Running head: ANTHROPOLOGY 1

Anthropology

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 Anthropology 2

Anthropology

The term Anthropology was first confirmed in historical references. It has an origin in

social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences. Anthropology, therefore, deals with the

scientific study of human behaviors, societies, and human beings in the present times and also

the past. There are various types of Anthropology, which include: cultural anthropology, social

anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and physical or biological anthropology. Archaeology, a

branch of anthropology, studies human activities through investigating the available physical

evidence. It is through this branch of anthropology anthropologists can study social movements

in a broadway.

There are various archeological shreds of evidence in the world that archeologists have

discovered to support the study of the human past. In Europe, there are ancient archeological

sites that contain frozen skeletons and Paleolithic drawings. Archeologists have a significant role

in their archeological field. They engage in studying human behaviors, activities, and examine

their relationship. They are mostly interested in the observation of human societies across time

and space dimensions. They carry out the excavation process to fetch out things like pottery and

tools to trace their origin and how the ancient people used them. To have an understanding of

civilization's diseases and diet is taken, archeologists carry out teeth and bone observation on the

ancient human ancestors and bring the findings to the present generation. The archeological

research timeline of human ancestors dates back to millions of years ago. There has been an

advancement in technology to help in the excavation process and also to obtain accurate and

reliable information. Tools like laser scanners are used in the field to detect light in underground

areas. Investigations made from archeological sites are the fundamental principles of ancient and

extinct culture source knowledge.

The history of Archeology dates back in the 15 th and 16th centuries. Europe had more

popularity in humanism and collection. Humanism is a form of a rational philosophy that

apprehended high esteem art. The Renaissance elites collected ancient times artifacts in ancient

Rome and Greece. The objects were considered to be critical than historical artifacts. The

Sponsorship of the classical archaeology was as a result of the interest and desire of the

antiquities. The Naples queen in 79 A.D led to the destruction of the famous cities of Mount

Vesuvius in longing the ancient sculpture. In Egypt, to understand their culture and their past,

Napoleon brought 175 think tank scholars. By 1809, they and a group of scientists were able to

publish a book by the name ‘Description of Egypt.' The book was able to bring about the passion

launch of more discoveries.

In the 19th century, there was an advancement in biology and geology studies. Charles

Lyell facilitated the spread of modern geology. He introduced uniformitarian stratigraphy, which

helped the archeologists a consistent timescale for dating items. In the 20th century, there were

radical developments. In "Methods and Aims of Archeology," there are steps in coming up with

a systematic and accurate method of excavation. Flinders Petrie published the book in 1904.

There were also more discoveries like King Tutankhamen's tomb and Ur's Royal tombs

unearthing. These discoveries led to the remembrance of Sumerian civilization and the

glamorization of archeology. The scientist started working beyond Europe and the Mediterranean

areas, and at last, the archeology became an academic discipline.

Biological or physical anthropology study aims to have an understanding of human

evolution from earlier times. Biological anthropologists have to understand the causes of various

diseases that affected human beings resulting in their death, how human beings adapt to distinct

environments and the evolution of human beings from animals. To understand these

relationships, anthropologists study the human ancestors, primates, and the modern man to have

clear proof of the situation.

Physical anthropologists are interested in how culture and biology relate to bringing

about different life shapes. They carry out researches to determine the differences and

similarities of different cultures, just like archaeologists do in their field. They were able to

discover that humans share fewer differences than similarities regardless of the variance in

behavior and biology (genetic similarities between humans is 99.9%).

Physical anthropologists start with ‘how did life originate' question, which perplexes

many philosophers and scientists' throughout human history. There was a belief that human life

originated from non-living matter spontaneously. It was after Louis Pasteur, a French

microbiologist discovery that life arose from pre-existing experience only. In a letter written by

Charles Darwin to his friend, a clue to the life origin question was found. He wrote “if (and oh,

what a pit if) we could conceive in some warm little pond with all sorts of ammonia and

phosphoric salts, heat electricity…present that a protein compound was formed chemically, need

to undergo still more complex changes at the present day such matter could be instantly

devoured, or observed, which would not have been the case before living creatures were

formed”. Physical anthropology is further divided into numerous branches. These branches have

a standard orientation in understanding human behavior and biology.

They include the following: Paleoanthropology, human biology, primatology, human behavioral

ecology, bioarchaeology, paleopathology, and evolutionary biology. Paleoanthropology entails

the study of human fossil remains for evolution purposes. The fossils being studied mainly are

extracted from primate species. The behavioral and morphological changes are considered in the

human lineage, together with that of the environment where evolution took place.

Human biology is a field of interdisciplinary biological anthropology, medicine and nutrition,

and biology. It concerns the global population levels on matters of health, physiology, anatomy,

molecular biology, genetics, and neuroscience. Primatology deals with the study of behaviors,

genetics, and morphology of non-human primates. Those who study primatology use methods

known as phylogenetic to deduce practices that are shared between primates and human beings

and their adaptations.

Human ecology behavior deals with the study of adaptation behaviors (reproduction, ontogeny,

foraging) from ecologic and evolutionary perspectives. Its focus is on human adaptation

responses in either physiological, genetic, or developmental to environmental strains.

Biotechnology entails the study of past cultures of humans through examining the recovered

remains in the context of archeology. The human remains are usually limited, but soft tissues

may be used. The bioarchaeology researchers combine archeology, paleopathology, and human

osteology skills to examine the remains to get the results. Paleopathology is the study of diseases

of ancient times. Paleontologists engage in studying pathogenic conditions only observable on

shriveled, soft tissues, or bones. Examples of shreds of evidence found on bones include

occupationally and physical trauma. Evolution psychology is the scientific study of

psychological structures from the modern evolutionary aspect. It focuses on identifying which
 Anthropology 6

human psychological traits have undergone a change or evolved and its adaptation. On the other

hand, evolutionary biology engages in the study of the process of evolution.

Around 60 years ago, a call for "New Physical Anthropology" was issued by Sherwood

Washburn. The transition was to involve classification and measurement to focus on mechanisms

and the processes of evolutionary change (Strum et al., 1999). Sherwood encouraged

interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches to understand human biology, history, and

behaviors (Washburn, 1951). Many people interpreted this as a call for anthropological and

biological practices. "Is this what we do? Are we biological anthropologists yet? In this essay, I

explore what we, physical Anthropologists, as a discipline are doing in the context of a New

Physical Anthropology, where we might be headed, and why this discussion is crucial to our

relevance.” (Yrbk Phys Anthropol 53:2-12, 2010).

By our definition, we are a simultaneously biological and social science. This perspective

has a considerable suggestion if we can have a look at it. Sherwood saw the implications 60

years ago and developed some ideas about how to follow them effectively. Also, in the few past

decades, our vision has been expanding and is now engaging in biosocial science and becoming

active. The concept is also a significant contributor to both popular and relevant topics in our

daily lives and academic issues. With the respect of the founder of the Association of American

Anthropologists, Ales Hrdlicka, we should question ourselves, "Are we biological

Anthropologists yet?" after the 80 years since the foundation was founded. Washburn, together

with his students, is responsible for a 60% increase in the number of qualified primatologists

from the 1960s. They also influenced program researches and anthropology publications

(Haraway, 1989; Kelly and Sussman, 2007; Stini, 2010). The training of the new primatologists

by Washburn and his students showed their interest in the theory of evolution.
 Anthropology 7

The emergence of a modern human came as a result of the evolution process. There are

developmental, physiological, behavioral and morphological changes that occur during the

evolution process. The changes come with adaptations such as the increase in brain size,

increased gestation and infancy period, bipedalism and sexual dimorphism decrease. There is an

ongoing debate on the relationship between these changes. Precision grip and power are other

important morphological changes and it first occurred in Homo erectus.

Bipedalism is a primary adaptation in the Hominid family and is regarded as the cause of

skeletal changes which is common in bipedal hominids. The earliest primitive bipedalism

hominid is considered to be about 6-7 million since its discovery. The earliest bipeds later

evolved into australopithecines and then to genus Homo. Bipedalism was ideal since it freed the

hands making it possible to grasp and comfortably carry items. These also facilitated walking

with two legs unlike earlier where they walked on quadrupedal-walk where they used a lot of

energy. However, there is research that indicates that bipedalism with no ability on the use of fire

would have enabled global dispersal.

The bipedalism evolution has been associated with a lot of skeletal changes from the

skull, pelvis, vertebral column and legs. The most crucial changes occurred in the pelvic area.

The long downward was widened and shortened to enable stabilization during walking. The

evolution of the birth canal and the pelvis was a requirement in bipedalism and were important

during the time of giving birth. The birth process in modern humans is even more complicated

because of the pelvic size.

Homo floresiensis also is known as 'Hobbit ' remains are the recently discovered human

species and were found on Flores island in Indonesia. The fossils date between 100,000 and
 Anthropology 8

60,000 years ago. Homo floresiensis used and made stone tools in the hunting and gathering

process. The stone tools used were small in size. The animals that he used to hunt include

rodents, small elephants and predators. He also made use of fire.

The small brain and little stature of homo floresiensis might have resulted from island

dwarfism. Island dwarfism is the process of evolution and it results from isolation on a small

island with limited resources and food for the long-term and with lack of predators. Flores

Pygmy elephants had these adaptations resulting from isolation hence the scientists considered it

to have been the ancestor of Homo floresiensis. Dr. Matt Tocheri is among the scientists who

carried out this research in the year 2003, the year of discovery.

Joint research conducted by Australia and Indonesia found a remnant of a female

skeleton believed to have lived for 80,000 years in a cave in Liang Bua found on Flores island.

The skeleton had similar characteristics as that one of Homo floresiensis. It is only in Liang Bua,

Indonesia where the remains have been found. The species was named after the island by the

scientists after the discovery of its unique traits. Homo floresiensis represented modern humans

since it suffered from diseases and had growth disorders. Some links indicate Homo floresiensis

did not evolve from Homo erectus. Dr. Debbie, an Australian researcher argued that there was no

evidence to show that Homo floresiensis evolved from Homo erectus. Homo floresiensis is the

only known human ancestor that lived in the region. Homo floresiensis was more primitive than

Homo erectus and rather its characteristics were more similar to Homo habilis, the ancient

human genus.
 Anthropology 9

Reference

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‌Fuentes, A. (2010). The new biological anthropology: Bringing Washburn's modern physical

anthropology into 2010 and beyond-The The 2008 AAPA luncheon lecture. American

Journal of Physical Anthropology, 143(S51), 2–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21438

‌Korn, N. (1973). Human evolution; readings in physical anthropology. New York, Holt,

Rinehart, And Winston.

Jurmain, R., Kilgore, L., Wenda Trevathan, Ciochon, R. L., & Bartelink, E. J.

(2018). Introduction to physical anthropology. Boston, Ma: Cengage Learning.

Sherwood Washburn - Anthropology - iResearchNet. (2019). Retrieved November 5, 2019, from

Iresearchnet.com website: http://anthropology.iresearchnet.com/sherwood-washburn/