in a
established the Zen temple Enkaku-ji in Kama¬ refined style of sosho resembling that of Issan Ichi¬
kura. He also wrote a style filled with Zen feeling nei. Kokan took only Huang Shan-ku as a model,

167. Section o/Tujumon, by Ran-
kei Doryu (Lan-ch’i Tao-lung).
Thirteenth century. Paper; 32.4 x
95.1 cm. Tokiwayama Bunko Libra¬
ry, Kanagawa Prefecture.
while Daito, who may be the best of this period, like Ku-lin Ch’ing-mao, Yueh-chiang Cheng-yin,
wrote a broad and powerful script. These are re¬ Liao-an Ch’ing-yu, Ch’u-shih Fan-Ch’i, who were
presentative examples of Zen calligraphy, which also famous for first-rate calligraphy. The Japanese
shuns technicality. Zen monks who had dealings with these Chinese
The influence of the calligraphic styles of Sung monks also picked up this style of writing. The
China was eventually felt even by the emperor and calligraphy of Zen monks from the end of the
the nobles, and Sung styles are evidenced in the Kamakura period through the Northern and
writing of kaishi poem sheets, imperial edicts, etc. Southern Courts period does not simply rely on
The calligraphy of emperors Hanazono (Fig. 136) Zen inspiration; some monks were also technically
and Go-Daigo, who were converted to Zen and proficient. Their skill is due to the influence of the
took up the study of Sung philosophy, clearly show calligraphic style of Chao Tzu-ang.
the Sung style of Zen calligraphers.
There was a succession of high Zen monks who MUROMACHI AND This is the age between
entered Yuan China around the beginning of the MOMOYAMA the unification of the
fourteenth century. Some of those who traveled to Northern and Southern
Yuan were Sesson Yubai, Jakushitsu Genko, Getsu- Courts in 1392 and the establishing of the Edo
rin Doko, Chugan Engetsu, and Tesshu Tokusai, shogunate in 1603. Even after the destruction of
all of whom were good calligraphers. The typical the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and the establishment
style practiced in the Yuan dynasty was that of the of the Ming, Japanese Zen monks continued to
great calligrapher Chao Tzu-ang. The Rinzai Zen cross over to the continent. In 1368 Zekkai Chu-
monks in China were also skilled in this style, men shin (Fig. 84) entered Ming China and studied
MUROMACHI AND MOMOYAMA • 155

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168. Calligraphy by Hosoi Kotaku; 1720. Section of paper scroll; 28.8 X 313.8 cm. Tokyo National Museum.
under Chi-t’an Tsung-le. His calligraphy teacher and Osen Keisan, although they did not travel to
was Ch’ing-yuan Huai-wei. These two men were Ming, were excellent calligraphers.
in the patriarchal lineage of Hsiao-yin Ta-hsin and The calligraphy of the Zen monks during the
were also famous calligraphers. In 1396 a student Muromachi period does not have the same subtle
of Zekkai Chushin’s, Gakuin Ekatsu, and in 1401 flavor deriving from the outstanding personalities
Chuho Chusei, a successor of Donchu Doho, went of those of the Kamakura and Northern-Southern
to Ming China. The latter’s proficiency in kaisho Courts periods, and the only prominent practi¬
has been mentioned before. There were at that tioner of this sharp, eccentric style of writing was
time several Japanese Zen monks who were known Ikkyu Sojun. It is he who wrote the line “Shoso
in China for their calligraphy. In the Shu Shih Hui Bodaidaruma Daishi” (the first patriarch and
Yao by T’ao Tsung-i of early Ming, the names of great Zen teacher Bodhidharma) for Murata
two Japanese Zen monks, Tonan Eiketsu and Juko, the originator of the tea ceremony. From
Gonchu Chuson are listed, and Yu Shih-nan of this arose the practice of appreciating Zen callig¬
T’ang is given as their model. Through Zen monks raphy along with the tea ceremony. It is because of
this style reached Japan. this that many works by these masters were passed
Much later, in 1511, Ryoan Keigo of Tofuku-ji down.
crossed to Ming China, and while studying there
met the famous politician Wang Yang-ming, who EDO PERIOD This long period covers the 260-
was also a renowned calligrapher. When Ryoan odd years from the founding of
returned to Japan he was graced with a going-away the Edo shogunate by Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1603
present from Wang. After this, Sakugen Shuryo of until the full restoration of political power to the
Tenryu-ji went to Ming China twice, in 1539 and emperor by the shogun Yoshinobu in 1868. I shall
1548, and while studying there he also met the consider it under four subperiods.
famous calligrapher Feng Fang. In the Myochi-in, The first period is from the first shogun Ieyasu
a subtemple of Tenryu-ji, there is much material to the third shogun Iemitsu (d. 1651), a span of
relating to him. The scholar-monks Ekishi Shushin fifty years or so, and is the period of the establish-

ment of the shogunate. Christianity was proscribed though he came to Japan one year earlier, was
and in 1635 the “closed country” policy was initi¬ already a famous calligrapher in China. He had
ated, putting a stop to intercourse with the con¬ mastered the history of characters and the theory
tinent. Calligraphic studies were reduced to the of brushwork, and had a masterful sosho style
study of karayo Chinese style works transmitted via different from that of the other Zen monks at
Korea. Even the Confucian scholars produced Mampuku-ji. A pupil of Dokuryu’s named Ko
virtually no calligraphy worthy of attention. The Gentai and another man living in Nagasaki at
publication of copybooks, too, almost petered out, that time, Hayashi Doei, were together called the
although a positive, black-on-white printed edition Two Graces. These men were influential in the
of Su Tung-p’o and Huang Shan-ku’s calligraphy spread of the karayo style.
came out in Kyoto about 1645. As the second stream of karayo, there were the
The second period is from 1652 until 1736—from pupils of Fujiki Atsunao, the founder of the Daishi
the fourth shogun Ietsuna to the eighth, Yoshi- school; Toriyama Sompo, Sasaki Shizuma, Kita-
mune. In this period there are three types of karayo muki Unchiku, and Terai Yosetsu. These made a
style. One is that of the Obaku sect of Zen Bud¬ study of the “eiji happo” (“the eight principles em¬
dhism, which was brought to Japan in 1654 by the bodied in the character ei”) and the “seventy-two
naturalized monk Ingen. In 1661 he was given types of hissei” (literally, “brush energy” or “brush
permission by the shogun to establish the Obaku- momentum”), as expounded in the Ming copybook
san Mampuku-ji temple in the Uji area near Nei Ke Mi Ch’uan Tzu Fu, and made these principles
Kyoto. Ingen’s spiritual heirs Mokuan, Sokuhi, the basis of their technique. In 1664, the book was
and Kosen were of Chinese extraction and were reprinted from new blocks in Kyoto and became
skilled in calligraphy. They created a calligraphic widely used, serving as a popular primer of the
style characteristic of this sect. The calligraphy of karayo style. It is worthy of note that many of the
the founder Ingen (Fig. 169) has a gentle, massive calligraphers in this faction also wrote in the wayo
quality that was much liked, as was his personality. Japanese style.
Dokuryu, who became a monk under Ingen al¬ The third group is represented by Kitajima
EDO PERIOD • 157

769 (top). “Shoin-do.” Plaque
inscription by Ingen. About
Hi tiff
l 1664. Paper; 57 X 178 cm.
„ Shoin-do, Mampuku-ji, Kyoto.
ih
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Vlltf by Cho Tosai. Part of sixfold

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172. Calligraphy by Kokan Shiren. Early fourteenth century. Section of paper scroll; height, 30 cm. Tofuku-ji, Kyoto.
Setsuzan (Fig. 174) and Hosoi Kotaku (Fig. 168) entryway, Chinese cultural imports picked up
of the same tradition. Kitajima studied the tech¬ quickly. Chinese calligraphers, both naturalized
nique of the Ming calligrapher Wen Cheng-ming and visitors to Nagasaki, spurred Japanese callig¬
under Yu Li-te, a Chinese in Nagasaki, and he raphy into activity.
passed this on to Hosoi. Hosoi then wrote the Hatto The most outstanding phenomenon of this
Shinsen (1 vol.; 1719) which clarified the techniques period is the importing and reprinting of copy¬
he had received. In 1724 he published the Shibijiyo books and pillar inscriptions. This tendency, in
(1 vol.) which explained the eight principles and general, increased during the third quarter of the
eight defects illustrated in the character ei, and eighteenth century. The catalogues of the times
one hundred and sixty brush techniques. In addi¬ reveal the names of many famous calligraphers,
tion he edited a five-volume work, the Kanga Hya- among them Wang Hsi-chih of Chin; C'hih Yung
kudan, in 1735, dealing with matters relating to of Sui; Hsuan Tsung, Ou Yang-hsun, Li Yung,
calligraphy and in general making contributions Yen Chen-ch’ing, Chang Hsu, and Huai Su of
to the advance of the karayo style. He turned out T’ang; Mi Fu and Chang Chi-chih of Sung; Chao
many good calligraphers among his disciples, be¬ Tzu-ang of Yuan; Chiang Li-kang, Ghu Yun-
ginning with his son, Kyuko, and including Hira- ming, Wen Cheng-ming, Wang Ch’ung, T’ang
bayashi Junshin, Seki Shikyo, and Mitsui Shinna. Yin, Tung Ch’i-ch’ang, and Chang Jui-t’u of
In Edo (present-day Tokyo) the popularity of the Ming, and others. Among these, however, Chao
karayo style spread widely among the literati. Tzu-ang, C.hu Yun-ming, Wen Cheng-ming, and
The third period is from c. 1736 to the early Tung Ch’i-ch’ang are by far the most abundantly
1800s. In the time of the eighth shogun, Yoshi- represented, and we know from this what kinds of
mune, attention was focused on restoring the calligraphy were introduced at that time and how
national economy and fostering industrial growth. flourishing karayo calligraphy was.
In general, the Gembun era (1736-41) is taken as There were two tendencies in the choice of
the border after which the strict isolationist policy copybooks. One group was the traditionalists, who
was finally relaxed, and, with Nagasaki as the preferred the works of Wang Hsi-chih, Chao Tzu-
EDO PERIOD • 159

173. Section o/Sanjujo Sasshi. Transcriptions of miscellaneous
<1 -r
> Buddhist texts compiled by Kukai; calligraphy by various hands.
r 1A Calligraphy of this section by Kukai. About 805. Paper;
th K fS.
detcho glued binding; 14 X 14 cm. Ninna-ji, Kyoto.
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174. T’ang poem. Calligraphy by Kitajima Setsuzan. Four D>
. A t> *3 panels of sixfold screen. Late seventeenth century. Paper.
ang, and Wen Cheng-ming. The other group, the work of Chu Yun-ming, who had studied Huai Su.
reformists, preferred Chang Hsu, Huai Su, Mi Fu, Among his students are Totoki Baigai, Rai Shun-
Tung Ch’i-ch’ang, Chang Jui-t’u, etc. Matsushita sui, and others. Thus the popularity of the karayo
Useki, who studied with Sasaki Bunzan of Edo, style among writers and scholars presented the
and was a friend of Hosoi Kotaku, admired Wang appearance of all kinds of flowers in bloom.
Hsi-chih. Kan Tenju of Ise, a student of Matsu¬ The fourth period is from c. 1804 until the full
shita Useki’s, himself carved the blocks for a collec¬ restoration of the throne by the shogun Yoshinobu
tion of stele inscriptions and was the most influen¬ in 1868. The karayo style which came in through
tial man in the spread of karayo-style calligraphy. the entryway of Nagasaki flourished all the more
Sawada Toko studied with Isai, the son of Ko in this period. Inscription materials became plenti¬
Gentai, and was well versed in calligraphic studies. ful and there was increasing awareness and appre¬
He had a discerning judgment with regard to ciation. Ichikawa Beian (Fig. 175) of Edo had a
inscriptions and copybooks, was an admirer of profound knowledge of calligraphy and was the
Wang Hsi-chih, and advocated a return to the author of many books including Beika Shoketsu in
Wei and Chin periods for calligraphic models (Fig. 1801; Shin Sanka Shoron in 1824; Ryakukaho in 1827;
97). Among the “reformist” group, Cho Tosai of Beian Bokudan in 1812 (second vol. in 1827);
Naniwa (the modern Osaka) admired the sosho Bokujo Hikkei in 1838; and as well an edition of the

t
“Thousand Character Essay” and copybooks in knowledge of characters, and published the Juttai
each style, treating calligraphy, painting, antiques, Genryu, a penetrating study of the origins of the
and writing equipment. While he prized the work script styles. His calligraphic style was widely
of Mi Fu of Sung, his basic orientation was toward practiced.
the calligraphy of the Ming and Ch’ing periods. Aside from the karayo styles of the Edo period
He was the last of the great modernists in the already discussed, one other type, which might
lineage of the karayo style in Edo. Nukina Kaioku, perhaps be called “deviant,” should be mentioned.
who lived in Kyoto, was also an admirer of Chin This is the calligraphy of literati and Buddhist
and T’ang inscriptions, especially of the famous priests, who, transcending the fashions of the
T’ang works brought to Japan in early Heian ordinary world, expressed their personalities in
times. In his last years he perfected a dignified the art of calligraphy. Some of these were Jakugon
karayo style. We can say that in contrast to Beian’s (Fig. 93), Jiun (Fig. 92), Ryokan (Fig. 90), and
modernist karayo faction, Nukina was the very Ike no Taiga (Fig. 91) may be included here too.
crystallization of the traditionalist karayo stream Although this too is classified as Chinese-style
(Figs. 22, 176). One other Edo man who, in contrast calligraphy, it is essentially different from the
to the modernists, studied the Chin-T’ang works copybook-based karayo of the Confucianists, with
was Maki Ryoko (Fig. 99). He had a thorough their lifelong worshiping of Chinese civilization.
EDO PERIOD • 161

175. Ch’ing-period poem, by Ichikawa
Beian. About mid-nineteenth century.
Paper, 132 X 60 cm.
k «-
*1 €
t
#*
%
St
& <a 176. Calligraphy by Nukina Kaioku;

1861. Satin; each column, 135 x 25cm.
Today it is the work of these “deviant” calligra¬ and to his disciple Tanko Ishii. Kaioku’s was
phers that is judged to have the greatest artistic transmitted to Senshin Ochi, Chikutan Ue, Taku-
value. sai Kobayashi, and Chiman Wada, etc. Maki
Ryoko’s was passed to Shugan Hagiwara and
MEIJI AND TAISHO At the beginning of Mei- Ryotan Maki, while Seisai produced Deishu Taka-
ji (1868) the traditions of hashi and Soken Nomura (Fig. 103). The styles of
the famous calligraphers of the late Edo period, the end of the Edo period still had great influence
Ichikawa Beian, Nukina Kaioku, Maki Ryoko, at the beginning of the Meiji period. During this
Kojima Seisai, and others, were propagated and period there were also people like Cho Sanshu,
the Edo-period karayo style became even more who developed a distinct style based on the study
popular. Beian’s style was passed to his son Ban’an of Yen Chen-ch’ing of T’ang, while people like

177. Section of Sosho Senjimon ( Thousand Character Essay in sosho), by Matsushita Useki. Eighteenth century. Paper scroll;
height, 29 cm.
Kindo Kanai, Taiiki Naruse, and Banka Yoshida, imitator of Hokuhi inscriptions. He had studied
preserved the traditional karayo style of the Edo the Chin and T’ang style before taking up Hokuhi
period. The Shoho Shoron (1885) by Kosai Ishikawa and although he never departed from tradition
indicates well the knowledge of calligraphy and (because of his deep admiration for his teacher
attitudes held by the conservative group. Nukina Kaioku), he left many fine monument in¬
In 1880 the Ch’ing scholar Yang Shou-ching scriptions in reisho and kaisho. His pupils were
came to Japan bringing with him many rubbings numerous and he had a great hand in laying the
of inscriptions from the Han, Wei, Six Dynasties, foundations of present-day calligraphy.
Sui, and T’ang periods. He had a deep knowledge During the Meiji era, students continued to
of copybooks of metal and stone inscriptions and travel to Ch’ing China to study the new calligraph¬
had authored the famous Wang T’ang Chin Shih ic styles and these late-Ch’ing styles were also
Wen Tzu and the K’ai Fa Su Yuan. His P’ing Pet brought to Japan. Gochiku Nakabayashi (Fig. 34)
Chi, P’ing T’ieh Chi, and Hsueh Shu Erh Yen greatly admired P’an Ts’un, the teacher of Yang Shou-
benefited the Japanese calligraphic world. The two ching, and went to Ch’ing. He studied Hokuhi
Japanese who best followed his example were models and developed his own distinctive style.
Meikaku Kusakabe (Fig. 102) and Ichiroku Iwaya Shinsen Kitakata also went to Ch’ing and studied
(Fig. 182). These two at first studied the style of the calligraphy of the late-Ch’ing-dynasty Hokuhi
Maki Ryoko, but they became ardent admirers of school. Many calligraphers of the late Ch’ing
the monument inscriptions brought over by Yang period in this school were good at seal carving,
Shou-ching, especially the Hokuhi northern monu¬ in addition to writing good tensho and reisho, and
ments, not available in Japan until then. quite a number of Japanese seal carvers went to
The Hokuhi style in Japan started from this. Ch’ing. Kitakata, among others, was a fine seal
The Hokuhi, or northern monuments, are in¬ carver. The famous calligraphers who specialized
scribed stone pillars of about the fifth and sixth in seal carving were Taiu Maruyama, Tetsujo
centuries from the northern Wei area. From about Kuwana, Zoroku Hamamura, Senro Kawai, and
the middle of the Ch’ing period these inscriptions Others. These men were all friends of such late-
enjoyed great popularity among Chinese calligra¬ Ch’ing Hokuhi calligraphers as Hsu San-keng,
phers. At the time these monuments were very Chao Chih-ch’ien, Wu Ch’ang-shih, and were
rare. Meikaku Kusakabe, however, was no mere greatly influenced by them.
MEIJI AND TAISHO • 163

CHAPTER ELEVEN
The Wayo Style
During the Yamato period (300-710) Japan Rirakujo (Fig. 183), and Yukinari’s Hakurakuten
depended upon the culture of the southwest Ko¬ Shikan (Fig. 104) and Shosoku (Fig. 180), the wayo
rean kingdom of Paekche (in Japanese, Kudara), characters have taken on a truly Japanese appear¬
so it is doubtful whether Japan had a calligraphy ance, being written in an elegant, graceful manner.
of its own. In the Asuka period as well, Japan With the development of hiragana, a uniquely Japa¬
adopted the calligraphy of Sui- and T’ang-dynasty nese quality is even more apparent, and the most
China unchanged, so in this early period we cannot beautiful art in Japanese calligraphy was created.
as yet detect a Japanese style. In the Nara period Many of these works have been passed down to the
the first materials in kana, the two Man’yo-gana present day. Their beauty is the very typification
Monjo (Fig. 129) appear. However, the style of of Japanese calligraphy.
these documents is also derived from the uncon¬ Kana works of this period are still extant in large
nected sosho style of Wang Hsi-chih, so that while numbers because connoisseurs took good care of
it has a Japanese feeling, it does not really fully them. The reason for this was twofold—the gor¬
exhibit the characteristics of Japanese calligraphy. geous beauty of the materials used, and the fact
The early Heian was the period when T’ang-style that fragments of poetic anthologies, being antique
calligraphy thrived most in Japan, and even the calligraphies, were used as models for practice or
kana document Sanuki no Kokushige Aritoshi Moshi- mounted and prized as kakemono by tea-men and
bumi (867; Fig. 133) is simply man’yo-gana in sosho other connoisseurs. Naturally, changes in style can
form, i.e., Chinese sosho characters used phoneti¬ be seen, making possible a tripartite classification
cally. into early, middle, and late periods. First, the
Jikashu-gire, said to be the work of Ki no Tsurayuki
LATE HEIAN During this time, around the (Fig. 181), is thought to be from a relatively early
reign of emperors Uda and Daigo, period. So kana (i.e., cursive man’yo-gana) were used
hiragana arose and Japanese wayo calligraphy was even after the development of hiragana, as can be
established. Ono no Michikaze and Fujiwara seen in the Ganouta-gire (Fig. 55), supposedly by
Sukemasa are of this period, and were followed by Fujiwara Sukemasa, and the Akihagi-jo (Fig. 54)
Fujiwara Yukinari. A uniquely Japanese style of attributed to Ono no Michikaze. These two are
calligraphy began to unfold on a grand scale. In probably comparatively old examples of so kana.
the works of Michikaze, Byobu Dodai (Fig. 107), By gradual modification, so kana developed into
Chisho Daishi Shigo Chokusho (Fig. 123), Gyokusenjo hiragana, but even when the use of hiragana was at
(Fig. 179), Sukemasa’s Shikaishi (Fig. 106) and its height, the so kana from which they originated
164 • WAYO STYLE

'■V'
178. Section of scroll of waka poetry. Calligraphy by Konoe lehiro. About early eighteenth century. Karakami paper;
height, 26.5 cm.
were used occasionally as a special calligraphic style. Koya-gire were widely practiced. Aside from these,
The most representative kana work of this golden the Sunshoan Shikishi (Fig. 56), the Hon’ami-gire
age is the Koya-gire (Figs. 122, 148, 149). In this we (Fig. 59), the Sekido-bon version of Kokin Waka-
can see three styles of writing, each with its own shu (Fig. 152), the Manjuin-bon version of Kokin
characteristics: first, a very elegant, relaxed style; Waka-shu (Fig. 143), and the Masu-jikishi (Fig. 144)
second, a traditionally strong yet refined style; vied with each other in beauty.
third, a brilliant, tasteful style. There are extant In the latter part of the Heian period calli¬
writings by the same hands or at least in the same graphic styles in general took on a rough, tough-
traditions. The Daiji Wakan Roei-shu (Fig. 147) is an spirited quality, as can be seen in the Ranshi-bon
example in the first style; the Katsura-bon version version of Man’yo-shu (Fig. 185), Jugo-ban Uta-
of the Man’yo-shu (Fig. 58), and Kumogami-bon awase (Fig. 151), O-jikishi (Fig. 187), and the
version of Wakan Roei-shu (Fig. 184), are in the Sakai-jikishi. Furthermore, as we can see in the
second style; the Detcho-bon version of Wakan Gen’ei-bon version of Kokin Waka-shu (Fig. 150)
Roei-shu (Fig. 124), Konoe-bon Wakan Roei-shu (Fig. and the Nishi-Honganji-bon version of Sanjuroku-
60), and Horai-gire (Fig. 186), are examples of the nin Shu (Figs. 12, 154, 155), the paper is exquisite,
third. From this we know that three calligraphic and a tremendous variety of formats were used.
styles corresponding to the three styles of the While the style well represents the quality of the
LATE HEIAN • 165

179. Section of Gyokusenjo fHakushi Monju Dankan:
Fragments of Anthology of the Works of Po Chu-i), by Ono no
Michikaze. Tenth century. Paper scroll; 27.6 X 188 cm.
Imperial Household Collection.
180 (opposite page, left). Section of letter written by Fujiwara D>
Yukinari; 1020. Paper; 32 X 46cm.
181 (opposite page, right). Section o/'Jikashu-gire, attributed [>

to Ki no Tsurayuki. C. late tenth century. Paper; 26.5 X 33.6cm.
golden age of hiragana, many new ideas are also KAMAKURA AND In the Kamakura period
represented. As in the Genji Monogatari Emaki (Fig. MUROMACHI the culture of the nobility
121), explanations inserted between pictures in was gradually giving way
picture-scrolls took on an even greater beauty, to the culture of the military. Calligraphy too was
and this ripe, radiant beauty flourished until the fundamentally different from that of the Heian
very end of the period. period, as can be seen in the stern, thorny writing
As might be expected, toward the later part of of Fujiwara Toshinari (Fig. 140) and the strident
the Heian period the authority of the nobility rhythms of Fujiwara Sadaie’s willful calligraphy
weakened and the military began to grasp power. (Fig. 139). These works are characterized by self-
With restlessness among the farming population expression rather than a concern with technical
there was a gradual and widespread change in the skill. The style, however, did not last long.
mood of the times. An individualistic, free, strong On the other hand, the calligraphy of the Heian
beauty came to be looked for, rather than the ideal period was preserved by the nobility within the
beauty prevalent until then, and it gradually took formally established traditions, or “schools” (ryu-
on a “no frills” kind of quality. Thus we enter the gi). The Seson-ji school, founded by Fujiwara
Kamakura period—the age of the warriors. Yukinari, continued the tradition of Fujiwara
166 • WAYO STYLE

Koreyuki of the late Heian period even at this formalism of ryugi calligraphy and tended toward
late date, and the hereditary succession passed a utilitarian calligraphy that preserved the tradi¬
down through Koretsune, Koreyoshi, Tsunetomo, tion. Socio-political conditions and the mode of
Tsunetada, Yukifusa, and Yukitada. Each strove life of the nobility were causative factors of this
to preserve the tradition, with the result that phenomenon; living in an atmosphere of war and
merely teachings about conventional formats and downfall, the formalism of ryugi calligraphy, cling¬
brush techniques were passed down. The creative ing as it did to tradition, must have been an island
will was lost and calligraphy began to become of peace for the courtiers. The situation was the
fixed. It was turning into the so-called ryugi shodo same in the Northern and Southern Courts period
or “schools” calligraphy. and the Muromachi period.
The Seson-ji school was perhaps the mainstream From late Kamakura into the Northern-South¬
of this movement, but Fujiwara Tadamichi’s ern Courts period, Son’en Shinno (Fig. 135) carried
Hossho-ji school and Fujiwara Yoshitsune’s Go- on the tradition of the Seson-ji school, strongly
kyogoku school were also popular at the time, as opposing the then-popular Sung style, and em¬
were those of Fujiwara Noriie and Emperor phasizing the study of traditional Japanese callig¬
Fushimi. In general these traditions stuck to the raphy. His tradition is called the Son’en school or
KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI • 167

183. Section of Rirakujo. Letter written by Fujiwara Sukemasa; 991.
Paper; height, 30.5 cm.
182. Calligraphy by Ichiroku Iwaya. About early twentieth

century. Paper; 171.5 y. 29 cm. Shodan-in, Tokyo.
Shoren-in school, and later became the O-ie EDO PERIOD At the beginning of this period
school of the Edo period, when it found widespread three great calligraphers ap¬
use as an official style. The Seson-ji school lasted peared—Hon’ami Koetsu (Fig. 125), Konoe Nobu¬
into the Muromachi period, but the lineage was tada (Fig. 120), and Shokado Shojo (F'ig. 119).
broken when the seventeenth successor Yukisue They swept away the conventionalism of the
had no heir, and Jimyo-in Motoharu became the Muromachi and produced high-quality works of
successor. From this time the tradition was known a new creative art.
as the Jimyo-in school. Thereafter the Son’en and Koetsu’s original occupation was as an appraiser
Jimyo-in schools were equally widely practiced. of swords, but having outstanding artistic genius,
“Schools" calligraphy played an important role he showed unequalled creativity not only in cal¬
in the Muromachi period, but in general their ligraphy but also painting, lacquerwork, and
work was of truly poor quality. pottery. In the field of calligraphy, he took up
168 • WAYO STYLE

the decorative ideas that the Heian nobles had up a school and imparts his techniques to his
developed, and took these further with his own followers. This tendency persisted unchanged into
ideas. He had paper made to his own order, and the Edo period, and later too many schools ap¬
on this painted a soft, tasteful ground-decoration, peared successively. The most influential among
in silver and gold pigments reminiscent of the these was the Daishi school of Fujiki Atsunao,
maki-e technique, in the style of Sotatsu or his which, along with the O-ie school and the Jimyo-
school. Over this background his characters would in school, were the center of gravity in Japanese
be distributed looking like birds or butterflies schools calligraphy and continued to thrive for a
frolicking amid the grass and flowers. With un¬ long time.
constrained brushwork he wrote skillful combi¬ From the Momoyama period the appreciation
nations of kanji and kana in a variety of stroke of calligraphy developed in connection with the
thicknesses and ink tones, producing an unsur¬ tea ceremony. The practice of appreciating callig¬
passed beauty. In his work are manifested the raphy in the form of fragments of old writings
gentle sentiments characteristic of Japanese art and assembled into copybooks arose, and at last people
an indescribable joy in nature with its fragrant appeared who studied the old calligraphers. Re¬
flowers. He had an originality never seen before. presentative of these are Suminokura Soan, Ko-
Koetsu originally studied the calligraphy of the bori Enshu, Ryosho Shinno, and Araki Sohaku.
Shoren-in school, but was not shackled to this In 1645 the Honsho Meiko Bokuho, a collection of
tradition. He was attracted also by the sharp, famous calligraphy, was printed, copybooks in the
energetic brushwork of the Kamakura-period wayo style were put together, and reproductions of
priests influenced by Chang Chi-chih and per¬ old calligraphy were widely printed and circulated.
fected a personal calligraphy of his own that Konoe Iehiro (Fig. 178) appeared around 1700,
grasped the very essence of the art. and applying his wide learning, made copy-studies
Konoe Nobutada at first came from the Son’en of every conceivable kind of good calligraphy,
school, but his was an unrestrained, free-wheeling, displaying a delicate critical sensibility. His lofty,
rough kind of writing, probably the expression of elegant style became the inspiration of all students
his personality. He produced a style of calligraphy of calligraphy.
that seems to have resulted from the addition of the Generally speaking, however, the wayo style
unfettered spirit of the Zen monks to kana, which during the Edo period was suffering a slump and
usually tend to lapse into a feeble delicacy. The did not compare to the vigorous activity of the
dignity of his style would be exceptional in any karayo calligraphers. There was virtually no wayo
age. calligraphy worth speaking of apart from the little
Shokado Shojo, a Buddhist monk attached to the done by those kokugaku (“Japanese studies” as
Iwashimizu Hachiman shrine, was also a student opposed to “Chinese studies”) scholars, and waka
of the Son’en school at first, but revered Kukai and and haiku poets who happened to be good at
studied his style. His style is magnanimous and calligraphy as well.
bold, and in kana as well his flowing graceful style
has its own unique quality. ME IJI AND MODERN Along with the devel-
These three calligraphers all had their own CALLIGRAPHY opment of Western-style
individual characteristics, but what they had in culture in the Meiji and
common is also very significant. They realized Taisho eras, scholarly research and appreciation
that Japan could have its own unique art even at of the arts became progressively deeper and wide¬
a time when Chinese culture was dominant, and spread. Among those who were looking for the real
proceeded to use their creative gifts to establish a values of Japanese calligraphy appeared some who
uniquely Japanese calligraphy. seriously took up Heian-period wayo writing, and
Whenever a great calligrapher appears he sets so the ancient style rose again. Shin’ai Tada,
MEIJI AND MODERN CALLIGRAPHY • 169

0? "
0m
184. Section of Wakan Roei-shu ('Kumo-

gami-bon transcription), attributed to Fuji-
wara Yukinari. Eleventh century. Paper scroll;
height; 27.5 cm. Imperial Household Collec¬
tion.
Masaomi Ban, Gado Ono, Shugyo Oguchi, and The karayo tradition in Japan has always directly
others were all influential in this jodai-yo, or ancient reflected the changing styles of mainland callig¬
style of calligraphy. In addition it is noteworthy raphy, albeit with a time gap of varying length.
that Shimbi Tanaka reprinted and made known The wayo tradition, on the other hand, has always
many fine works in the old style. Today too, the looked on the Chin and T’ang styles centered on
wayo style is still popular and constitutes a big Wang Hsi-chih as its basis, and since the Nara and
sector of modern calligraphy. Heian periods, wayo, as a softened version of this
style, has developed as a great, independent tradi¬
INTERDEPENDENCE OF In the preceding we tion. Even today, there is something about Japa¬
KARAYO AND WAYO have given a brief nese calligraphy that retains the unchanged flavor
history of the two of Wang Hsi-chih’s style. During its long history,
traditions of karayo, Chinese style, and wayo, the appearance of a creative movement in wayo
Japanese style. There has been, in every era, an calligraphy has generally been coincidental with
interdependence between the two traditions. T he the introduction from the karayo style of elements
influence exerted by karayo on wayo, and the adop¬ foreign to the wayo style. And it seems that these
tion of karayo elements into wayo, had an important periodic shake-ups served to regulate the strengths
bearing on the development of the wayo style. and weaknesses of the wayo style.
170 • WAYO STYLE

185. Section of Man’yo-shu fRanshi-bon
transcription), attributed to Fujiwara Kinto.
About eleventh century. Colored-paper scroll;
height, 26.7 cm.
The karayo tradition is rich in the variety of Looking at the history of wayo, we can see that each
script styles and brush techniques used. It has a time it received a great impetus from karayo it took
long, variegated history and a tradition of scholar¬ a new turn and faced a different direction. The
ship as a background. The style is masculine and wayo of the late Heian period was based on the
three-dimensional, having the feel of architecture. style of the Wangs of Chin China and the great
It is characterized by a fierce spirit and strong calligraphers of the early Edo period drew on the
willpower. spirit of Kamakura calligraphy, producing works
In contrast, the wayo tradition does not have characterized by the good aspects of its tempera¬
such a rich variety of script styles, its brush tech¬ ment. When karayo elements were introduced into
niques are delicately elaborate, and the style has the wayo style, it was not simply imitation. There
a gentle, graceful, feminine feeling, like finely was always a tendency to create a new, typically
wrought works of craftsmanship. It is by nature Japanese calligraphic art. In the late Edo period,
simple and weak, with a chronic tendency to Nukina Kaioku focused his attention on the T’ang
monotony. Somehow it seems to be lacking in works that had been brought to Japan and per¬
virile willpower and profound intellectuality. Thus fected the karayo style. This was possible because
one gets the impression that it has a need to be of a faith that there were masterpieces extant in
stimulated now and again by something strong. Japan not inferior to those in China, and that a
INTERDEPENDENCE OF KARAYO AND WAYO • 171

A
186. Section of Horai-gire, attributed to Fujiwara Yukinari 187. O-jikishi (fragment of scroll of waka poetry). About
About eleventh century. Paper; 25.4 X 24.2 cm. eleventh century. Originally in scroll format. Karakami pa¬
per; height, 26 cm.
fine calligraphic style had been cultivated in Japan purely utilitarian calligraphy is in question there
on the basis of such works since ancient times. is no problem, but when it comes to a creative art,
Taking the good elements of Chinese calligraphy it is impossible for good works to be created under
and assimilating them, a truly excellent, creative such conditions. It is to be hoped that the wayo
Japanese calligraphic art was developed. This is tradition will not stagnate in self-complacency,
one more hint of the future of wayo calligraphy: but, stimulated by some great external influence,
if no fundamentally different elements are intro¬ will develop for itself a fresh, original world.
duced into wayo, there is the considerable fear that Fortunately, modern wayo has already pushed
it will continue in lock step with the unchanged such worries aside, and is developing a broad¬
traditions of “schools” calligraphy. As long as a minded, beautiful calligraphic art.
172 • WAYO STYLE

TITLES IN THE SERIES
Although the individual books in the series are designed as self-contained units, so that readers may choose
subjects according to their personal interests, the series itself constitutes a full survey of Japanese art and
will be of increasing reference value as it progresses. The following titles are listed in the same order,
roughly chronological, as those of the original Japanese editions. Those marked with an asterisk (*) have
already been published or will appear shortly. It is planned to publish the remaining titles at about the
rate of eight a year, so that the English-language series will be complete in 1974.
I. Major Themes in Japanese Art, by Itsuji Yoshikawa

*2. The Beginnings of Japanese Art, by Namio Egami
3. Shinto Art: Ise and Izumo Shrines, by Yasutada Watanabe
4. Asuka Buddhist Art: Horyu-ji, by Seiichi Mizuno
5. Nara Buddhist Art: Todai-ji, by Tsuyoshi Kobayashi
6. The Silk Road and the Shoso-in, by Ryoichi Hayashi
7. Temples of Nara and Their Art, by Minoru O-oka
*8. Art in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism, by Takaaki Sawa
9. Heian Temples: Byodo-in and Chuson-ji, by Toshio Fukuyama
10. Painting in the Yamato Style, by Saburo Ienaga
II. Sculpture of the Kamakura Period, by Hisashi Mori
*12. Japanese Ink Painting: Shubun to Sesshu, by Ichimatsu Tanaka
13. Feudal Architecture of Japan, by Kiyoshi Hirai
14. Momoyama Decorative Painting, by Tsuguyoshi Doi
15. Japanese Art and the Tea Ceremony, by T. Hayashiya, M. Nakamura, and S. Hayashiya
16. Japanese Costume and Textile Arts, by Seiroku Noma
17. Momoyama Genre Painting, by Yuzo Yamane
*18. Edo Painting: Sotatsu and Korin, by Hiroshi Mizuo
*19. The Namban Art of Japan, by Yoshitomo Okamoto
20. Edo Architecture: Katsura and Nikko, by Naomi Okawa
*21. Traditional Domestic Architecture of Japan, by Teiji Itoh
*22. Traditional Woodblock Prints of Japan, by Seiichiro Takahashi
23. Japanese Painting in the Literati Style, by Yoshiho Yonezawa and Chu Yoshizawa
24. Modern Currents in Japanese Art, by Michiaki Kawakita
25. Japanese Art in World Perspective, by Toru Terada
*26. Folk Arts and Crafts of Japan, by Kageo Muraoka and Kichiemon Okamura
*27. The Art of Japanese Calligraphy, by Yujiro Nakata
*28. The Garden Art of Japan, by Masao Hayakawa
*29. The Art of Japanese Ceramics, by Tsugio Mikami
30. Japanese Art: A Cultural Appreciation, by Saburo Ienaga
The weathermark” identifies this book as having been planned, designed, and produced at the
Tokyo offices of John Weatherhill, Inc., 7-6-13 Roppongi, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106. Book design
and typography by Meredith Weatherby and Ronald V. Bell. Layout of photographs by Sigrid Nikovskis and Ronald
V. Bell. Composition by General Printing Co., Yokohama. Color plates 11-16 engraved and printed by Mitsumura
Printing Co., Tokyo, the remainder by Benrido Printing Co., Kyoto. Gravure plates engraved and printed by Inshokan
Printing Co., Tokyo. Monochrome letterpress platemaking and printing and text printing by Tokyo Printing Co., Tokyo.
Bound at the Makoto Binderies, Tokyo. Text is set in 10-pt. Monotype Baskerville with hand-set Optima for display.
Yujiro Nakata is a graduate of Kyoto Uni¬
versity, where he majored in Chinese ljtera-
ture. A well-known authority on the history
and theory of calligraphy, he is the author
of numerous books and articles dealing with
Chinese literature and calligraphy. Professor
Nakata is president of the Kyoto University
of Arts and a professor at Otani University,
Kyoto.
This book is one of the 30-odd volumes in the

famous series recently completed by Heibon-
sha, Tokyo. The complete series, covering
the entire range of Japanese art and includ¬
ing volumes on painting, sculpture, callig¬
raphy, woodblock prints, architecture, gar¬
dens, costume and textile arts, folk art, and
tea-ceremony art, is now being made avail¬
able ip English translations of the original
Japanese volumes.
Jacket illustrations: (front) detail from Ishiyama-gire

(mounted segment of Ise-shu section of Nishi Hongan-ji
transcription of Sanjuroku-nin 'Shu), early twelfth century,
collection of Hikotaro Umezawa, Tokyo; (back) section
of Toka Rissei Zassho Yoryaku, by Empress Komyo, mid¬
eighth century, colored-paper scroll, Shoso-in, Nara.
Printed in Japan.
ISBN 0-0348-1013-1
"Popular in the best sense of the word, each volume in this excellent series is a mine of
authoritative-Haformation and visual delight, and collectively the 30 volumes give an amaz¬
ingly full account of one of the world's great artistic traditions. Written by outstanding
Japanese art scholars and lavishly illustrated, the series is highly regarded in Japan. Now
that the books are being published in English, they are sure to find an equally enthusiastic
readership in the West." —Gordon B. Washburn, Director, Asia House Gallery, New York
New York • WEATHERHILL/HEIBONSHA • Tokyo

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THE HEIBONSHA SURVEY OF JAPANESE ART

The Art of Japanese

Cornwall College Camborne

This resource is to be returned on or before the last date

Three Week Loan

For a list of the entire series see end of book

Katsuichiro Kamei, art critic

New York • WE ATH ER H ILL /H E I BONSH A • Tokyo

First English Edition, 1973

Jointly published by John Weatherhill, Inc., 149 Madison Avenue, New

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Nakata, Yujiro, 1905- /

2. Tensho: Seal Script 29

3. Reisho: Scribe’s Script 51

4. Zattaisho: Ornamental Styles 68

5. Gakuji: Plaque Inscriptions 76

6. Kaisho: Block Script 83

7. Gyosho: Semicursive Script 101

10. The Karayo Tradition 145

11. The Wayo Style 164

The Origins and Styles

10 • ORIGINS AND STYLES

3 2 (opposite page, center). Inscription on bronze

C 3 (opposite page, right). Example of kobun

4. Daiten (greater seal script) inscription on

5. Shoten (lesser seal script) inscription on

FIVE BASIC KANJI STYLES • 11

12 • ORIGINS AND STYLES

FIVE BASIC KANJI STYLES • 13

10 (right). Koso (old sosho). Wooden strip dated 62 b.c.;

16 • ORIGINS AND STYLES

26 • ORIGINS AND STYLES

21. “Dragon writing,” from Hsiao Tzu-liang’s Chuan Li Wen

28 • ORIGINS AND STYLES

Tensho: Seal Script

EARLY TENSHO IN JAPAN • 29

30 • tens no: seal script

EARLY TENSHO IN JAPAN • 31

32 • TENSHO: SEAL SCRIPT

29. Rikyo Hyakuei Dankan, attri¬

30. Section of Kojokaicho, by Emperor \>

EARLY TENSHO IN JAPAN • 41

42 • tensho: seal script

EDO- AND MEIJI-PERIOD TENSHO • 43

44 • tensiio: seal script

38. Fragment of the Thousand Character Essay

40. Tensho by Yamanashi Tosen (“Lan T’ing

39. Tensho from Tensetsu, by

EDO- AND MEIJI-PERIOD TENSHO • 45

46 • tensho: seal script

44. Tensho by Itsuzan. Eighteenth century. Paper; 131.5 X 14 cm.

EDO- AND MEIJI-PERIOD TENSHO • 47

48 • tensho; seal script

EDO- AND MEIJI-PERIOD TENSHO • 49

50 • tensho: seal script

Reisho: Scribe's Script

52 • reisho: scribe’s script

and Sawada Toko wrote prefaces praising the book

54 • reisho: scribe’s script

56 • reisho: scrtbe’s script

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