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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

Intext exercise
Question 1:
Which of the ores mentioned can be concentrated by magnetic separation method?

Solution 1:
Ores which are magnetic in nature can be separated from non-magnetic gangue particles by
magnetic separation method. For ex: ores of iron such as haemetite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4),
siderite (FeCO3) and iron pyrites (FeS2) being magnetic can be separated from non-magnetic
silica and other impurities by magnetic separation method.

Question 2:
What is the significance of leaching in the extraction of aluminium?

Solution 2: Aluminium contains silica (SiO2), iron oxide (Fe2O3) and titanium oxide (TiO4) as
impurities. These impurities can be removed by the process of leaching. During leaching, the
powdered bauxite ore is heated with a concentrated (45%) solution of NaOH at 473-523 K,
where alumina dissolves as sodium meta aluminate and silica as sodium silicate leaving Fe2O3,
TiO2 and other impurities behind:
Al2 O3 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 3H 2 O(l ) 473–523
 K
 2Na  Al (OH ) 4  ( aq)
Sodium meta  aluminate

SiO2 (l ) + 2NaOH (aq ) 

473–523K
 Na2 SiO3 ( aq) + H 2 O(l )
Sodium silicate

The impurities are filtered off and solution of sodium meta-aluminate is neutralised by passing
CO2 when hydrated alumina separates out while sodium silicate remains in solution. The
hydrated alumina thus obtained is filtered, dried and heated to give back pure alumina.
Al2O3 .xH 2O( s ) 
1473 k
 Al2O3 ( s)  xH 2O( g )
Thus, by leaching, pure alumina can be obtained from bauxite ore.

Question 3:
The reaction, Cr2O3 + 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Cr  G = –421kJ  is thermodynamically feasible as

is apparent from the Gibbs energy value. Why does it not take place at room temperature?

Solution 3:
This is explained on the basis of Keq, the equilibrium constant. In the given redox reaction, all
reactants and products are solids at room temperature, so, there is no equilibrium between the
reactants and products and hence the reactions does not occur at RT. At high temperature, Cr
melts and values of T∆S increases. As a result, the value of  r G becomes more negative and
hence the reaction proceeds rapidly.

6.General Principles and Processes

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

Question 4:
Is it true that under certain conditions, Mg can reduce A12O3 and Al can reduce MgO? What are
those conditions?

Solution 4:
Yes, below 13500C, Mg can reduce Al2O3 and above 13500C, Al can reduce MgO. This can be
inferred from ∆Go vs T plots.

NCERT EXERCISE

Question 1:
Copper can be extracted by hydrometallurgy but not zinc. Explain.

Solution 1:
Copper can be extracted by hydrometallurgy but not zinc, this is because EoZn2 / Zn = –0.76V is
lower than that of EoCu2 /Cu = 0.34V. Hence, zinc can replace Cu from solution of Cu+2 ions.
Zn( s)  Cu2 (aq)  Zn2 (aq)  Cu ( s)
In order to displace zinc from zinc solution, a more reactive metal is required, such as
  
Al EoAl3 / Al = –1.66V , Mg EoMg2 / Mg = –2.37V , 
Ca  E o
Ca2 / Ca  
= –2.87V , K EoK / K = –2.93V , 
But with water, these metals (Al, Mg, Ca and K) forms their corresponding ions with the
evolution of H2 gas. Thus, Al, Mg, Ca, K, etc., cannot be used to displace zinc from zinc
solution, and only copper can be extracted by hydrometallurgy but not the zinc.

Question 2:
What is the role of depressant in froth-floatation process?

Solution 2:
The role of depressant is to prevent one type of sulphide ore particles from forming the froth
with air bubbles. NaCN is used as a depressant to separate lead sulphide (PbS) ore from zinc
sulphide (ZnS) ore. NaCN forms a zinc complex, Na2  Zn(CN )4  on the surface of ZnS thereby
preventing it from the formation of the froth.
4 NaCN  ZnS  Na2  Zn(CN )4   Na2 S
Sodium tetracyno –
zincate( II )

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

In this condition, only lead sulphide forms froth and thus can be separated from zinc sulphide
ore.

Question 3:
Why is the extraction of copper from pyrites more difficult than that from its oxide ore through
reduction?

Solution 3:
 f Go of Cu2S is more negative than  f Go of CS2 H2S. So Cu2S can not be reduced by carbon or
hydrogen.  f Go of CO2 is more negative than  f Go of Cu2O. So Cu2O can be reduced by
carbon. So pyrites is first converted to oxide before reduction to copper.
3
Cu2 S ( s)  O2 ( g )  Cu2O( s)  SO2 ( g )
2
Cu2O( s)  C ( s)  2Cu ( s)  CO( s )

Question 4:
Explain:
(i) Zone refining
(ii) Column chromatography

Solution 4:
(i) Zone refining: This method is used for production of semiconductors and other metals of
very high purity, e.g., Ge, Si, B, Ca and In. It is based on the principle that the impurities are
more soluble in the molten state (melt) than in the solid state of the metal. The impure metal in
the form of bar is heated at one end with a moving circular heater, as the heater is slowly moved
along the length of the rod, the pure metal crystallises out of the melt whereas the impurities pass
into the adjacent molten zone. This process is repeated several times till the impurities are
completely driven to one end of the rod which is then cut off and discarded.
(ii) Chromatography: It is based on the principle that the different components of a mixture are
adsorbed to different extents on an adsorbent.
In column chromatography, an adsorbent, such as alumina (Al2O3) or silica gel is packed in a
column. This forms the stationary phase. The mixture to be separated is dissolved in a suitable
solvent (mobile phase) and applied to the top of the column. The adsorbed components are
extracted (eluted) from the column with a suitable solvent (eluent). The component which is
more strongly adsorbed on the column takes longer time to travel through the column than a
component which is weakly adsorbed. Thus, the various components of the mixture are separated
as they travel through absorbent (stationary phase).

Question 5:
Out of C and CO which is a better reducing agent at 673K?

Solution 5:

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

This can be explained thermodynamically, taking entropy and free energy changes into account
(a) C ( s)  O2 ( g )  CO2 ( g )
(b) 2C ( s)  O2 ( g )  2CO( g )
Case (i): Volume of CO2 produced = Volume of O2
Used.
 S is very small and G does not change with temperature.
 Plot of GVsT is almost horizontal.
Case (ii): Volume of CO produced = 2 × volume of O2 used.
 S is positive and hence G becomes increasingly
Negative as the temperature increases.
Plot of GVsT slopes downwards.

As can be seen from G VsT plot (Ellingham diagram), lines for the reactions,
C – –– > CO2 and C – –– > CO cross at 983 K. Below 983 K, the reaction
(a) is energetically more favourable but above 673 K, reaction.
(b) is favourable and preferred. Thus, below 673 K both C and CO can act as a reducing agent
but since CO can be more easily oxidised to CO2 than C to CO2, therefore, below 673K, CO is
more effective reducing agent than carbon.

Question 6:
Name the common elements present in the anode mud in electrolytic refining of copper. Why are
they so present?

Solution 6:
The common elements present in the anode mud are antimony, selenium, tellurium, silver, gold
and platinum. These elements settle down under anode as anode mud because they are less
reactive and are not effected by CuSO4–H2SO4 solution.

Question 7:
Write down the reactions taking place in different zones in the blast furnace during the extraction
of iron.

Solution 7:

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

In the blast furnace reduction of iron oxides take place at different temperature ranges as shown
below.
At 500-800K
3Fe2O3  CO   2 Fe3O4  CO2
Fe2O3  4CO 
 3Fe  4CO2
Fe2O3  CO  2 Fe  CO2
At 900-1500K
C  CO2   2CO
FeO  CO 
 Fe  CO2
C  O2 
 CO2
Above 1570K
FeO  C 
 Fe  CO

CaCO3   CaO  CO2
CaO  SiO2   CaSiO3 ( slag )
The following reactions occur in the blast furnace:
(a) In zone of combination,
C  O2   CO2 , H  –393.3kJ
(b) In zone of heat absorption,
CO2  C   2CO, H  163.2kJ
(c) In zone of slag formation,
CaCO3   CaO  CO2
CaO  SiO2   CaSiO3
Calcium Silicate (Slag)
(d) In zone of reduction,
Fe2O3  CO 823 K
 2 FeO  CO2
Fe3O4  CO 
823 K
 3FeO  CO2
1123 K
Fe2O3  3C  2 Fe  3CO

Question 8:
Write chemical reactions taking place in the extraction of zinc from zinc blende.

Solution 8:
The following processes are involved in the extraction of zinc from zinc blende:
(i) Concentration: Zinc blende ore is crushed and the concentration done by froth- floatation
process.
(ii) Roasting: The concentrated ore is then roasted in presence of excess of air at about 1200 K as
a result zinc oxide is formed.

2ZnS  3O2   2ZnO  2SO2
Zinc blende Zinc oxide

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

(iii) Reduction: Zinc oxide obtained above is mixed with powdered coke and heated to 1673 K in
a fire clay retort where it is reduced ‘to zinc metal.
ZnO  C 
1673K
 Zn  CO
At 1673 K, zinc metal being volatile (boiling point 1180 K), distills over and is condensed.
(iv) Electrolytic refining: Impure zinc is made the anode while pure zinc strip is made the
cathode. ZnSO4 solution acidified with dil. H2SO4 is the electrolyte used. On passing
electric current, pure zinc gets deposited on the cathode.

Question 9:
State the role of silica in the metallurgy of copper.

Solution 9:
During roasting, copper pyrites are converted into a mixture of FeO and Cu2O. Thus, acidic flux
silica is added during smelting to remove FeO (basic). FeO combines with SiO2 to form famous
silicate (FeSiO3) slag which floats over molten matte.

Question 10:
What is meant by the term “chromatography”?

Solution 10:
Chromatography is a technique used for separation, purification, identification and
characterization of the components of a mixture whether coloured or colourless. The term
chromatography was originally derived from the Greek word ‘chroma’ meaning colour and
‘graphy for writing because the method was first used for the separation of coloured substances
(plant pigments) into individual components.

Question 11:
What criterion is followed for the selection of the stationary phase in chromatography?

Solution 11:
The stationary phase is selected in such a way that the impurities are more strongly adsorbed or
are more soluble in the stationary phase than component to be purified. Thus, when the column is
extracted, the impurities will be retained by the stationary phase while the pure component is
easily eluted.

Question 12:
Describe a method for refining nickel.

Solution 12:
When impure nickel is heated in presence of CO at 330-350 K, it forms volatile nickel
tetracarbonyl leaving behind the impurities. The nickel tetracarbonyl thus obtained is then heated
to higher temperature (450-470K), then it undergoes thermal decomposition to give pure nickel.
Ni  4CO 
330–350 K
 Ni(CO)4
 impure  Nickel tetracarbonyl

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

Ni (CO4 ) 
450–470 K
 Ni  4CO
Nickel

Question 13:
How can you separate alumina from silica in a bauxite ore associated with silica? Give
equations, if any.

Solution 13:
Pure alumina can be separated from silica in bauxite by Baeyer’s process. The bauxite ore
associated with silica is heated with a concentrated solution of NaOH at 473–523 K and 35–36
bar pressure. Under these conditions, alumina dissolves as sodium meta-aluminate and silica as
sodium silicate leaving behind the impurities.
Al2 O3 ( s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 3H 2 O(l )  2Na  Al (OH ) 4  (aq)
Sodium meta – aluminate

SiO2 ( s ) + 2NaOH (aq ) 

473–523K
 Ni2 SiO3 ( aq)  H 2 O(l )
Silica Sodium silicate

The resulting solution is filtered to remove the undissolved impurities, sodium meta-aluminate
can be precipitated as hydrated aluminium oxide by passing CO2 vapours. The sodium silicate
formed cannot be precipitated and can be filtered off.
2 Na  Al (OH )4  (aq) + CO2 ( g )  Al2 O3 .xH 2 O( s)  2 NaHCO3 ( aq)
Hydrated alumina
oxide ppt

The hydrated alumina thus precipitated is filtered, dried and heated to give back pure
Al2 O3  xH 2 O( s ) 
1473K
 Al2 O3 ( s )  xH 2 O
Hydrated alumina pure alumina

Question 14:
Giving examples, differentiate between ‘roasting’ and ‘calcination’.

Solution 14:
Calcination is a process of converting carbonates and hydroxide ores of metals to their respective
oxides by heating them, strongly below their melting points either in absence or limited supply of
air.

Fe2O3  3H2O   Fe2O3  3H2O

CaCO3  MgCO3   CaO  MgO  2CO2

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

CuCO3  Cu (OH )2   2CuO  H2O  CO2

ZnCO3   ZnO  CO2
Roasting is a process of converting sulphide ores into its metallic oxides by heating strongly
below its melting point in excess of air.
2 ZnS  3O3   2 ZnO  2 SO2 
2 PbS  3O2 
 PbO  2SO2 

Question 15:
How is ‘cast iron’ different from ‘pig iron’?

Solution 15:
The iron obtained from blast furnace is called pig iron. It contains about 4% carbon and many
other impurities in smaller amount (eg., S. P, Si and Mn). Cast iron is made by melting pig iron
with scrap iron and coke using hot air blast. It has slightly lower carbon content (about 3%) and
is extremely hard and brittle.

Question 16:
Differentiate between minerals’ and ores’.

Solution 16:
Minerals: The natural substances in which the metals or their compounds occur in the earth is
called minerais.
Ores: The minerals from which the metals can be coaveniently and economically extracted are
called ores.
Note: All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.

Question 17:
Why copper matte is put in silica lined converter?

Solution 17:
Copper matte consists of Cu2S along with some unchanged FeS. When a blast of hot air is passed
through molten matte placed in silica lined converter, FeS present in matte is oxidised to FeO
which combines with silica (SiO2) to form slag.
2 FeS  3O2 
 2 FeO  2SO2
FeO  SiO2 
 FeSiO3
Silica Slag

When whole of iron has been removed as slag, some of the Cu2S undergoes oxidation to form
Cu2O which then reacts with more Cu2S to form copper metal.
2Cu2 S  3O2 
 2Cu2O  2SO2
2Cu2O  Cu2 S 
 6Cu  SO2

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

Thus, copper matte is heated in silica lined converter to remove FeS present in matte as FeSiO3
slag.

Question 18:
What is the role of cryolite in the metallurgy of aluminium?

Solution 18:
(a) It lowers the fusion (melting) point of the bath from 2323 K to about 1140 K.,
(b) It makes alumina a good conductor of electricity.

Question 19:
How is leaching carried out in case of low grade copper ores?

Solution 19:
Leaching in case of low grade copper ores is carried out with acids in presence of air. In this
process, copper is oxidised to Cu2+ ions which pass into the solution.
2Cu ( s)  2 H 2 SO4 (aq)  O2 ( g ) 
 2CuSO4 (aq)  2 H 2 O(l )

1
Cu ( s )  2 H  (aq )  O2 ( g ) 
 Cu 2 (aq )  H 2 O (l )
2

Question 20:
Why is zinc not extracted from zinc oxide through reduction using CO?

Solution 20:
This is because the standard free energy of formation of CO2 from CO is higher than that of
standard free energy of formation of ZnO from Zn.

Question 21:
The value of f G° for formation of Cr2O3 is –540 kJ mol–1 and that of Al2O3 is –827 kJ mol–1.
Is the reduction of Cr2O3 possible with Al?

Solution 21:
Chemical equation for the formation of Cr2O3 and Al2O3 are as follows:
4 3 2
(a) Cr ( s )  O2 ( g ) 
 Cr2 O3 ( s );  f G o  – 540kJ mol –1
3 2 3

4 3 2
(b) Al ( s )  O2 ( g ) 
 Al2 O3 ( s );  f G o  – 827 kJ mol –1
3 2 3

Subtracting equation (a) from equation (b), we get

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Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
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4 2 2 4
Al ( s )  Cr2 O3 
 Al2O3 ( s )  Cr ( s ) G o  –287 kJmol –1
3 3 3 3 
As can be seen rGo is negative, thus, reduction of Cr2O3 by Al is possible.

Question 22:
Out of C and Co, which is a better reducing agent for ZnO?

Solution 22:
The two reduction reactions are
ZnO( s)  C ( s)  Zn( s)  CO( g ) ...(i)
ZnO( s )  CO( s)  Zn( s)  CO2 ( g ) ...(ii)
In the first case, there is increase in the magnitude of So while in the second case, it almost
remains the same. In other words Go will have more negative value in the first case when C(s)
is used as the reducing agent than in the second case when CO(g) acts as the reducing agent.
Therefore, C(s) is a better reducing agent.

Question 23:
The choice of a reducing agent in a particular case depends on thermodynamic factor. How far
do you agree with this statement? Support your opinion with two examples.

Solution 23:
We can study the choice of a reducing agent in a particular case using Ellingham diagram. It is
evident from the diagram that metals for which the standard free energy of formation of their
oxides is more negative can reduce those metal oxides for which the standard free energy of
formation of their respective oxides is less negative it means that any metal will reduce the
oxides of other metals which lie above it in the Ellingham diagram. This is because the standard
free energy change (rGo) of the combined redox reaction will be negative by an amount equal to
the difference in f Go of the two metal oxides. Thus both Al and Zn can reduce FeO to Fe but Fe
cannot reduce Al2O3 to Al and ZnO to Zn. In the same way, G can reduce ZnO to Zn but not CO.
Note: Only that reagent will be preferred as reducing agent which will lead to decrease in free
energy value Go at a certain specific temperature.

Question 24:
Name the processes from which chlorine is obtained as a by-product what will happen if an
aqueous solution of NaCl Is subjected to electrolysis?

Solution 24:
Down process is used for the preparation of sodium metal, where chlorine is obtained as a by-
product. This process involves the electrolysis of a fused mixture of NaCl and CaCl2 at 873 K.
Sodium is discharged at the cathode while Cl2 is obtained at the anode as a by-product.
NaCl (l ) 
Electrolysis
 Na (melt )  Cl– (melt )
1
At cathode: Na  e–   Cl2  e–
2

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General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

1
At anode: Cl –   Cl2  e–
2
If, an aqueous solution of NaCI is electrolysed, H2 is evolved at the cathode while Cl2 is obtained
at the anode.

Question 25:
What is the role of graphite rod in the electrometallurgy of aluminium?

Solution 25:
In the electrometallurgy of aluminium, oxygen gas is evolved at anode. O2 reacts with graphite
or carbon (graphite electrodes) to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. In case if some
other metal carbon (graphite electrodes) to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. In case if
some other metal aluminium oxide (Al2O3) which will pass into the reaction mixture resulting
into wastage of Al. Since graphite is cheaper than aluminium, its wastage or can be tolerated.

Question 26:
Outline the principles of refining of metals by the following methods:
(i) Zone refining
(ii) Electrolytic refining
(iii) Vapour phase refining

Solution 26:
(i) Zone refining: This method is used for production of semiconductors and other metals of
very high purity, e.g., Ge, Si, B, Ca and In,
It is based on the principle that the impurities are more soluble in the molten state (melt) than in
the solid state of the metal.
The impure metal in the form of bar is heated at one end with a moving circular heater. As the
heater is slowly moved along the length of the rod, the pure metal crystallises Out of the melt
whereas the impurities pass into the adjacent molten zone. This process is repeated several times
till the
impurities are completely driven to one end of the rod which is then cut off and discarded.
(ii)Electrolytic refining: Many metals, such as Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Pb, etc., are purified by this
method. The impure metals is made the anode while a thin sheet of pure metal acts as a cathode.
The electrolytic solution consists of a salt or a complex salt solution of the metal. On passing the
current, the pure metal is deposited on the cathode while the impurities fall down as anode mud.
(iii) Vapour-phase refining: The crude metal is freed from impurities by first converting it into
a suitable volatile compound by heating it with a specific reagent at a lower temperature and then
decomposing the volatile compound at some higher temperature to give the pure metal.
(a) Mond’s process: When impure nickel is heated is a current of CO at 330-350 K, it forms
volatile nickel tetracarbonyl complex leaving behind the impurities. The complex then heated to
a higher temperature (450.470K) when it undergoes thermal decomposition giving pure nickel.
Ni  4CO 330–350 K
 Ni (CO)4
 impure 

6.General Principles and Processes

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of Isolation of Elements
Class XII – NCERT – Chemistry Chapter 6
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements

Ni(CO)4 
450–470 K
 Ni  4CO
 Pure 
(b) Van Arkel method: This method is Used for preparing ultra-pure metals by removing all the
oxygen and nitrogen present as impurities in metals like zirconium and titanium (which are used
in space technology).Crude Zr is heated in an evacuated vessel with iodine at 870 K. Zirconium
tetraiodide thus formed is separated. It is then decomposed by heating over a tungsten filament at
1800–2075 K to give pure Zr.
Zr ( s)  2 I2 ( g ) 
 Zrl4
 Impure 
ZrI4 
1800–2075 K
Tungstenfilament
Zr ( s )  2 I ( g )
 Pure 

Question 27:
Predict conditions under which Al might be expected to reduce MgO.

Solution 27:
The equations for the formation of the two oxides are
4 / 3 Al ( s)  O2 ( s) 
 2 / 3 Al2O3 ( s)
2Mg ( s )  O2 ( s ) 
 2 MgO( s)
If we look at the plots for the formation of the two oxides of the Ellingham diagram, we find that
they intersect at certain point. The corresponding value of Go becomes zero for the reduction of
MgO by Al metal.
2MgO( s)  4 / 3 Al ( s) 2Mg ( s)  2 / 3 Al2O3 (s)
This means that the reduction of MgO by Al metal can occur below this temperature. Aluminium
(Al) metal can reduce MgO to Mg above this temperature because oG for Al2O3 is less as
compared to that of MgO
( 1665 K )
3MgO( s )  2 Al ( s)   Al2O3 ( s)  3Mg ( s)

6.General Principles and Processes

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