Although The Importance of The Panchayat Raj System Had Been
Although The Importance of The Panchayat Raj System Had Been
realized and recognized since the ancient times for its basic virtue of
not codified until the British started ruling India. The initial experiments were
ad hoc in nature and not comprehensively worked out with due attention to
History
treated as the ‘Magna Carta’ of the British Empire. Local boards were
established in rural areas. The chairman of the local board was elected by the
members themselves. Tehsil was placed under the local board. But, there
93
Local self-government laws were passed in many provinces, but it was
not clear how much of the proposed decentralized system of planning and
were used more than legal procedures. A lot depended on political necessity
and the will of the state regarding the degree of decentralization. But, there is
decentralization.
tasks of administration. It studied the working of the local and district boards
in various provinces of the country and came to the conclusion that the
develop Village Panchayats for the administration of local village affairs. The
on paper.1
frankly the principle of substantial elective majorities on all the boards. The
94
the practice of nomination rather than by introducing some system of
province was given the freedom to develop local bodies as per its
requirements. The list of the local taxes and the provincial taxes was
separated.
Thus, we find that a systematic effort was made during the British rule
designed to suit the colonial masters. In spite of these efforts, the institutions
did not emerge as true centres of power and suffered from a number of
weaknesses.2
Many native states and eight provinces of British India passed the
95
9. Native States of Cochin (1919), Indore (1920), Travancore (1925),
the passing of all such Acts, these institutions did not emerge as self-
governing institutions, but this was designed to suit the colonial masters.
1909 were again ignored, although the scope of the Panchayats was
extended.3
Post-independence Developments
governance and other aspects for the welfare of the rural community. Gandhiji
believed that human happiness with mental and moral development should be
the supreme goal of society and that this goal should be achieved
that decentralized governance and local polity holds great potential for
96
and utilization of resources, enhance local resource mobilization, facilitate
participation of the people, ensure target group orientation in the planning and
very important after Independence from the point of view of the twin objective
of India under Article 40.5 The amendment became Article 40 under Directive
"The state shall take steps to organize village Panchayats and endow
them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to
The need for popular participation in development takes under the Five
Year Plans prompted the Congress leaders now in government to look in the
Mehta Committee was appointed in 1957 to enquire into, among other things,
the lack of initiative, apathy and indifference on the part of the rural
population. The committee, officially designated as the 'Team for the Study of
Community Projects and National Extension Service', visited all the states and
held extensive discussions with all those concerned. After the Balwantrai
97
It was in this context that Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru described
people. People were not merely to be consulted but effective power was to be
a village Panchayat with more power as also a cooperative society which will
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was of the opinion that Panchayats should not
be allowed to be officialised; that they should controlled and run by the people
"We want to give far greater powers to Panchayats and to the village
cooperatives than they have today, knowing full well that they may misuse it,
make mistakes and the like. The mistakes of the Panchayats will not
endanger the security of the country. We can survive it. But they will suffer for
it, they will learn from it and the public will learn from it too." 8
Whenever Pandit Nehru found that the functioning of the system was
98
Speaking to the Conference of Ministers of Community Development at
"We must give power to the people, even though it leads us to hell. We
It is apparent that with the demise of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and the
parties, initial enthusiasm about the Panchayati Raj started waning. In 1978,
the Union Government led by the Janata Party, finding that the States had not
Shri Ashok Mehta as the Chairman to review the working of Panchayat Raj
Institutions and in particular, among other things, to delineate their true role in
substantial authority to the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI's). The state level
authorities were neither prepared to part with their powers nor confident that
the local elected bodies could carry out their designated functions effectively.
This is reflected in the half hearted devolution of powers and the retention of
tight control over the devolved functions. The result has been to restrict the
autonomy of the local bodies and introduce checks and balances at all levels.
"Even the mild reforms envisaged by the Mehta Team have not been
fully made. Structures of reforms are there, but not the substance." 11
99
It is in this context that the ups and downs through which Panchayat raj
attained ipso facto. This is no less true of the reforms brought out by the
rural transformation, are not merely a formal arrangement, with specific form
and function but have a certain legitimacy and meaning by which they are
Panchayat as institution failed to make its own identity. This prompted the
young and dynamic Prime Minister Shri Rajiv Gandhi to find out the exact
reasons for the failure of government efforts. 13 As Prime Minister, Shri Rajiv
January, 1985 and included in the Revised Twenty- point Programme of 1986.
To this end, Shri Rajiv Gandhi convened five Regional Workshops 14 of District
period in 1988 and concluded that the way forward lay in amending the
Panchayati Raj. Shri Rajiv Gandhi had direct interaction with the officers who
districts in all the five regional workshops unmindful of the criticism of this
100
Change in the direction of a democratic decentralization brings into
sharp focus the power to the people in policy-making during the Rajiv Gandhi
regime. Among the five regional workshops of District Collectors, the North-
without which good success cannot be hoped for. The land mark
the then Prime Minister Shri Rajiv Gandhi and he was all out to implement it.
Subsequent efforts made by Shri Rajiv Gandhi lead to the passing of the
of the system of government of the Indian Republic by the Lok Sabha. In May
1989, Prime Minister Shri Rajiv Gandhi himself introduced the Constitution
"Our Bill will ensure that Panchayati Raj has a democratic character
similar to the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies and Constitutional
Speaking on the occasion, Shri Rajiv Gandhi stressed that with the
was being added to the Panchayati Raj system in all respects. The following
word of Shri Rajiv Gandhi further highlights his vision towards the devolution
of powers to PRI's:
101
out of the Panchayati Raj system into other bodies constituted outside the
system...” 17
panchayats remain with the panchayats and are not channeled outside the
system. By the same token, our Bill is designed to ensure that all
The Constitution (64th Amendment) Bill was followed in July 1989 with
the Constitution (65th Amendment) Bill that sought to endow urban local
with powers similar to those that were sought to be devolved to the rural
panchayats. Although both Bills received the required two-thirds majority with
at least half the members present and voting in the Lok Sabha, on 13
October, 1989, the Bills failed by a handful votes19 to muster the required
the Constitution in this regard. In September 1990, the V.P. Singh led National
combined bill on Panchayats and municipalities — but before this was taken
102
Bills moved in the Eighth Lok Sabha by Shri Rajiv Gandhi but also
Government. These two bills were referred to a Joint Select Committee on the
considerable measure to the earlier 1989 initiative. The Lok Sabha and Rajya
Sabha passed both bills on the 22nd and 23rd December, 1992 respectively.
By the time, the Parliament passed the two bills their sequence changed to
than half the State Assemblies as required under the Constitution, the
President of India gave his assent, and then came into force as the
Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 on 24th April, 1993 and the
Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992 on 1 June, 1993, adding two new
parts to the Constitution, namely Part IX titled 'The Panchayats' and Part IXA
Eleventh Schedule, 29 subjects have been listed under Article 243G which
stipulates that states may by law endow the Panchayats with such powers
self-government.22
103
Constitutional Status to Gram Sabha (Article 243A)
place in the Constitution. The Gram Sabha may exercise such powers at the
The legislature of the state may make provision with respect to the
composition of the Panchayats. All the seats at the village level, intermediate
level and district level shall be filled by persons chosen by direct election from
Parishad area. Members chosen by direct election shall have the right to
vote. The chairperson shall be elected by way of direct election at the village
level and from amongst the directly elected members at the block and district
levels. In case the population of a state is less than 20 lakhs, there may be
b) Not less than one-third of the total number of seats shall be reserved for
c) The office of the chairpersons of the panchayats at all levels shall also be
d) Reservation for other backward class of citizens may be done as the state
104
Duration of Panchayats (Article 243E)
Previously, the Panchayat elections were held at the will of the state
dissolved under any law, shall continue for five years from the date appointed
for the first time. If a Panchayat is dissolved before the expiration of its
Provided that where the remainder of such period is less than six
months, it shall not be necessary to hold any election under this clause. A
Panchayat constituted after dissolution shall continue only for the remainder
of the period for which the dissolved Panchayat would have continued had it
dispute, the matter shall be decided by such authority and in the manner as
of self-government and such law may contain provisions for the devolution of
and
105
b) the implementation of schedules for economic development and social
and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees in accordance with procedures
and subject to limits. It may also provide for making grants-in-aid to the
year from the commencement of this Act and at the expiration of every fifth
which should govern the distribution between the state and the Panchayats of
the net proceeds of taxes, duties, tolls and fees leviable by the state which
may be divided between them and the allocation between the Panchayats at
members thereof and the manner in which they shall be selected. The
Governor can ask every recommendation made by the Commission and the
106
Audit of Accounts (Article 243J)
The legislature of a state may make provisions with respect to the
accounts.
Judge of the High Court. The Governor shall provide such personnel as may
included. It contains; 27
5. Fisheries.
107
10. Rural housing.
communications.
20. Libraries.
23. Health and sanitation, including hospitals, primary health centres and
dispensaries.
retarded.
108
Shri A.B. Vajpayee has appointed a 13- member National Commission to
the former Chief Justice of India Shri Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah on 1st
organizing the All India Panchayat Adhyakhas Sammelan in New Delhi during
5-6 April, 2002 for formulating National Declaration for Local Self-
was at the Centre of the recommendations made by the 1,600 elected heads
order to inject new life to the decadent Panchayat Raj Institutions in India
(PRIs), it was expected that most of the states in India will implement them in
letter and spirit. With 33 per cent reservation provided to women in the 3-tier
system of the PRIs and benefitting reservations to the SCs and STs in due
proportion to their population it was expected that the situation will improve in
But in reality when one looks at the grassroot realities in the working of
Panchayati Raj Institutions, one notices several gapping holes. The three
109
decades of nineteen fifties to nineteen eighties saw phases of revival and
social and political costs for the rural areas. The patchy progress of
for their continuous existence with more inclusive membership and with
Even with these features included in the Constitution itself by this Amendment
The paper while broadly highlighting on the salient features of the 73rd
Amendment relating to the election of PRIs, will evaluate the gross violations
of these provisions by the different Indian states. Our broad hypothesis is that
110
suit to the petty interests of the ruling parties and their power-hungry
politicians.
It provides for : (i) Fixed five years' tenure for all Panchayats and their
office bearers with no powers to extend this period as was being done earlier
by the State Governments extending the period for one reason or the other
presidents of lower ties Panchayats in the higher level Panchayat bodies (iv)
For chairpersons, the state Panchayats legislations can provide for election of
the members of the Panchayats but Chairpersons of the district level and
Reservations for weaker sections of SC/ST and for women in the membership
level but also among those reserved for SC/ ST separately. With the 1996
111
Inherent in these essential provisions is a vision of vibrant, active
Panchayats with more inclusive membership across caste, class and gender,
respective and responsible to the local community, with resources and with
powers to raise resources to fulfill their responsibilities and to meet the needs
government institutions.31
There are also certain permissible features which have been left to the
discretion of the state legislature. This, they can give reservation to other
members in Panchayats, the state Panchayat laws can include MPs, MLAs
intermediate levels can be made ex-officio members of the next higher level
Panchayat body to provide an organic link among them for their functions.
all levels to be with tribals only, fifty per cent of their members to be tribals
only, fifty per cent of their members to be tribals, over-reaching role of the
natural resources, minor forest produce and minor minerals which are crucial
for tribal livelihood, control over social sector institutions and functionaries in
112
the area to manage them in the interest of tribals' special needs. This law is
focusing more on the Gram Sabha and also provides for a Gram Sabha in
every village or habitation instead of a Gram Sabha for the whole village
legislatures.
was to strengthen the PRIs throughout the country and make them
society to power at the grassroots level and making the PRIs financially strong
emerged over the last few years of working of the PRIs in the revised set-up
and the State Finance Commissions and the overall attitude of the political
113
The provisions in the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 include
mandatory items contained in the 73rd Amendment have been accepted and
the Amendment and the 1996 law extending these provisions to the Schedule
representations.
at three (or two in states with up to 20 lakh population) levels and for direct
Amendment. However, there are deviations and additions which are against
bodies.32
But in Andhra Pradesh, Section 149 of the state law includes cooption
of one person from the minority community in the Mandal Panchayat and
the Zillah Parishad. The legal validity of these co-options does not seem to
have been questioned in any courts so far but these clearly violate Article
114
243C(2) that all Panchayat members will be directly elected from territorial
stipulated that 40 per cent of the members of the Panchayat Samithies were
to be elected directly by the voters and 60 per cent indirectly by and from
amongst the Sarpanchs of the Samithi area. It has been changed recently, but
only to make it 50 per cent direct and 50 per cent indirect election. This is
Sabha areas have been constituted for village Panchayats, but wards in the
Gram Sabha area have not been demarcated. So, in case of re-election of
Panchs to vacant seats irrespective of the reason, the total voters of Gram
Sabha area will have to vote again for a Panch seat. This is against the clear
provisions of Article 243C (2) that the members have to be elected from
Pradesh also has made a provision that members of the Mandal Parishad
Panchayat with right to speak though having no right to vote (Section 7(2) in
115
In Madhya Pradesh, the Panchayat, law as initially enacted in 1993
Panchayat Act is to permit the MPs and MLAs to send their representatives if
they cannot attend the meetings of district or block level Panchayats of which
any PRI is for their full term i.e. five years in all the states, it has been
Parishad, though the term of office is five years, the Chairmanship was
effectively changed to one year as it was rotated every year among all
reserved categories. As it was a very short tenure, it has been changed later
to two and half years. In Karnataka, it has been changed to 20 months, so the
Chairmanship is rotated after this period and one tenure of five years will see
to "prescribed manner" that these states have used to ensure that there is no
evolution of new leadership from the new entrants from the social groups who
116
have entered these posts in significant number though reservations for the
to their population as far as the membership is concerned and in the total for
reserved shall bear as nearly as may be, the same proportion to the total
Scheduled Tribes in that Panchayat area bears to the total population of that
Chairpersons reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in
e
Panchayats at each level in any state shall bear, as nearly as may be, the
their population in the district. Only in the Zilla Panchayats, these are to be
reserved in proportion to their population in the state [Section 17(2) for Gram
Panchayat, 25(2) for intermediate Panchayat and 32(2) for Zilla Panchayats]
line with the intent of the amendment. Thus, M.P. law provides that if the
117
President of a Zilla Panchayat or intermediate Panchayat or Sarpanch of a
positive additions in accordance with the spirit and expectations of the 73rd
constituency nor a chairperson who can be from the whole Panchayat area,
in the quorum of the Gram Sabha. The spirit and philosophy of the Panchayat
law and Practice as well as for other democratic institutions is for presentation
Himachal Pradesh Act in 2000, the quorum in ram Sabha can be "one-third of
Gram Sabha area" and for the adjourned meeting it will be 'one-fifth of the
Sabha." 34
118
Women and Panchayat Raj Institutions in AP
Andhra Pradesh was one of the first-two states in India to establish the
PRIs in the year 1959. The state legislature created a three-tier PR set-up
under Andhra Pradesh Praja Samiti and Zilla Parishad Act (APPSZP), 1959,
this act has provided for co-option of two women. The Andhra Pradesh Gram
Panchayat Act (APGP), 1964, governed the composition and functions of the
Gram Panchayat (GP) in Andhra Pradesh. This act provided for reservation of
two seats for women if the total strength of the GP is 9 or less, 3 seats if the
strength is between 10 and 15 and 4 seats if the strength is more than 15. It is
clear that the act ensured between 22 per cent to 25 per cent of
representation of women in these bodies. In the middle level bodies, till, 1986,
women representation was governed by the Andhra Pradesh Praja Samiti and
Zilla Parishad Act of 1959, which provided for co-option of two women for
Praja Parishad, Zilla Praja Parishad Abhivrudhi Mandal Bill was introduced in
legislative Assembly in July 1986. This bill completely altered the PRIs set-up
in AP and in 1987, a new reservation set-up was introduced for BCs and
Women, i.e., 9 per cent .Thus, women got further encourage-ment to share in
Andhra Pradesh has enacted a new law thereby making the previous PR
system in-operative. In this new arrangement, after the first elections, the
representation of women at Gram Panchayat (GP) level was 33.84 per cent,
119
at Mandal Panchayat (MP) level it was 37.01 per cent, and at Zilla Parishad
(ZP) level it was 33.38 per cent. This has contributed for the enhancement of
and devolve powers to the people below at the village level. Even in 1959, the
(PRIs) during the period 1959-1993 also, but the Girdharilal Vyas Committee,
the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women getting a place through
120
consequently their participation in the deliberations of such bodies is far from
action or objective.”37
takes democracy to the grass roots level where most of the weaker sections
are vital and productive workers and they constitute about one-third of the
total labour force of the country. Gender differences are only biological in
nature. Role differences are created by the culture in a specific society. They
desire, the role of women can be changed. Women’s participation has been
will automatically come with experience. Nobody is an expert from the womb
Similar is the case for other marginalized sections (SCs, STs and
OBCs) who have not enjoyed the fruits of development for more than 50 years
Act has tried to rectify the faults by providing reservation for these groups for
121
the posts of members and Chairpersons at three levels of the Panchayats.
That is why, elections to the Panchayats held in 1995 and 1996 saw about 11
lakh women and 7.5 lakh SC and ST members and chairpersons and 34 lakh
Panchayats at the village, block and district levels. Article 243(D)(1) mentions
that seats shall be reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes in every Panchayat and the number of seats so reserved shall bear, as
nearly as may be, the same proportion to the total number of seats to be filled
area bears to the population of that area and such seats may be allotted by
Article 243(D)(2) also provides that not less than one-third of the total
number of seats reserved under clause (1) shall be reserved for women
belonging to the Scheduled Castes or, as the case may be, the Scheduled
Tribes.
Panchayats at the village or any other level shall be reserved for the
Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes and ...as nearly as may be, in same
proportion in the total number of such offices in the Panchayats at each level,
122
as the population of the Scheduled Castes in the state or of the Scheduled
Provided further that not less than one-third of the total number of
Provided also that the number of offices reserved under this clause
citizens.
The SC/ST women can participate in the PRIs in the following forms:
as a woman voter;
as a candidate in elections;
agencies.
weaker sections and women compulsory in the PRIs. It was also provided
that, in case the Panchayats were constituted before this amendment, they
123
Bengal, Sikkim, etc., were the states in such category. All the other states had
the provision of Article 243 of the Constitution, as early as possible after 23rd
April, 1994. But, it did not happen. Only Madhya Pradesh, Tripura and
Haryana were the states which conducted Panchayat elections in 1994. Other
states conducted elections in the end of 1995 or even in 1996. Orissa held it
Apart from women, the other section of the society that received an
section as well. In the first term, this phenomenon was more evident among
the Ward Panchas. One reason for this was that the Election Commission
declared the ward reservations very late. This information was in many cases
grabbed by the powerful groups, who revealed it only at the last moment. The
powerful groups put up a timid candidate who could act as their puppet. This
could not even file their nominations due to fear. Thus, the powerful groups
124
efforts should be made to disseminate this information through various media
so that it cannot be misused by a few individuals for their own benefit. The
and women reserved seats, where the lower castes are intimidated by the
where the ST candidates fought the elections on general seats and defeated
the Brahmin candidate. Typically, an SC/ST Sarpanch faced the apathy of the
The higher officials did not give their proposals any heed.
(Dausa district) belongs to the tribal community and was elected to the post of
the Sarpanch reserved for an SC woman. The upper caste male villagers
could not digest the idea. On 15th August, 1998, she was stopped from
exercising her right to hoist the national flag during the Independence Day
celebrations. Further, the upper caste males went to the extent of stripping
her. The sweets she had brought for the event were thrown in the drain, as
Another incident shows how the men do not accept the leadership of
strong leader who is functioning efficiently, but she is not spared abuse from
men. She has to face derogatory comments from the men of the village, who
say, “she is able to rule only because we let her, she is ruling from our laps”.41
125
Bringing women and SCs/STs into the panchayats represents
the natural fall out of this step. A number of negative forces operating at the
grass roots are defeating the purpose of affirmative action. Most of the
capabilities.
achieving their potential. Yet, they have embarked on this great experiment.
they have achieved in spite of all the constraints in the society. Although the
present status of leaders leaves much to be desired, there are also rays of
hope that the experiment has not been a complete failure, as was anticipated
by some in the beginning. In fact, quite a few dalit and women leaders were
able to overcome the odds against them and have emerged as strong
126
Table 4.1
127
It is evident from table 4.1 that Uttar Pradesh state tops the list with
Panchayats, 12.45 per cent of intermediate Panchayats and 12.27 per cent of
by Bihar and Telangana states in third and fourth places respectively. With
Pradesh (8.35 per cent). It is followed by Bihar (6.22 per cent), Maharashtra
Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. More than half
states namely, Uttar Pradesh (12.45 per cent), Andhra Pradesh (10.01 per
cent), Bihar (8.10 per cent), Telangana (6.64 per cent), Tamil Nadu (5.84 per
cent), Maharashtra (5.32 per cent) and West Bengal (5.17 per cent). More
than half (52.10 )per cent of the District Panchayats are functioning in 8 states
namely Uttar Pradesh (12.27 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (8.35 per cent),
Bihar (6.22 per cent), Maharashtra (5.56 per cent), Rajasthan (5.40 per cent),
Tamil Nadu (5.70 per cent), Odisha (4.91 per cent) and Karnataka (4.91 per
cent).
128
Table 4.2
State-wise Number of Elected Representatives in Panchayats
(as on 1 March 2013)
Village Intermediate District
S. No States All
Panchayat Panchayat Panchayat
1 Andhra Pradesh 237,594 16,774 119 254,487
2 Arunachal
7,416 1,779 161 9,356
Pradesh
3 Assam 24,222 2,202 420 26,844
4 Bihar 123,467 11,501 1,162 136,130
5 Chhattisgarh 155,672 2,783 321 158,776
6 Goa 1,509 N.A. 50 1,559
7 Gujarat NA NA NA 118,751
8 Haryana 64,866 2,891 395 68,152
9 Himachal
25,899 1,682 251 27,832
Pradesh
10 Jammu &
4,117 NA NA 4,117
Kashmir
11 Jharkhand 48,339 4,423 445 53,207
12 Karnataka 90,635 3,659 1,013 95,307
13 Kerala 16,680 2,095 332 19,107
14 Madhya Pradesh 389,245 3,527 437 393,209
15 Maharashtra 197,338 3,910 1,955 203,203
16 Manipur 1,663 N.A. 60 1,723
17 Odisha 93,776 6,233 854 100,863
18 Punjab 81,099 2,715 324 84,138
19 Rajasthan 103,052 5,279 1,014 109,345
20 Sikkim 989 N.A. 110 1,099
21 Tamil Nadu 111,857 6,856 686 119,399
22 Tripura 5,295 299 82 5,676
23 Uttar Pradesh 706,300 65,000 2,680 773,980
24 Uttarakhand 57,744 3,295 413 61,452
25 West Bengal 41,813 8,855 755 51,423
All-India 2,741,973 164,271 15,137 2,921,381
Source: Ministry of Panchayat Raj, Govt. of India
Notes: NA: not available; All-India includes figures for UTs.
also Uttar Pradesh state top the list with 27.26 per cent. It is followed by
Madhya Pradesh (15.03 per cent) and Andhra Pradesh (19.17 per cent)
total district representatives. In all, the share three states stood at nearly 50
per cent. These states include Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra
Pradesh.
Table 4.3 gives the clear picture of Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe
130
Table 4.3
Pradesh occupied first, second and third places respectively. On the other
131
representatives to total PRI representatives, the state of West Bengal stood at
the top of ladder with 34.2 per cent. In this regard it is followed by Punjab (32
per cent), Tripura (26.8 per cent) and Tamil Nadu (26.6 per cent) in that order.
higher than males. It means more than half of PRI representatives in these
states are women. among these 8 states , Jharkhand state stood at the top of
ladder with 58.6 per cent and followed by Uttarakhand (56.1 per cent)
Chattisgarh (54.5 per cent) and Kerala 51.9 per cent in second, third and
Table 4.3 gives the clear picture of state-wise proportion of elected SC,
132
Table 4.4
Arunachal Pradesh, Goa and Jammu & Kashmir. On the other hand, there
Pradesh, Haryana and Jammu & Kashmir. In the same way there is no
Kashmir.
133
References
3. Ibid, p.43.
4. Ibid, p.44.
8. Ibid, p.367.
9. Ibid, p.368.
134
13. Pramod K. Mishra, “Emerging Challenges on Reservation Policy of
22. Ibid,p.375.
25. Ibid,p.8.
India: Vision for the Future”, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 2008,
p.309.
135
30. Bandyopadhyay. D, Panchayats and Democracry in New Issues in
31. Aslam, M. & Singh, R.P. Evolution of Panchayati Raj and the
1995.p.11.
33. George Mathew, (Ed.) Status of Panchayati Raj in the States of India,
Verma (ed) Panchayati Raj, Gram Swaraj and Federal Polity, Rawat
pp.201-202.
136
39. Joshi R.P., and G.S. Narwani, “Panchayat Raj in India: Emerging
137