English 1
English 1
There are five basic sentence structures in English. More complex sentences are created with
one of these basic structures at its core.
Casey ran.
Subject-Verb-Direct Object I ate the apples.
I am happy.
Subject-Verb-Adverb Sarah runs quickly.
John is a plumber.
There are also three main auxiliary verbs you need to understand in English. Auxiliary verbs
help the main verb by adding different tenses, mood, and voices.
Auxiliary verbs
Will Be Do Shall
Would Should Can Could
May Might Must Have
There are three main auxiliary verbs: to be, to do, and to have. These three can either be main
verbs or auxiliary verbs.
Form To be To do To have
Base form Be Do Have
Present form Am/is/are Do/does Have/has
Past form Was/were Did Had
Present participle Being Doing Having
Past participle Been Done Had
To be is the most used verb in the English language. It can be used to create the passive voice
or progressive sentences.
I am eating lunch
To do, as an auxiliary verb, is always followed by the infinitive of the main verb. It is used in
negative sentences, in questions, and to add emphasis to a positive sentence.
To have is another one of the most common verbs used in English. It is often used in questions
and perfect sentences.
There are five basic sentence structures in English. More complex sentences are created with
one of these basic structures at its core.
Casey ran.
Subject-Verb-Direct Object I ate the apples.
John is a plumber.
There are also three main auxiliary verbs you need to understand in English. Auxiliary verbs
help the main verb by adding different tenses, mood, and voices.
Auxiliary verbs
Will Be Do Shall
Would Should Can Could
May Might Must Have
There are three main auxiliary verbs: to be, to do, and to have. These three can either be main
verbs or auxiliary verbs.
Form To be To do To have
Base form Be Do Have
Present form Am/is/are Do/does Have/has
Past form Was/were Did Had
Present participle Being Doing Having
Past participle Been Done Had
To be is the most used verb in the English language. It can be used to create the passive voice
or progressive sentences.
I am eating lunch
To do, as an auxiliary verb, is always followed by the infinitive of the main verb. It is used in
negative sentences, in questions, and to add emphasis to a positive sentence.
To have is another one of the most common verbs used in English. It is often used in questions
and perfect sentences.
Has he finished his homework yet?
Verbs in English come in three main forms: the affirmative, the negative, and the
interrogative.
Here’s an overview of how each form is structured for most verb tenses in the English language.
Simple present
This tense has a range of uses; however, it doesn’t express actions happening in the moment. It
can be expressed in three different ways: affirmative, interrogative, and negative. We’ll start with
the general outline of present simple in the affirmative form.
Use the base of the verb to conjugate present simple. Add an -s to the base for the third person
(she thinks, he cleans, etc.)
Verbs ending in -y should be changed to -ies (study studies) for the third person. Come
exceptions are play (plays) and pray (prays).
Add an -es to verbs that end in -ss, -ch, -sh, and -x (wash washes, hush hushes)
To be is one of the most important verbs to know. As an irregular verb, it can also be a bit
harder to master.
They arrange the chairs each morning. She arranges the chairs each morning.
We are angry at the court’s decision. She is angry at the court’s decision.
Add do/does before the subject to switch from the affirmative simple present to interrogative.
Do will precede all subject pronouns except the third person. The subject pronouns it/she/he
require does. The new sentence structure will look like this:
The present continuous is used to describe an action happening right now. It is composed of
two parts. It begins with the verb to be in present tense, which is then followed by present
participle of the main verb. The present participle is the verb base + -ing.
There are some verbs that should be avoided in present continuous; instead, use them in simple
present. As a rule of thumb, these verbs refer more to a state of being (as opposed to an action).
Here are some of the most common of these verbs:
They cover emotions, senses, opinions, measurements, and mental states. However, this doesn’t
mean these verbs can never be used in present continuous. Rather, it’s best to double-check
them.
Simple past
The simple past is used to describe an action that has already been completed in the past. It
may refer to the recent or very distant past.
A completed action in the past (or series of I walked the dog last night.
completed actions in the past).
I ran five miles, then I showered, and
afterwards, I went to work.
A period of time in the past. I lived in France for three years.
Common irregular verbs include: speak ( spoke), make ( made), take ( took), etc. It’s
best to memorize the irregular verbs.
Examples:
Irregular verbs
The past continuous, also called the past progressive, describes an action or event that began
in the past and is still ongoing. The action wasn’t completed in the past (like with the simple
past).
To describe an action that was interrupted I was sleeping when the alarm went off.
by a shorter action.
I was concentrating until my phone rang.
Expressing a change of mind. I was going to start school, but I decided to
travel for the year instead.
To provide background information or The birds were chirping.
description.
The sun was shinning.
A specific time stated during the course of At 3pm I was giving an important
a past action or event*. presentation at work.
* A sentence in simple past, that includes a specific time, indicates the start or end of the action (ex: “At 8am I ran
five miles,” instead of, “At 8am I was running five miles). In the second example, 8am interrupts the run, which had
already started.
Was/were (the past simple of to be) + present participle of main verb
Verb I/she/he You/we/they
Sing Was singing Were singing
Call Was calling Were calling
Ask Was asking Were asking
Write Was writing Were writing
Examples:
Cat was speaking to her mother when the phone ran out of battery.
I was thinking about eating pizza for dinner, but I want to be healthier this year. I ate
a salad instead.
The simple past is used to describe actions started in the past and have also been completed in
the past. There are many specific words and phrases that require the simple past.
Yesterday Last night One year ago
The day before yesterday Many years ago In the past
At that time The other day A long time ago
A short time ago Yesterday afternoon Recently
(specific dates) The month before last The week before last
Present perfect
This can be a hard tense to learn, especially for non-native English speakers. Present perfect
cannot be used with specific expressions of time (such as: yesterday, last night, when I lived in
Minneapolis, etc.). It can be used with non-specific expressions, like: never, ever, many times,
etc. For example: “I have been to France,” or, “I’ve never been to Japan”. However, it is
incorrect to say: “I have been to France for 4 month”.
Actions that are expected to be completed I still haven’t finished this paper.
in the future
It hasn’t stopped raining yet.
Multiple actions or events throughout time We’ve given this presentation four times.
The past participle usually ends with: -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n.
Examples:
Present perfect continuous is used for events or actions that started in the past and continue
into the present.
To describe an event started in the past that I’ve been cleaning houses for three months.
is still happening.
Sarah has been waiting all day for you.
To describe recent events or actions. I’ve been really healthy lately.
Has been/ have been + present participle (base verb + ing)
Examples:
There are certain verbs that normally are not conjugated in the present perfect continuous
(instead in the present perfect). These verbs include: understand, know, want, and know.
Present perfect cannot be used with specific expressions of time like yesterday, one month
ago, etc. It is used with unspecific expressions of time as seen in the table below.
Past perfect
The past perfect is used to show that one event happened before another one. It doesn’t matter
which event is mentioned first in the sentence, as the past perfect clarifies their temporal order.
Examples:
The company had been sold by the time you emailed me.
Lacy had just run a marathon when we ran into her yesterday.
Simple future
The simple future is very easy to conjugate and can be used for a range of reasons.
It’s also possible to replace will with shall; however, shall isn’t common (and a bit dated). It
may be best to stick with will.
Examples:
She’ll make a great politician one day.
The subject pronouns and will are almost always used in their contracted form; this makes
recognizing the contracted form very important.
I will = I’ll
We will = we’ll
They = they’ll
2. Future continuous
The future continuous implies that the action or event being described has not yet
finished. Furthermore, this event or action will be completed sometime in the future
A specific time used as a future I will be watching the movie when she
interruption to a future continuous action*. boards her flight.
Like the simple future, suture continuous is conjugated the same with all subject pronouns
Examples:
Tell Signe that we’ll still be cleaning up this mess and we won’t be done by lunch.
The present conditional is used to describe an imaginary situation or habitual actions of the
past (in place of ‘used to’).
Would + infinitive
The conditional perfect is used for something that might have happened in the past.
If She had lost her wallet, I would have lent her money.
If I didn’t get a job last month, I would have moved back home.
Infinitive
The English infinitive has two forms: the to-infinitive and the zero infinitive.
To express intention or purpose. She went to ask your uncle for money.
I decided not to attend the concert.
The gerund
The gerund is often mistaken for a verb because it ends in -ing ; however, it’s used as a noun
in sentences. The gerund can be used as the subject, object, or complement for a sentence. It is
made by adding -ing to the infinitive of the verb.
Read reading
Sing singing
Learn learning
When the gerund is used as the complement, the infinitive can also be used :
Just add not to make the sentence negative.
There are specific phrases that require the gerund, for example: can’t bear, can’t stand, to be
worth, it’s no use.
Imperative
The imperative form gives an order, warning, or advice. Use the infinitive of the verb
(without the to) to create the imperative from.
Do your laundry!
Don’t move.
Don’t tell him now. I think that would be a mistake.
Subjunctive
The subjunctive almost identical to the indicative form; however, in some instances it is
noticeable. It is employed to emphasize the importance of something and after certain phrases.
For example, the subjunctive is not noticeable after the subject pronoun ‘you’.
Here are common expressions and verbs that require the subjunctive:
When the subjunctive is noticeable, it’s usually only changes the third person pronoun by
dropping the -s. Take this comparison of the indicative and subjunctive conjugations of work as
an example.
Indicative Subjunctive
I work I work
You work You work
She/he/it works She/he/it work
We work We work
They work They work
Subjunctive usually indicates a command or request, wishes, or improbable situations.
Irregular verbs
When it comes to irregular verbs, the best option is just to memorize them. Here’s a list of 25
of the most common irregular verbs in the English language. While we cannot make a
comprehensive list of all irregular verbs, this list serves as a good jumping-off point.
Question tags
Question tags are placed at the end of statement in a way that transforms it into a
question. They are often added to cajole the other person into agreeing with the statement, and
are used almost exclusively during informal interactions. There are either positive or negative
question tags, depending on the main statement.
Negative statement, + Positive question tag
A question tag must be the opposite of the main statement. If the main statement is positive,
the question tag is negative (and vice versa). It is formed with the verb followed by the subject
pronoun.
Malina doesn’t like broccoli, does she?
If the verb is in simple present, form the question tag with do/does. If it’s in past simple, use
did. For future tense, use will/won’t. In general, the question tag matches the tense in the main
statement.
Conditional phrases can be used in past, present, and future; however, they more importantly
break down into two categories: real and unreal. As the names suggest, the real conditional
describes real situations, while the unreal conditional describes imaginary situations.
Conditional sentences are always composed of two clauses. The conditional clause (that
begins with if) shouldn’t contain would or will.
This chart maps out the different conditional phrases possible, including their purpose,
structure, and examples.
[If +simple past, +simple past] [If + past perfect, +perfect conditional]
If I had time, I ran. If I had had time, I would have run.
Present real conditional Present unreal conditional
This is also called the zero conditional. It is This is used to describe what you would
used to describe general knowledge. generally do in an imaginary situation.
[If + simple present, + simple present] [If + simple past, + would + infinitive]
If I have time, I run. If I had time, I would run.
Future real conditional Future unreal conditional
This type refers to a real present or future This refers to an imaginary future situation.
situation.
[If + simple present, + simple future] [If + simple past, + would + infinitive]
If I have time, I will run. If I had time, I would run.
Sequence of tenses
The verb tense used in a subordinating clause changes depending on the tense used in the
main clause. Here are the basic rules to follow.
Reported questions
Reported questions are a form of reported speech. Yes or no questions are usually reported
with if or whether (I asked if he likes coffee). When there is a question, use the question word
(Who, what, where, when, how) without any auxiliary verbs. Reported questions do not need
question marks.
CORRECT: He asked what time school starts.
Nouns
1. Noun determiners
Determiners are words found in front of a noun that clarifies what the noun references. The
type of determiner depends on the type of noun. Is it plural or singular? Is it countable or
uncountable? There are a wide variety of determiners in English. Here’s a basic breakdown of
the different determiners found in the English language.
Here’s a chart to help you learn when to use each type of determiner.
This cat jumps. Those marbles are green. This is good evidence.
That house is blue. These marbles are white. That is powerful wind.
Some, any, no Some, any, no Some, and, no
Some guy just called. I don’t have any animals. She doesn’t have any time.
Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns
Your bed is large. Her dishes are still dirty. Show me your evidence.
Many, more, most Much, more, most
Another girl called me. The other lawyers were upset. The other evidence isn’t
convincing.
Enough Enough
Numbers become determiners when they are placed before a noun. Cardinal numbers
expresses the quantity, while ordinal numbers express a sequence. The noun must be plural for
cardinal numbers above one.
Cardinal Ordinal
One cat Third place
Two cats Second chance
Three cats First sight
GN And. Depends GN prec form (it rains several cats and dog/ it rains several cats and dogs)
This, that, these, those can be used as determiners. In this context, this and that can be
applied to all single countable and uncountable nouns. On the other hand, These and those are
used with plural nouns (meaning they are countable). They are placed before the noun.
When used as pronouns this, that, these, and those are used to refer to things or ideas. This
and these are used when the thing is in close proximity to us, while that and those are used for
objects further away.
This is my house.
Reflexive pronouns are used when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence. The
reflexive pronoun becomes the direct object in the sentence. This means the subject and the
direct object represent the same thing. Singular reflexive pronouns end in -self and plural
reflexive pronouns end in -selves.
Bill sees someone else in this sentence (indicated my the pronoun her). Now here’s the same
sentence in reflexive form:
You should do the work yourselves.
The meaning of some verb changes when paired with reflexive pronouns:
5. Countable vs uncountable nouns: Many vs much, few vs little, amount of vs number of etc.
Countable nouns are nouns that we count with numbers, for example: I have three cats. These
nouns have a singular and a plural form. The singular form can use either one or a/an as a
determiner. To form a question about countable nouns we ask "how many?"
Uncountable nouns cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and objects
that are difficult to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most cases, they do not
have a plural form.
To ask about the quantity of uncountable nouns, we must use "How much?"
*Each language differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. For example,
hair is uncountable in English, unless referring to individual hairs.
In general, we add an -s or -es only to the most significant word (also called the base word) of
a compound noun.
Mother-in-law mothers-in-law
Add an -s or -es at the end if there doesn’t appear to be a base word or it’s one word.
Toothbrush toothbrushes
Forget-me-not forget-me-nots
Paperclip paperclips
People may easily get tripped up when trying to decide if a large number is plural or not. Is it
million or millions? Let’s take a look at when large numbers should be singular and when they
should be plural.
You will need to add an -s if the number is unspecified, and instead just expresses an
approximate number. Hundreds, thousand, and millions are often followed by countable nouns.
8. Noun gender
If you would like to emphasize the gender, you may add the word male or female before the
noun.
Many animals (mainly domesticated animals) have a masculine and feminine noun.
There do exist a few exceptions beyond domesticated animals; however, there are so few
gendered words it’s best just to memorize them.
Masculine Feminine
Actor, boy, bridegroom, brother, count, Actress, girl, bride, sister, countess,
czar, dad, duke, emperor, god, heir, hero, czarina, mom, duchess, empress, goddess,
host, king, husband, master, prince, uncle, heiress, mistress, heroine, hostess, queen,
wizard, waiter, etc. princess, aunt, witch, waitress.
9. Collective nouns
Collective nouns are single words that represent more than one person, place, idea, animal, or
thing.
Common collective nouns
It can be difficult to decide whether a collective noun is singular or plural. In Britain, you can
really decide if you would rather refer to the collective noun in the singular or plural. However,
the United States has a much stronger preference for presenting collective nouns as
singular. Perhaps the trickiest part about collective noun is verifying that your writing remains
consistent. Once you’ve decided, every reference to the collective noun must reflect your initial
choice.
Prepositions describe the relationship between the subject and the object of a sentence. A
noun is always follows a preposition.
Determiners
1. A vs An
When deciding between the articles a and an, evaluate the initial sound of a word, and not
necessarily the initial letter. Use a when the word starts with a consonant sound.
a coat
a lamp
a bottle
use an when the word begins with a vowel (A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y) sound.
an eagle
an octopus
an extra ticket
There are exceptions and inconsistencies to this rule. The most notable among them is the
H. If the word starts with a hard h sounds (as is the case with holy, high, and hover),
employ a. If the word begins with a silent or unstressed h (like in honor, historic, and
hour), use an.
After an hour, lacey returned from the store.
She called it an historic event.
Another common exception to the rule are words that start with the long u sound, for
example: unique, union, eulogy. In this case,
There is an unusual smell in the house.
This is a united country.
This is a university with a large campus.
Countable nouns are nouns that we count with numbers, for example: I have three cats.
These words have a singular and a plural form. The singular form can use either one or
a/an as a determiner.
one (a) house two houses
one (a) chair two chairs
one (a) kid two kids
one (an) idea two ideas
When asking a question about the amount of a countable noun, we use “How many?”
Q: How many houses do you have?
A: I have just one house.
Q: How many ideas did your team brainstorm during the meeting?
A: We came up with seven ideas.
Uncountable nouns cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and
objects that are difficult to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most
cases, they do not have a plural form.
water rice research salt To ask about the quantity of
sugar water love evidence uncountable nouns, we must
beauty anger coffee oil use “How much?”
How much research is there on brain cancer?
I want some coffee.
There is a lot of beauty in the world.
*Each languages differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. For
example, hair is uncountable in English, unless referring to individual hairs.
Q: How much hair does your baby have?
A: she doesn’t have very much hair yet.
I’ve noticed Tom has a few gray hairs these days.
3. Some vs Any
The words some (including somebody and something) and any (as well as anything and
anybody) are used when the speaker cannot specify or doesn’t need to specify and exact
amount. They can be used with countable and uncountable nouns.
As a general rule, some is used in positive sentences:
I got some great produce at the farmer’s market this weekend.
I’d like some water.
Let’s make some cookies tomorrow!
Somebody is at the door.
And any is usually used in negative sentences or questions:
Do you have any ideas for Krista’s birthday party?
Did anybody send you the notes for the meeting on Friday?
I didn’t do anything this weekend.
In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. A and An are indefinite articles; whereas
the is a definite article. There are several ways to distinguish when to use a definite or an
indefinite article in English.
A and an are used for several different reasons:
an umbrella can be very helpful on a rainy day.
a gallon of milk
3. Before nouns that form adverbial phrases about quantity, degree, or amount.
a slight breeze
a bit of snow
The is used to:
Can you hand me the paperwork from yesterday.
The Grand Canyon is an amazing place.
The moon is bright tonight.
The wind is an important aspect of life in the south of France.
The renaissance was an exciting time.
The Bradford family left for their annual ski trip.
This is the finest jewelry.
The least comfortable.
There are many different cases where articles need to be omitted before a noun. Many
should just be memorized over time, while other rules hold fairly consistent.
1. The names of countries, continents, cities, days, months, languages, certain diseases, and
sciences.
North America has three countries.
January is my least favorite month.
Italian is a beautiful language.
Malaria poses a risk in tropical environments.
2. Omit and article before a noun when it is used in a general way.
Olive oil is often used in Italian cooking.
Cheetahs can run faster than humans.
3. Before a phrase that is made up of a preposition + a noun.
They went to school on foot.
Lacey is at school.
Many American students are in debt.
4. Before proper, abstract, and material nouns. However there are exceptions, for
example: The United States, The Dominican Republic, and The Bahamas.
London is one of the most populated cities on the planet.
Rice cooks in 20 minutes.
Idealism is unrealistic.
5. Omit the article when the noun follows the phrase kind of.
What kind of food do you want?
That’s the kind of sportsmanship we need.
6. Before a mealtime.
Breakfast will be ready soon.
I had lasagna for dinner.
7. Before common nouns that are in pairs.
The bond between father and son is strong.
I pronounce you husband and wife.
6. Each vs every
Learning the difference between each and every requires a nuanced understating of
English. The two words, while not identical, are similar in meaning and use.
Each is used when there are two objects or individual items or members in a group.
She put makeup on each eye.
The cat left a scratch on each of lily’s legs.
Each student has unique interests.
Unlike each, the word every stresses all the members or items in a group. It is used with
adverbs (like practically, almost, rarely etc.) and in reference to repeat events. It can also
be used as a pronoun (whereas each cannot).
Every child must take the standardized tests.
I go to the dentist every six months.
Nearly every family got a discount at the market today.
7. Using determiners
There are six types of determiners in the English language. Determiners take on a variety
of functions in a phrase; however, they always modify a noun. In many cases it can be hard
to distinguish determiners and adjectives because they both modify nouns.
Adjectives usually describe or modify the quality of a noun.
I have a purple notebook.
Determiners express information about definiteness, proximity, relationship, and quantity.
They are placed before the noun in a sentence.
Articles A, an, the An elk ran through the field.
Possessive My, your, his, hers, their My cat doesn’t like your dog.
pronouns
Demonstrative This, that, those, these This documentary is more interesting
pronouns than that one.
Interrogative Which, what, whose Which country would you like to see?
pronouns
Numerals One, two, dozen etc. Let’s buy a dozen eggs.
Quantifiers Many, all, Many families use the public library.
8. Ordering determiners
Determiners are broken into three main categories: predeterminer, central determiner,
and postdeterminer. As the names indicate, they must appear before the noun in the
correct order.
Predeterminers include “multiplying expressions”, fractions, and the words all and both.
You don’t usually two predeterminers in the same sentence.
Ten times the size
One half the amount
Both my sisters
Central determiners include articles, possessive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.
All your cats
Half the airplane
All those activities
Finally, postdeterminers include cardinal and ordinal numbers, as well as general ordinals,
and quantifiers. Unlike predeterminers, there can be multiple postdeterminers in the same
sentence.
Your next two meetings
All his subsequent writings
Our many achievements
Pronouns
1. Pronouns - general
A pronoun is a word that can replace a noun or noun phrase. They are very versatile and can do
anything, grammatically speaking, that a noun can do. They may act as the subject, direct object,
indirect object, etc., of a sentence. There are a wide variety of types of pronouns.
Many people confuse nominative and objective pronouns. In this sentence, for example: "Your secret
is save with John and I" (it should really be: "Your secret is save with John and me"). Nominative
pronouns are used as subjects in a sentence, while objective pronouns are used as objects.
Nominative pronouns:
Objective pronouns:
The quickest way to distinguish between who and whom is to use the he/him method. Replace the
who or whom with either he or him. This method is actually quite simple once you’ve given it a try.
He=who
Him= whom
Whose is a possessive pronoun and is used to identify who owns a specific object.
Whose shoes are in the hallway?
Who, that, and which can all be used as relative pronouns in a sentence (meaning they are used to
refer back to a noun previously mentioned). This means that they can be easily confused if you don’t
understand how each one is used.
The first question you should ask is whether or not the noun is a human. Who is a relative pronoun
that always refers to humans, while that and which usually refer to things.
Things get a little more complicated when trying to distinguish when to use that or which. To start,
both American and British English agree that you should never use that to introduce a non-restrictive
relative clause (a clause that is non-essential to the sentence). Furthermore, commas should offset non-
restrictive relative clauses.
When it comes to restrictive relative clauses, the rules vary between British and American
English. American English uses that rather than which to introduce a restrictive clause. On the other
hand, it is acceptable to use either in British English. There is no comma before a restrictive clause.
So what’s the difference between what and which when they are being used as interrogative
pronouns? There’s little difference between the two; however, English speakers prefer to use which
when there are a limited number of choices. What is used for questions where the answer is unlimited.
Which What
Which dessert are you going to choose? What is your favorite dessert?
Which teacher do you prefer? What did you learn today?
Which language is easier to learn- Spanish or What will you do tomorrow?
Arabic?
5. Pronoun order
When it comes to pronoun order, there are a few basic rules to follow. Firstly, place the first person
pronoun (I or me) after any other pronoun. Secondly, place third person pronouns first.
When speaking or in informal writing, it is perfectly fine to switch the order occasionally. The
meaning of the sentence will not be lost.
6. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns can take on three different roles within a sentence: the direct object, indirect
objects, and prepositional complements.
Reflexive pronouns are used as direct objects with transitive verbs. The direct object in this kind of
sentence receives the action of the verb.
Transitive verbs
They can also be indirect objects. In this case, the indirect objects show for whom the action is being
performed.
I bought myself a dress.
Unlike many other languages, English doesn’t use reflexive pronouns after verbs that describe typical
things people usually do for themselves. For example: To wash, to shave, to dress, etc. The only reason
to add a reflexive pronoun after a verb like this is for emphasis.
In definite pronouns don’t refer to a specific person, place, or thing. They all begin with one of four
qualifiers: some, any, every, or no.
Everybody
Someone Somewhere Something
Somebody
Anyone Anywhere Anything
Anybody
No one Nowhere Nothing
Nobody
The pronouns with some or any qualifiers are used to describe incomplete or indefinite quantities.
The pronouns with every describe a complete quantity, while no describes an absence.
Everything is booked for our trip.
To form a negative sentence with an indefinite pronoun you must use any.
One can be used as a pronoun in many different ways. It’s sometimes used numerically, as a general
group or people, as a reflexive pronoun, or even a possessive pronoun. It can be singular (one) or plural
(ones).
Numerical: I have two dresses. One is blue and the other is pink.
Plural: I like most types of pie. The fruit ones are my favorite.
Adverbs
1. Many vs Much
When to use much
The word much is required if the noun is uncountable. As a reminder, uncountable nouns
cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and objects that are difficult
to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most cases, they do not have a
plural form.
water rice research salt
sugar water love evidence
beauty anger coffee oil
I don’t have much sugar
There is so much beauty in the world.
There isn’t much coffee left.
*Each language differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. Refer to
countable vs uncountable nouns for more information.
When to use many
Many is used with countable nouns; therefore, nouns that have a plural form such as
dollars, bananas, and houses.
I have so many bananas.
She doesn’t have many dresses.
My father has many friends.
To show an equality between two items in a comparative phrase we can use one of four
sentence structures: as…as, nearly, quite, and just. These create a positive sentence
structure; however, each one means something slightly different.
Jonathan is as funny as Tom
This sentence plainly states that Tom and Jonathan are both equally funny.
Jonathan is nearly as funny as Tom
In these two phrases, we see a shift from the subjects being equally funny to Jonathan being
almost as funny as Tom. This indicates a slight difference between the two.
Jonathan is just as funny as Tom
Jonathan is quite as funny as Tom
Here, the just and quite emphasize that the two items are the same. For example, this
would be used if the interlocutor doesn’t believe that two are equal.
3. Adverb position
There are three possible positions for adverbs within a sentence: The initial position, the
mid position, or the end position.
The initial position is before the subject of the sentence. You’ll most likely see linking
adverbs (e.g. however, although, moreover, etc.), time adverbs (e.g. today, then, again,
etc.), and viewpoint adverbs (e.g. luckily, officially, thankfully, etc.) in this position.
Today, Jeremy ate his lunch outside.
Luckily, I caught the bus this morning.
I invited Tom. However, he couldn’t come.
The mid position favors indefinite frequency adverbs (e.g. always, never, often etc.),
location adverbs (e.g. high, low, ahead, etc.), and adverbs of degree (e.g. probably,
clearly, almost, etc.). The mid position is after the first auxiliary verb.
The Red Cross has always been helpful.
I haven’t quite finished my homework.
He’s obviously going to be late.
The end position is where you’ll find definite frequency adverbs (e.g. last week, every
year etc.) and adjectives of manner (e.g. easily, quickly, well, etc.). They will be placed at
the very end of a sentence.
I go horseback riding every year.
She drove fast.
I write carefully.
Adverbs add description to sentence by modifying a verb. In some cases adverbs can
also modify adjectives, and even other adverbs.
Carrie sang loudly.
The cat ran quickly.
The examples above show adverbs modifying verbs (to sing and to run). They can also
modify adjectives and other adverbs.
The movie was quite interesting.
(The adverb quite is modifying the adjective interesting)
She swims very fast.
(The adverb very is modifying the adverb fast)
An adverb answers the question how. This is a helpful tip for those first learning to use
or write with adverbs.
How did Carrie sing?
She sang loudly.
How did the cat run?
The cat ran quickly.
How fast does she swim?
She swims very fast.
Adjectives
1. Adjective order
When we use more than one adjective in front of a noun, there is a specific order in
which they must appear. In a sentence, the adjectives usually appear after the determiner,
and before the noun they modify. The breakdown of the nine categories is found in the
chart below.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number Opinion Size Age Shape Colo Origin Material Purpose
r
Most nouns do not have more than three adjectives in front of them.
Her ugly old cat
The blue shopping bag
A few new French wines.
Adjective types Examples
Number One, three, a few, several
Opinion Silly, charming, comfortable
Size Large, small, tiny
Age Old, young, new, 12-year-old
Shape Square, rectangular
Color Red, blue, green
Origin American, French, Ghanaian
Material Wood, iron, ceramic
Purpose Running (where the purpose of the
noun is to run e.g. running shoes)
2. Superlative adjectives
Adjectives modify nouns, giving them descriptions about size, color, shape, origin, etc.
Superlative adjectives are used to describe the noun to the upper and lower limits of a
quality. There are some basic rules on how to convert an adjective into a superlative
adjective.
Add “-est” onto a one-syllable word to make the superlative form. If this word ends with
an “–e”, just at the –“st”.
Fine finest
Large largest
Two-syllable adjectives that end in “-y” require you to change that letter to an “-i” and then
add on the ‘-est”.
Funny Funniest
Groovy grooviest
For all adjectives that are two or more syllables, use the words most or least to indicate
either the upper, or the lower limit of the adjective.
Comfortable most comfortable / least comfortable
Rectangular most rectangular / least rectangular
3. Comparative adjectives
Adjectives modify nouns, adding descriptions about size, color, shape, origin, etc.
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns. For example: “This table is bigger
than that one”.
Add “-er” onto a one-syllable word to make the comparative form. In some cases an
adjective ending in a consonant requires us to double that consonant before adding the “-
er”. When it already ends with an “-e”, just add on the “-r”.
Large larger
Fat fatter
When a two-syllable adjective ends in a “-y”, we must change it to and “-i” before adding the
“-er”.
Crazy crazier
Happy happier
Three-syllable adjectives require adding “more” or “less”.
Comfortable more comfortable / less comfortable
American more American / less American
Uncomparable adjectives describe absolute conditions. You cannot use modifiers like more or less
with them. They cannot be used in the comparative form either.
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns. For example: “This dog is faster
than that one”. It is used with the word than, which compares the two items. Below you
can see the two sentence structures possible.
Subject + To be + Adjective + -ER + Than
The dresser is bigger than the chair.
The soup is spicier than the lasagna.
Subject + To be + More + Adjective + Than
Lisa is more comfortable than me.
Bruno is more studious than Casey.
The superlative adjective is used to distinguish one item over all the other items in a
group by using “-est” or the most / least. Below are the two sentence structures possible
with superlative adjectives.
Subject + To be + The + Adjective + -EST
She is the youngest child.
New York City is the coolest city in the world.
Subject + To be + The + Most + Adjective
Lisa is the most organized person ever.
This exam is the most important part of our grade.
6. Adjectives and linking verbs
A linking verb is used to express further information about the subject, instead of an
action. While to be, to become, and to seem are always linking verbs, others are only
sometimes used as linking verbs. Here are some of the most common linking verbs in
English:
To feel To taste To smell
To appear To look To feel
To grow To prove To remain
To distinguish these verbs from their action form and linking form, try replacing the verb
in question with is in the form of a question. If the question makes sense, it’s in the linking
verb form.
Kerry grew tired after dinner. Was Kerry tired after dinner?
*The question makes sense with this sentence; therefore, to grow is being used in
the linking verb form.
Chris grew roses in his garden. Was Chris roses in his garden?
* This question doesn’t make sense. This means the verb to grow is being used in
the action verb form.
Usually, only adverbs come directly after a verb in a sentence, modifying it. However, if
it’s a linking verb, it will be followed by an adjective as well.
Subject + Linking Verb + Adjective
Kiralyn appeared tired
The house was cold
This can be a complicated grammar rule to understand. While the adjective appears
after the linking verb, it doesn’t necessarily come directly after it. If the adverb describes
the adjective, the adverb will come after the verb and before the adjective.
Subject + Linking verb + Adverb + Adjective
The Cat was alarmingly still
I felt unusually happy
7. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are a combination of two or more adjectives that modify the same
noun. They require a hyphen to avoid confusion. Examples include:
French- Small-town Slow-moving Up-to-date
speaking
All-too- Low-risk Ill-equipped Sure-footed
common
Long-winded Part-time Open-minded Four-year
Erin received high marks on her well-written essay.
Luna installed a state-of-the-art technology in her office.
Stephanie was broken-hearted after her soccer team lost.
There are several other formulas that can be used to make compound adjectives. For
example:
Noun + present participle or present participle or adjective
Record-breaking
Oven-baked
World- famous
Adjective + present participle or present participle or noun
Slow-moving
Cold-blooded
Last-minute
A compound adjective, composed of a number followed by a time period, requires a
hyphen and the singular form of the time period.
A three-week vacation, not three-weeks vacation
A two-year contract, not two-years contract
Prepositions
These are four common prepositions expressing time. They are often confused and take
some practice to master proper use.
For Since Ago During
Used to express This introduces a Use ago to discuss This is used when
how long a time specific time in the a past time period referring to
period lasts. past and continuing in relation to the something that
up until the present present. happens with a
or defined moment period of time or
in the past. when referring to
entire time period.
For+ [time period] Since +[time period] [time period]+ ago During+[time period]
I lived in France for three years
Erin worked at the bank for two weeks before quitting.
I’ve been very politically engaged since 2008.
I’ve been tired since last week.
The civil right movement happened over 50 years ago.
How long ago did you start driving? I began driving eight months ago.
During the summer I did a lot of travelling.
Cameron was very sick during high school.
Across, over, and through are prepositions used to situate movement and position—
occasionally time as well.
Across is used to indicate from one side of something to another in reference to
something with sides or limits (example: a city, a road, a bridge). Across also indicates that
the same thing is happening in many places at the same time. Finally, in American English
the phrase across from is used to show that something is ‘on the other side’.
The bridge went across the widest part of the Mississippi river.
She’s waiting across from the old movie theatre.
People celebrated Independence Day all across the Unites States.
Through is used for the movement from one side to the other when you are considered
‘in’ something (like a forest or grass).
Sadie skipped through the field. Sadie skipped across the field
Over means that something is in a higher position in relation to something else. It can
also refer to movement.
From my apartment, you can see over the whole city.
Last year we drove over the mountain pass.
* Note that over and across are also used as adverbs.
3. At, in, on
In, on, at are all prepositions that can refer to time or location.
In (general) Centuries Country In the 1700’s
Decades City In May
Months Neighborhood In Romania
Years In Berlin
On (more specific) Days Streets On Thursday
Weekends Avenues On Christmas
Holidays On Wall Street
At (specific) Hours Address At 7am
Meal times Specific location At my house
Times of day At lunchtime
At night
My mother was born in the 20th century.
I live on Humboldt Street.
I’ll call you on Christmas day.
Will you come over at 8pm please?
Lionel was born in Maine.
He proposed to me at breakfast time.
No prepositions are needed before:
Today, yesterday, tomorrow
This year, month, etc.
Last night, week, etc.
Next week, month, etc.
Among and between are both prepositions. In general, we use between when referring
to only two people or things, while among is used for three or more. Let’s break down their
specific uses in detail below.
Among
Belonging to a specified group. This usually means a plural noun or collective noun follows
’among’.
Sadie was among the seven girls selected to read their poetry.
I was among the 50 americans trapped in the building
Surrounded by people or things, or within that group of people or things.
Henry walked among the deer.
Used to show choice and division when three or more people or things are involved.
The money was divided among all seven participants.
Between
The space separating two people or things. The nouns can be singular or plural and are two
distinct items.
The dog slept between Erin and Joseph.
The time separating two events or dates.
My great-grandmother was born sometime between 1850 and 1860.
Used to show choice and division between two people or things.
Katy had to decide between living in China or Greece.
What is a preposition?
A preposition is a word that describes the relationship between a noun, pronoun, or
another element in a phrase. Prepositions are only found in prepositional phrases. A
phrase is a part of speech, or a sentence, that acts together to perform a certain task. A
prepositional phrase, is a phrase composed of the preposition followed by a noun or
pronoun. Prepositional phrases will take on one of the two forms below.
Of In To For
With At From By
About As Into Like
Between Over Against Before
Preposition + Noun, pronoun, or clause
A prepositional phrase must start with a preposition and be followed by either a noun,
pronoun, or clause. It may also include modifiers in between those two, such as adjectives
and adverbs.
To + bed
In + time
From + our crazy + aunt
With + me
At + my + house
At + the closest + grocery store
Prepositio + Modifier + Noun,
n pronoun, or
clause
A prepositional phrase will never contain the subject of the sentence; prepositional
phrases operate as adjectives or adverbs. They are important because they answer
questions like: which one? Where? When? How?
The towel on the floor is all wet.
Where is the towel? (on the floor)
Our class before noon was cancelled.
Which class? (before noon)
The email from the professor contained very important information.
Which email? (From the professor)
Complex Prepositions
Complex prepositions work the same way as regular prepositions; however, they are
two or three words combined to make a single preposition.
Two-word prepositions
According to As for As to But for
Along with Alternative to Away from Aside from
Because of Contrast to Due to Except for
Relative to Equally with Except for Apart from
From: word + simple preposition
Three-word prepositions
In spite of In aid of In lieu of In front of
In case of In view of In place of In regard to
In reference to In comparison to In order to In relation to
From: simple preposition + noun + simple preposition
6. Unnecessary prepositions
For the most part, prepositions are not used with transitive verbs because they require
direct objects. Here are some of the most common transitive verbs:
Ask Attend Buy Take
Lose Make Love Find
Contact Need Discuss Raise
Join Describe Use Want
I want cake.
Can I use your umbrella?
Let’s discuss the homework.
* These verbs are followed by direct objects.
When a sentence has a list of nouns, a preposition is only required before the first noun,
not each noun in the list.
I went to buy a cake with chocolate and whipped cream.
I walked across a field and bridge this afternoon.
A preposition cannot be placed between an auxiliary verb and its main verb. Sometimes adverbs may
be placed between the auxiliary and the main verb.
You can, however, add an adverb after the first auxiliary verb in certain cases.
I should already have gone to the park, it’s too dark now!
8. Ending a sentence with a preposition
While it is perfectly fin to end a sentence with a preposition for informal writing, it isn’t
acceptable in formal writing. Here are some examples showing how you can rephrase a
sentence ending with a preposition.
Which drawer should this go into?
OR Into which drawer should this go?
Per is used to describe prices or times in relation to weight, speed, or other times.
$20 per hour to rent this boat same as: this boat costs $20 for each hour of use.
10. As vs Like
Many people have a hard time deciding whether to use like or as. Traditionally, like is used as a
preposition and as is used as a conjunction. Although, now-days like is often employed as a conjunction.
To distinguish between the two, look at what follows the as/ like. Use like if it is not followed by a verb
and as if there is a verb.
Conjunctions
1. Expressions of contrast
But and although/though are conjunction of contrast used to connect ideas that contrast.
But is a coordinating conjunction that must be placed in between the main idea and the
contrasting idea. Coordinating conjunctions are used between two main clauses.
The dress is beautiful but impractical.
My dinner was delicious but too expensive.
Although/though are subordinating conjunctions that link a main clause to a
subordinate contrasting clause. They can also be placed at the start of the sentence.
She is nice although I don’t see her much.
He is very smart though he tries to hid it.
Coordinating conjunctions connect items, phrases, or clauses. They are used to give
equal weight to each phrase. Coordinating conjunctions are easily remembered with a
simple acronym:
FANBOYS
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Coordinating conjunctions are used to give equal weight to the two main clauses. They
can also be used to connect to items in a list. While it isn’t grammatically incorrect to start
a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, many advise against this practice to help avoid
fragments.
Main clause Coordinating Main clause
conjunction
The dog hates to swim but He loves to go on walks.
I want to go out ton eat but The babysitter is sick
Main clause Item Coord. item
conjunction
The party will have cake and Cookies.
I wan to try salsa or tango
3. Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are used to link subordinating clause to a main clause. This
means that, instead of equal emphasis for each clause, there is one clause that is considered
the principal phrase.
Common subordinating conjunctions:
as soon as because whenever
as long as Just as wherever
after once now that
although if unless
provided even until
There are two main patterns a sentence with subordinating conjunctions can take.
Firstly, the sentence may begin with the subordinating conjunction and subordinate
clause. An introductory phrase beginning with a subordinating conjunction is dependent
on the main clause.
Subordinate conjunction + subordinate clause , main clause
Even if it’s cold , + , we are going on a hike.
Although I’ve seen it before, I’ll see that movie with you tomorrow.
As soon as it stops raining, you need to take out the garbage.
*Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the subordinating
conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.
The second structure puts the main clause before the subordinate clause.
Main clause + subordinate conjunction + subordinate clause
I liked your performance now that I understand it’s historical context.
I’ll drive you to school as long as you’re not late again.
4. Correlative conjunctions
The adjectives either and neither allow speakers to refer to two separate things or
situations at the same time. Either is used in positive phrases about a choice, while neither
is used in negative phrases.
Once these words are paired as
Neither… nor
Either…or
They become correlative conjunctions that connect two grammatically equal options. Other
correlative conjunctions include: not only…but also, both…and, as well as just as…so. So,
if a noun follows either, another noun must follow or.
Neither Beth nor Colin got good grades this year.
Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the subordinating
conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.
When I’m in Europe this summer I’ll visit either France or Italy.
These phrases can be grammatically tricky, especially when it comes to verb and
pronoun agreement. The verb or pronoun must agree with the second subject or
antecedent, instead of the first or a combination.
Neither Rebecca nor the Johnson twins handed in their homework on time.
*Note here that “their homework” represents the Johnson twins. If we reversed the
order of the subjects, the antecedent would need to change.
Neither the Johnson twins nor Rebecca handed in her homework on time.
Its vs it’s
It’s and its are not the same thing. While its is the possessive form of a the pronoun it, it’s
(with an apostrophe) is a contraction of it is. If you’re unsure which one to use, try the
phrase with it is, if it still makes sense use it’s- the contraction and not the possessive
pronoun.
The company and its mission are admirable.
Who’s mission? The company’s mission.
I went to the Louvre today. The Mona Lisa is among its most famous paintings.
Who’s painting? The Louvre’s painting.
It’s ten o’clock.
It is ten o’clock
When it’s cold out I always bring gloves with me.
When it is cold out…
Yours vs your’s
Yours is a second person possessive pronoun. It is used to replace your + noun
I found a wallet, is it yours?
(your + wallet)
Yours is a better plan.
(your + plan)
I love this bike, but I want yours.
(your + bike)
*The form your’s is incorrect and should never be used.
Punctuation
An introductory prepositional phrase defines the direction, time, location, or spatial
relationship of the main clause. It is dependent on the main clause and cannot stand alone
as a phrase. There must be a comma after the introductory prepositional phrase if it
contains five or more words.
After the big family dinner, we wanted to sleep.
(introductory prepositional clause), (main clause)
In the sprawling city park, there is always someone having a picnic.
However, if the introductory prepositional phrase contains four or fewer words, a
comma is not necessary:
While on duty the officer fell asleep.
There may be cases where a comma isn’t necessary but adds clarity to the phrase. In the
phrase below, readers may think “night owls” is a single concept if the comma is excluded.
In the night owls attack mice.
In the night, owls attack mice.
An infinitive phrase starts with the infinitive form of a verb and is connected to a main
clause.
To get a better view of the match, Sarah changed seats.
(introductory infinitive phrase), (main clause)
There are three possible grammatical patterns an infinitive phrase sentence may take.
First off is an introductory infinitive phrase that is followed by the main clause. This
requires a comma after the introductory phrase.
To earn more money, John applied for a second job.
To learn Spanish, Euan moved to Argentina.
Secondly, an infinitive phrase may interrupt the main clause. In this case a commas are
required to offset the infinitive phrase.
That idea, to be perfectly honest, will not work well.
This park, to let you know, is a little scary at night.
The third pattern is when the infinitive phrase comes after the main clause. There is no
need for punctuation between the two sentence parts.
I completely forgot you wanted to see that new movie.
The cat is happy to see you.
A participle phrase begins with either a present or past tense participle. They always
function as adjectives and add description to the phrase.
Jasmine stared out at the ocean, crashing its waves against the cliffs, and wished
it were warm enough to swim.
The bird’s song lasted all morning, echoing in the valley, as Stephanie took
pictures for the ornithology society.
Present tense participles end in –ing:
Chewing, dancing, laughing
While regular past tense participles end in –ed:
Chewed, danced, laughed
singing sang *It must be noted that irregular past tense participles will not
becoming became follow a common form.
breaking broken
When an introductory phrase begins with a subordinating conjunction (such as: even, as
soon, as, if, provided that, once etc…), there is a comma after the introductory phrase.
However, there is not a comma after the subordinating conjunction.
Common subordinating conjunctions:
as soon as because whenever
as long as Just as wherever
after once now that
although if unless
provided even until
An introductory phrase beginning with a subordinating conjunction is dependent on the
main clause. Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the
subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.
Even if it’s cold , + , we are going on a hike.
Although I’ve seen it before, I’ll see that movie with you tomorrow night.
As soon as it stops raining, you need to take out the garbage.
Conjunctive adverbs 1) links two independent clauses in the same sentence, 2) link ideas
in two or more sentences, and 3) show connections between ideas within a single
independent clause.
Common conjunctive adjectives include:
nevertheless similarly however also
nonetheless finally therefore indeed When a conjunctive adverb is used to
link two independent clauses, it is
consequently likewise moreover then preceded by a semicolon and followed by
furthermore hence otherwise thus a comma.
You’re my brother; nonetheless, I feel like you’re taking advantage of me.
Tuition increases have prompted many American students to look for educational
opportunities outside of the Unites States; furthermore, many European countries
provide free higher education to non-European citizens.
Sea turtles are an endangered species; however, many people still illegally kill them
as their eggs on beaches around the world.
If a conjunctive adverb is used anywhere else in a phrase, it is off set by commas.
Malina had no alibi for the murder. Nevertheless, she maintained her
innocence throughout the trial.
Finally, the ship was cleared to set sail.
I went to the store. Meanwhile, Catherine made us lunch.
An interjection conveys an emotion or feeling, and they are rarely seen in academic and
formal writing. The interjection usually appears at the beginning of a sentence or clause
with little connection to the rest of the phrase. They are most often followed by an
exclamation point or comma.
The interjection is followed by an exclamation point when it conveys very strong
emotions like delight or surprise.
Ouch! Claire just bit me.
Whoa! I can’t believe you did that.
Yay! This is such exciting news.
In most other cases, the interjection is offset by commas. This includes when an
interjection is found in the middle of a sentence.
Well, let’s see what we can do.
Here, I’ll help you with those boxes.
I’ll need more time to finish this project, well, I think I’ll need extra time.
Coordinating conjunctions connect items, phrases, or clauses. They are used to give equal
weight to each phrase. Coordinating conjunctions are easily remembered with a simple
acronym:
FANBOYS
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
When a coordinating conjunction separates two main clauses or verbs, a comma
precedes it.
The pasta looked delicious, but the family ordered lobster.
It was raining outside, yet I went for a run.
I was very excited, and fairly nervous.
They ran as fast as they could, and jumped as high as possible.
Finally, when it is used to separate two items there is no punctuation.
I ordered potatoes and French fries.
There are hats and gloves inside.
You may eat this with a spoon or a fork.
When two independent clauses are not connected with a conjunction or another
transitional expression, a semicolon is used to separate them. The semicolon works as a
light period between the phrases; nonetheless, keeping the two independent clauses in the
same sentence.
The party appeared to be a huge success; all the cake had been eaten quickly.
The children refused to go to bed; they didn’t want to miss the fireworks.
9. Non-restrictive clauses
A non-restrictive clause provides non-essential to the meaning of a sentence, and is offset
by commas. It usually adds interesting information to the sentence, and it can be removed
easily as well.
My sister, who is a lawyer, will help me move tomorrow.
The information here concerning where the sister lives is non-essential. The sentence
makes just as much sense without it.
My sister will help me move tomorrow.
The information offset by commas must be non-essential to understanding the phrase;
if it’s essential information, do not use commas. For example, if the sister’s profession
actually tells us which sister is helping, instead of just adding something of interest, it
becomes essential information.
My sister who is a lawyer will help me move tomorrow.
(Instead of the sister who is, say, a teacher).
Question tags are placed at the end of statement in a way that transforms it into a question.
They are often added to cajole the other person into agreeing with the statement, and are
used almost exclusively during informal interactions. Question tags are always separated
from the main clause by a comma.
It’s beautiful outside, isn’t it?
I’m so proud of Sophia, aren’t you?
Let’s have some tea, shall we?
You’ve met him before, haven’t you?
It isn’t very good, is it?
That’s very interesting, yeah?
When a phrase contains a part that contrasts the subject, this part is offset by commas.
Look for words like not, unlike, and never to signal a contrast to the subject.
A green light, not red light, means go when driving.
Today, unlike yesterday, is very cloudy.
Erin, unlike Kira, is very studious.
When and where commas are used for dates depends on the information provided.
When a phrase contains only the month and year, no punctuation is needed.
I visited Vietnam in May 2011.
Signe graduated from high school in June 2007.
When the day of the month is also included, there must be a comma between the before
the year.
The ceremony took place May 17, 2001.
I arrived in France August 26, 2015.
Furthermore, if the day of the week is included, there is a comma after it.
The grocery store will be closed Wednesday, July 13, 2016.
13. Appositives
An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that is set next to another noun or pronoun and is
used to describe or identify it.
The girl in the toy store commercial is my daughter
(noun) + (appositive)
The tree with blue flowers needs to be removed from my garden.
(noun) + (appositive)
The appositive is offset by commas when the information is non-essential to
understanding the phrase. If it’s essential information, do not use commas. For example,
take the two sentences below:
My sister the lawyer will help me move tomorrow.
My sister, the lawyer, will help me move tomorrow.
For example, if the sister’s profession actually tells us which sister is helping, instead of
just adding something of interest, it becomes essential information.
There must always be a comma before a direct quotation is inserted in a text.
She said, “I’ll never go back!”
“He’s a great man, “ Humphrey shouted.
If there is an interruption in the quote, it’s offset by commas. Following American
grammar rules, the comma preceding the interruption is placed inside the quotation
marks. However, this may vary depending on the country.
“How dare you,” she screamed, “speak to me in such a manner!”
If the quote is not from someone specific, but instead refers to a general statement do
not include a comma.
I don’t like it when people yell “shut up” at me. I find it rude.
In this example, the speaker is not directly quoting someone, and is instead making a
general statement. Furthermore, it isn’t an entrance to a dialogue.
Et cetera, usually abbreviated as etc. It’s used for two reasons: the first is when the
omitted material is obvious, and the second is when this material is unnecessary.
When used at the end of a sentence, it is preceded by a comma and followed by a period.
I have all the necessary items to make a cake, like flour, sugar, etc.
You’ll find tissues in the bathroom, living room, kitchen, etc.
If the et cetera appears in the middle of a phrase it is followed by a period and a comma.
I ate so much chocolate, fudge, cake, etc., that I gave myself a stomach ache.
Interrupters a small word group that convey tone, emotion, or emphasis in a sentence.
They are offset with commas, and without commas the sentence flow will be awkward.
Reading sentences allowed often helps determine if there is an interrupter or not.
Common interrupters include:
Generally speaking To say the least unfortunately
In fact happily indeed
As they say sadly (name of a person)
I am, needless to say, happy to see you.
Brooke, sadly, has been placed in a psychiatric hospital.
In my experience, generally speaking, there isn’t a long line.
There must be a comma before or after a name when it’s included iat the beginning or end of a
sentence from direct speech.
Coordinate adjectives are two or more parallel adjectives used to modify a noun.
Commas are used to separate these kinds of adjectives. Commas are required after
coordinate adjectives. There are ways to test whether or not the sentence contains
coordinate adjectives.
Firstly, sentences with coordinate adjectives still make sense if you replace the commas
with the word and. If there are just two coordinate adjectives, separate them with the
work and.
The girl was sweaty and gross.
This example shows that this phrase is, in fact, a series of coordinate adjectives:
The boy was covered in gross, stinky, sticky mud.
The boy was covered in gross and stinky and sticky mud.
Secondly, if you can switch the order of the adjectives without compromising the
meaning of the sentence, they are coordinate adjectives.
I was looking at the tall, funny building.
I was looking at the funny, tall building.
On the other hand, adding the word and or changing the adjective order of
noncoordinate adjectives ruins the meaning of the sentence. No commas are needed
between this kind of adjective.
The red sports car zoomed past them. [correct]
Notice that if you change the order or add the word “and,” the sentence no longer makes
sense.
The red and sports car zoomed past them. [incorrect]
The sports red car zoomed past them. [incorrect]
There are two ways to punctuate salutations at the start of a letter, depending on how
formal it is. The general rule is to place a comma after the name; however, a semicolon may
be used in formal writings instead.
Dear Ms. Johnson,
or Dear Ms. Johnson:
Commas are also inserted between a person’s name and post-nominal letters (academic
degrees, certifications, affiliations, etc.). Keep in mind, there’s no comma between the
abbreviations for junior or senior.
Mr. Bradford, MD,
Mr. Lidon Jr.,
A letter closes with a complimentary closing followed by a comma (and usually a signature on the next
line). The complimentary closing may be rather informal or very formal.
Sincerely,
Rebecca Chatsworth
Best Regards,
Kiralyn Peterson
Respectfully,
Richard Hoggart
Sincerely yours,
Abigail Midelfort
either… or
neither… or Correlative conjunctions connect two parallel items in
both… and a sentence. Pay careful attention to the fact that both
whether… or parts of the sentence actually carry equal weight. Here
not only… but also are some common correlative conjunctions:
Either I leave or she does.
Neither Michael or I own a car.
The cat is both gentle and wild.
When the subject of a sentence is actually composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
(e.g. Kate and Mike), there is no comma to separate the two. This is true whether the nouns
are separated by the word and, or the word or.
Kate and Mike love their new house.
Mom or her friend will come pick you up later.
The dog and the cat play together all the time.
24. Parenthesis
Depending on the sentence surrounding the parentheses, there may either be one
comma after the closing parentheses or none required. If the sentence, once the
parenthesis is taken out, doesn’t need a comma, you should not add one. However, if there
is a comma needed, it should be placed at the end of the parenthesis.
They were counting (very loudly I might add) how many eggs were left.
They were counting eggs (very loudly I might add), but didn’t have enough
for breakfast.
Nominal groups are word groups that provide information about people, places, and
concepts. Nominal groups, also called noun phrases, shouldn’t be split up by a comma
because they will loose their meaning. You will need commas when there is a series of
noun phrases in one sentence.
Example of a nominal phrase:
a bank account
my mother’s maiden name
a yellow house
I want a blue shirt, a portable vacuum, and a pretty dress to dance in for
Christmas.
In the sentence above, there are three nominal groups in a series.
When the phrase includes only two verbs, separate them by the word and, with out any
punctuation. Commas are required after each verb in the series, once the series in three or
more. If there’s already a comma after each verb, use semicolons to separate each verb in
the series.
Two verbs in a series:
I ran and swam yesterday.
He drove over and parked the car.
Three or more in a series:
You will empty the trash, clean the bathroom, and call your grandmother
this afternoon.
The children played at the park, ate lunch, and walked back home.
A case with semicolons:
She ran in the morning, without any shoes on; stepped on some glass,
which surprised no one; and spent the afternoon getting stitches.
Commas shouldn’t be used in a comparison. Writers often place a comma after a
conjunction in comparison phrases; however, this is incorrect.
This soda is bigger than your water bottle.
This bag weights more than my suitcase.
There are two places you will never, without exception, see commas. They should never
separate the subject and the verb of a sentence, as well as be the start of a sentence. While
commas are rarely mistakenly placed at the start of a sentence, we often see commas
cropping up between the subject and the verb. This mistake frequently occurs when the
subject clause is long or already has a verb in it.
The way to check if you’re on the right road is to use GPS.
With the above sentence, you may be tempted to add a comma after path; however, this
is incorrect. The verb of the sentence is to be and the subject is the way to check if you’re
on the right road