Stoichiometry

 In the late 1700s a French nobleman named Antoine Lavoisier observed that the total
mass of all substances present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass
before the reaction. This observation known as the law of conservation of mass is one of
the fundamental laws of chemical change.
 In 1789 Lavoisier published a textbook on chemistry in which he stated; “We may lay it
down as an incontestable axiom that, in all the operation of art and nature, nothing is
created ;an equal quantity of matter exists both before and after the experiment .”with
the advent of the atomic theory, chemist came to understand the basis for this law;
atoms are neither created nor destroyed during any chemical reaction. Thus the same
collection of atoms is present both before and after a reaction.
 The changes that occur during any reaction merely involve rearrangement of the atoms.
The law of conservation of mass will serve as one of the guiding principles in our
discussions in this chapter.
 Stoichiometry is a section of chemistry that involves using relationships between
reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data.
In Greek, STOIKHEIN means element and METRON means measure, so stoichiometry
literally translated means the measure of elements. In order to use stoichiometry to run
calculations about chemical reactions , it is important to first understand the relationships
that exist between products and reactants and why they exist, which require
understanding how to balanced reaction

Atomic mass

 the atomic mass of an element is defined as the ratio of the mass of its atom relative to
the mass of an atom of carbon-12.The reference standard 0.012 kg carbon-12 contains
a constant number of particles,6.023 x 1023 atoms of carbons. This is called the
Avogadro’s number

Avogadro’s number

 Amadeo Avogadro first proposed that the volume of a gas at a given pressure and
temperature is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules, regardless of the type
of gas although he did not determine the exact proportion, he is credited for the idea.
 Avogadro’s number is a proportion that relates molar mass on an atomic scale to
physical mass on a human scale.
 Avogadro’s number is defined as the number of elementary particles {molecules,
atoms, compounds, etc.} per mole of a substance.it is equal to 6.022x1023 mol-1 and
is expressed as the symbol NA.
 Avogadro’s number is a similar concept to that of a dozen or a gross. A dozen
molecules is 12 molecules. A gross of molecules is 144 molecules. Avogadro’s number
is 6.022x1023 molecules. With Avogadro’s number, scientist can discuss and compare
the large number of tiny atoms and molecules that we encounter in chemistry.
The mole concept

 The concept {abbreviated mol} is the SI measure of quantity of a “chemical entity, “such
as atoms, electrons, or protons. It is defined as the amount of a substance that contains
as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon -12 So,1 mol
contains 6.022x1023 elementary entities of the substance.
 Molar mass is the total mass of all the atoms in one molecule of the substance. When
the compound is ionic, the equivalent molar mass is formula mass .
 For monoatomic molecules like HE or NE, the atomic mass expressed in grams is also
the molar mass of the substance. For compounds or polyatomic molecules, molar mass
can be determined once the chemical formula of the substance is known. It is calculated
as the sum of the products of the number of atoms of each element and its
corresponding atomic mass in one formula unit of the substance.
 You can convert the number of moles to corresponding mass simply by multiplying it {#
of moles} by molar mass. similarly, you can convert mass in grams to the number of
moles by dividing mass by molar mass.Thus,60 g of carbon is equivalent to 5 moles of
the substances. The mass of 3 moles of water is equal to 3 x 18 g/mol or 54 g.

Mass {g} to no. of moles Divide mass by molar mass

No. of moles to mass multiply number of moles by molar mass

If you have 1.25 grams of a molecule with molecular mass of 134.1 g/mol, how many
moles of that molecule do you have?

1.25 g / 134.1 g/mol = 0.0093 moles

Percentage Composition of Compounds

Percent composition is calculated from a molecular formula by dividing the mass of a single
element in one mole of a compound by the mass of one mole of the entire compound. This
value is presented as a percentage.

Sample Problem:

A compound was found to be composed of 25.9% Fe and 74.1% Br (by mass). The molar mass
of the compound was determined to be 215.6 g/mol. What is the chemical formula of the
compound and oxidation number of Fe?

Determine the given data:

% composition by mass: Fe=25.9%, Br=74.1%, Molar mass= 215.6 g/mol

From the periodic table, get the atomic masses: Fe=55, Br=79.9

Use 100 g of the compound as basis for calculations:

 Thus, mass of Fe=0.259 x 100= 25.9 g, mass of Br=0.741 x 100=74.1 g

Determine the smallest atomic ratio of the elements by dividing each quotient above the
smallest value of the quotient obtained (0.464 in this problem).

Fe: 0.464=1; Br: 0.927=1.997

0.464 0.464
The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest atomic ratio of the combining elements.
The empirical formula of the compound is FeBr2.
The molecular formula of the compound gives the actual number of atoms of each element
present in one molecule of formula unit of the compound. It can be obtained by multiplying the
subscripts in the empirical formula unit of the compound by the ratio of molar mass to the
empirical mass.
Empirical mass = 1 (atomic mass Fe) + 2 (atomic mass Br)
= 55.85 + 2 (79.9) = 215.6
molar mass / empirical mass = 215.6 / 215.6 = 1
Thus, molecular formula is also FeBr2

Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Chemical Reactions
 Chemical Reaction is a process in which a substances is changed from one or more new
substances. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the
positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms,
with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be
described by a chemical equation.
 Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature and
chemical concentration. Typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature
because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy
necessary for breaking bonds between atoms. Reactions may proceed in the forward or
reverse direction until they go to completion or reach equilibrium.
Chemical Equation
Substances that undergo chemical reactions are represented by chemical equation. It is a
representation using chemical symbols to show what happens during a chemical reaction.
Chemical equations are written with reactants and products. Reactants are the starting
materials in a chemical reaction and Product is the substance formed as a result of a chemical
reaction.
reactants products
In a chemical equation, reactants are usually written on the left side and products on the right
side. The reactants and products always have an arrow between them that represents “to yield”,
commonly reactants are 2 or more substance or chemical and it is written with a plus (+) sign
that means “reacts with”.

Formation of water is an example of a chemical reaction.

O
H H H H
O O
H H O

H H

Two Hydrogen Molecule (2H2) One Oxygen Molecule (O2) Two water molecule

Reactants Products

Balancing Equations

The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms can be created or destroyed in a chemical
reaction, so the number of the atoms that are present in the reactants has to balance the
number of atoms that are present in products.

There are few steps in balancing a chemical equation. For example:

2 + H2O KOH + H2

Rules in Balancing Equation

1. Identify all the Reactants and Product; put the reactants to the left and the products on the
right with their correct formula.

Reactants Product

K (1) K (1)

H (2) H (3)

O (1) O (1)

2. Begin balancing by trying different coefficients to make the number of atoms of each element
the same on both side of the equation. Make sure to use coefficient only, if the subscript is
changed, the identity of the substance also changes.

3. Look for elements that appear only once on each side of the equation with the same number
of atoms on each side: The formulas containing these elements must have the same coefficient.
Therefore, there is no need to adjust the coefficients of these elements at this point. Next, look
for elements that appear only once on each side of the equation but in unequal numbers of
atoms. Balance these elements. Finally, balance elements that appear in two or more formulas
on the same side of the equation.

4. Check your balanced equation to be sure that you have the same total number of each type
of atoms on both sides of the equation arrow:

2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2

Reactants Product

K (2) K (2)

H (4) H (4)

O (2) O (2)

Note: You have to multiply the coefficient with the subscript if the chemicals have subscripts.

Types of Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solution

Precipitation Reaction

Precipitation reactions are sometimes called “double displacement” reactions. To determine

whether a precipitate will form when aqueous solutions of two compounds are mixed.

In a precipitation reaction, an anion and a cation contact each other and an insoluble ionic
compound precipitates out of solution. For example, when aqueous solutions of silver nitrate,
AgNO3, and salt, NaCl, are mixed, the Ag+ and Cl- combine to yield a white precipitate of silver
chloride, AgCl:

AgNO3 + NaCl NO3 Na + AgCl

Ag+ (aq) + Cl (aq) AgCl (s)

Acid-Base Reaction

Arrhenius definition BrØnsted-Lowry definition

+
An acid produces H ions in water An acid donates a H+.
A base produces OH= ions in water. A base accepts a H+.
Acids and bases can be strong or weak.

For example, when hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), are mixed, the H+
reacts with the OH= to form water:

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

H+(aq) + OH- (aq) H2O

HCl acts an acid by donating H+ ions or protons and NaOH acts as a base, furnishing OH- ions
Oxidation – Reduction Reaction

Oxidation and reduction always occur together with no net change in the number of
electrons. There is an exchange of electrons between two reactants. The species that loses
electrons is said to be oxidized. The species that gains electrons is said to be reduced. An
example of a redox reaction occurs between hydrochloric acid and zinc metal, where the Zn
atoms lose electrons and are oxidized to form Zn2+ ions:

Zn(s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

The H+ ions of the HCl gain electrons and are reduced to H atoms, which combine to form H2
molecules:

2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g)

The overall equation for the reaction becomes:

Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g)

Two important principles apply when writing balanced equations for reaactions between
species in a solution:

1. The balanced equation includes only the species that participate in forming products.

For example, in the reaction between AgNO3 and NaCl, the NO3- and Na+ ions were not
involved in the precipitation reaction and were not included in the balanced equation.

2. The total charge must be the same on both sides of a balanced equation.

Note that the total charge can be zero or non-zero, as long as it is the same on both the
reactants and products sides of the equation.

Mass Relationship in Chemical Reactions

Moles are used to calculate the amount of product formedin a reaction. This approach is called
the mole method, which means simply that thestoichiometric coefficients in a chemical
equation can be interpreted as the number of moles of each substance.

Gases

Earth is made up of solid, liquid and gas. Mainly we have our lithosphere, hydrosphere at the
atmosphere. Hydrosphere is the largest component of Earth, covering 71% of its surface and is
the main source of water which is essential for the survival of all living things on Earth. Aside
from the lithosphere and hydrosphere, atmosphere is also essential for all living things that can
be found on earth. the atmosphere protects the life on Earth by absorbing Ultraviolet Solar
Radiation, warming the surface through heat retention and reducing temperatures extreme
between day and night.
Atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the planet, roughly composed of 78% Nitrogen,
21% Oxygen and 1% other gases. Many elements may exist on their gas form due to certain
conditions involving the different properties of gas which are Pressure, Temperature, Volume
and number of Moles. Different Gas Laws will be discussed according to their mathematical
representations and how different factors affect each othe and behaviour of gases.

Pressure of a Gas

Gas is a state off matter where the molecules are fat apart, assumes the volume and shape of
the container, most compressible state of matter and tends to expand indefinitely. Gases apply
pressure to any surface that it will have contact since its molecules are continuously moving or
constantly in motion.

Pressure is the force per unit area; it is the force that is extend by the gas. It is determined by
the flow of a high mass from a high pressure region to a low pressure region. One example is
when you blow a balloon; the balloon will expand because the pressure of the air inside the
balloon is greater than the outside. As the balloon continuously expands until it reaches the limit
of the amount of air that it can hold, it will eventually pop; now it is due to the pressure exerted
by the air against the wall of the balloon. Since the balloon cannot hold the amount of air and it
is continuously exerting force against the wall of the balloon, it will pop because the pressure on
the walls of the balloon is high enough for the amount of pressure that it can handle.

Units of Pressure

Pressure is a measurable property of a gas. To completely undestand how pressure of a gas is

measured, knowing how the units of measurement of it are derived would be helpful.

First is Velocity; it is the change in distance with elapsed time; its equation form is:

velocity = distanced moved or v= d

elapsed time t
The SI unit of velocity is meter per second (m/s) or centimeter per second may also be used.

Next is Acceleration; it is the change of velocity with time; or

acceleration = change in velocity or a= v

elapsed time t

The measurement used for acceleration is meter per square second (m/s2) or centimeter per
square second

Another important equation to be used is the second law of motion, formulated by Sir Isaac
Newton, where force is the derived unit of pressure. It states that:

force = mass acceleration

and its SI unit is newton (N), where in 1 N = 1 kilogram . meter per second squared (kg . m/s2).
Lastly, we define that pressure is the force per unit area or:

pressure = force or P= f
area a

The SI unit of pressure is 1 newton per square meter or pascal (Pa);

1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Atmospheric Pressure (atm) is the exerted pressure of Earth’s atmosphere. It is also used as
a unit of pressure. The value of atmospheric pressure varies depending on the location,
temperature and weather conditions and it is commonly measured using a device called
barometer. The standard atmospheric pressure is 1 atm that is equal to the pressure that
supports a column of mercury exactly 760 mm high at 00 C at sea level.

There are different units used to measure pressure, based from 1 atmospheric pressure here
are the different corresponding value for each units of pressure.

1 atm = 760 mmHg (millimeter of Mercury),

where in 1 mmHg = 1 torr
so 1 atm is also equal to 760 torr.
1 atm = 101,325 Pa (Pascal),
so 1 atm is equal to 101.325 kPa (kilopascal)
In short;

1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 760 mmHg = 760 torr

Here are is an example on how to convert Pressure from mmHg to atm.

Example:

A man that lives in a mountain went down to ariver to go fishing, he felt a little discomfort in his
ears that indicates that the pressure went up as he goes down from a high place. That day the
atmospheric pressure is measured 790 mmHg. What is the value of 790 mmHg to atm?

Remember that 1 atm is equal to 760 mmHg. This conversion factor will be helpful to find the
value of the pressure in atm.

1 atm = 760 mmHg or ___1 atm__

760 mmHg
The given pressure is 790 mmHg.

The solution to be used is:

Pressure= 790 mmHg x ___1 atm___

760 mmHg
Pressure= 1.04 atm
The mmHg will be cancelled out, then 790 multiplied by 1 atm then divided by 760.

Gas Laws

Pressure – Volume Relationship (Boyle’s Law)

Boyle’s law states that pressure is inversely proportional to the volume of a gas at a constant
temperature. This concept came from the results collected by Boyle’s study about the behavior
of gases specifically on the relationship existing between pressure and volume. The data
obtained by Robert Boyle shows that there is a significant change on the volume of gas as the
pressure changes. At a constant temperature when the pressure increased the volume
decreased, the table below shows the data collected by Boyle’s that shows the relationship
between pressure and volume.

Typical Pressure – Volume Relationship Obtained by Boyle

P 724 869 951 998 1230 1893 2250
(mmHg)
V 1.50 1.33 1.22 1.18 0.94 0.61 0.58
(arbitrary
units)
PV 1.09 x 103 1.16 x 103 1.16 x 103 1.18 x 103 1.2 x 103 1.2 x 103 1.3 x 103
The data shows that relationship existing between pressure and volume is: as the pressure
increases the volume decreases and as the pressure decreases the volume increases.

Volume V

Pressure P

Mathematically, Boyle’s can be stated as

P α _1_ or PV = k
V
where P is the pressure, V is the volume and k is a constant
The equation states that pressure is inversely proportional to volume or the products of pressure
and volume is a constant for a given mass of a gas.
For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions can be expressed as:
P1V1 = P2 V2
Volume-Temperature Relationship (Charles' and Gay-Lussac's Law)

 According to the study of Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles and Joseph Gay-Lussac,
temperature also affects the volume and pressure of the gas. As the Charles' Law states
that a volume of a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
 at a constant pressure. Their study showed that when an amount of a gas sample is
heated the gas expands and when cooled the sample contracts.
 The absolute temperature scale that is introduced by Lord Kelvin in 1848 identified that
-273.15°C is the absolute zero and theoretically it is the lowest attainable temperature.
Nowadays, known as the Kelvin temperature scale (formerly absolute temperature
scale) sets that absolute zero is the starting point of measuring temperature. The
difference between absolute temperature scale and Celsius scale is that the zero
position is shifted. The table below shows the difference of the scales" measurement of
temperature.

Kelvin Scale Celsius Scale

Absolute zero 0K -273.15°C
Freezing point of water 273.15 K 0°C
Boiling point of water 373.15 K 100 °C

Charles Law can be stated mathematically as:

VαT or __V___= k
T

where V is the volume of the gas, T temperature of the gas (K) and k is constant.

 This equation shows that as the temperature increases the volume also increases (gas
expansion); conversely as when the temperature decreases the volume also decreases.
 Gay-Lussac's Law is often referred to as the Amontons's Law of Pressure
Temperature since it is the first law to discover the relationship between the pressure
and temperature of a fixed mass of gas kept at a constant volume. Gunllaume Amontons
discovered this while building an “air thermometer”
 Same with the concept of Amontons's Law, Gay-Lussac's Law states that the pressure
of a gas of fixed mass and fixed volume is directly proportional to the gas’s absolute
temperature.

As the temperature of a gas increases, then so does its pressure if the mass and volume of the
gas are held constant. The law has a particularly simple mathematical form if the temperature is
measured on an absolute scale, such as in Kelvin. The law can then be expressed
mathematically as:

PαT or __P___= k
T

where P is the pressure of the gas, T temperature of the gas (K) and k is a constant.

Volume-Amount Relationship (Avogadro's Law)

Avogadro's law is an experimental gas law relating volume of a gas to the amount of Substance
of gas present. The law states that equal volumes of all gases, at the same Temperature and
pressure, have the same number of molecules. For a given mass of an ideal gas, the volume
and amount (moles) of the gas are directly proportional if the temperature and pressure are
constant. This law describes how, under the same condition of temperature and pressure, equal
volume of al gases contains the same number of molecules.

Ideal Gas Law

The ideal Gas Law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good
approximation to the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several
limitations. First stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834, it states that ldeal Gas Law is the
combination of the empirical Bovle s Law, Charles Law and Avogadro s Law.

Mathematically written as:

PV = nRT

Where in P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, n is the amount of substance
of gas (in moles), T is the temperature of the gas and R is the ideal, or universal, gas constant,
equal to the product of the Boltzmann constant and the Avogadro's constant, its value is
0.082057 L . atm/K . mol but commonly used as 0.0821 L . atm/K . mol.

Gas Stoichiometry

Gas stoichiometry deals with reactions involving gases, where the gases are at a Known
temperature, pressure, and volume and can be assumed to be ideal gases. For gases, the
volume ratio is ideally the same as the ideal gas law, but the mass ratio of a single reaction has
to be calculated from the molecule masses of the reactants and products. In practice, due to the
existence of isotopes, molar masses are used instead when calculating the mass ratio.

There are three types of Gas Stoichiometry problems:

1. Mole-Volume (or Volume-Mole)

2. Mass-volume (or volume-mass)
3. Volume-Volume

Mole-Volume Stoichiometry

You are given the moles of one component and needed to find the volume of another gaseous
component. The temperature and pressure must be stated in a problem such as this.

The following steps are applied:

 1. Convert moles of given to moles of needed using the coefficients of the balanced
chemical equation
2. Convert moles of needed to volume of needed using the Ideal Gas Law Equation

Sample Problem:

Given the Haber Process:

N2(g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

How many liters of NH, can be produced at a temperature of 27 degrees Celsius and a pressure
of 760 torr, if 20 moles of N, are consumed?

1. Convert moles of given to moles of needed:

According to the balanced equation:

1 mole N2 = 2 moles NH3

20 moles N2 X 2 moles NH3 /1 mole N2 40 moles NH3 produced

2. Convert moles needed to liters of needed:

If we use the ldeal Gas Law Equation PV nRT and R-0.0821 liter-atm / mole-K, then we will
have to make sure the pressure is in atm and the temperature is in Kelvin.

P = 760 torr X 1 atm / 760 torr= 1 atm

T = 27 + 273 = 300 K

solve the Equation for V nRT / P (40 moles NH3) (0.0821 liter-atm mol-K) (300 K)/1 atm = 985,2
liters NH3

If you are given the volume of a gaseous component and asked to find the number of moles
involved of some other component, then you would simply reverse the two steps above.(First
use the formula PV= nRT, to convert volume of the gaseous component to moles of gaseous
component and then convert moles of gaseous component to moles of other component by
using the mole to mole ratio from the balanced equation.)
MASS-VOLUME STOICHIOMETRY PROBLEM

Here you are given the mass of one of the components and asked to find the Volume of a
gaseous component at a stated temperature and pressure. Here are the steps that one would
take:

1. Convert mass of given to moles of given by dividing the formula mass of the given
2. Convert moles of given to moles of needed using the balanced equation
3. Convert moles of needed to liters of requested using PV = nRT

VOLUME TO VOLUME GAS STOICHIOMETRY PROBLEMS

The volume-volume problems are the easiest since according to the Law of Combining Gas
Volumes, gases combine at the same temperature and pressure in simple whole number of
volumes. What this means is that we can use the coefficients in the balanced equation to form
volume relationships just as we did in the earlier Stoichiometry problems when we used the
coefficients to form mole relationships.

For example:

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (g)

2 liters H2 = 1 liter O2

2 liters H2 =2 liters H2O

1 liter O2 =2 liters H2O

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

Ludwig Boltzmann and Clerk Maxwell, found that the physical properties of gases can be
explained in terms of the motion of individual molecules. The findings of Maxwell, Boltzmann,
and others resulted in a number of generalizations about gas behavior that have since been
known as the kinetic molecular theory of gases, or simply the kinetic theory of gases.Central to
the kinetic theory are these assumptions:

1. A gas is composed of molecules that are separated from each other by distances far
greater than their own dimensions. The molecules can be considered to be "points"; that
is, they possess mass but have negligible volume.
2. Gas molecules are in constant motion in random directions, and they frequently collide
with one another. Collisions among molecules are perfectly elastic. In other words,
 energy can be transferred from one molecule to another as a result of a collision.
Nevertheless, the total energy of all the molecules in a system remains the same.
3. Gas molecules exert neither attractive nor repulsive forces on one another.
4. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the temperature of the
gas in kelvins. Any two gases at the same temperature will have the same average
kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy of a molecule is given byKE = ½ mv2

Application to the Gas Laws

Aside from its mathematical details involved in Kinetic Molecular theory, there is also qualitative
basis, it is possible to use the theory to count for the general properties of substances in the
gaseous state. The following examples illustrate the range of its utility:

Compressibility of Gases

Because molecules in gas phase are separated by large distances (assumption 1), gases can
be compressed easily to occupy less volume.

Boyle's Law.

Pressure exerted by a gas results from the impact of its molecules on the walls of the contalner.
The collision rate, or the number of molecular collisions with the walls per Second, is
proportional to the number density (that is, number of molecules per unit volume) of the gas.
Decreasing the volume of a given amount of gas increases its number density and hence its
collision rate. For this reason, the pressure of a gas is inversely Proportional the volume it
occupies; as volume decreases, pressure increases and vice versa.

Charles's Law.

Because the average kinetic energy of gas molecules is proportional to the sample’s absolute
temperature (assumption 4), raising the temperature increases the average kinetic energy.
Consequently, molecules will collide with the walls of the container more frequently and with
greater impact if the gas is heated, and thus the pressure increases. The volume of gas will
expand until the gas pressure is balanced by the constant external pressure.

Avogadro's Law.

We have shown that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to both the density and the
temperature of the gas. Because the mass of the gas is directly proportional to the number of
moles (n) of the gas, we can represent density by n/V.
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures.

If molecules do not attract or repel one another (assumption 3), the pressure exerted by one
type of molecule is unaffected by the presence of another gas. Consequently, the total pressure
is given by the sum of individual gas pressures.

Electronic Structure of Atoms

Elements that exhibit similar properties were placed together in the same column or the table in
the periodic table. But what are the fundamental reasons for these similarities? Why, for
example, are sodium and potassium soft, reactive metals? Why are helium and neon unreactive
gases? Why do the halogens all react with hydrogen to form compounds that contain one
hydrogen atom and one halogen atom

When atoms react, it is the electrons that interact. Thus, the key to answering questions like
those posed above lies in understanding the behavior of electrons in atoms. The arrangement of
electrons in an atom is called its electronic structure. The electronic structure of an atom refers
not only to the number of electrons that an atom possesses but also to their distribution around
the nucleus and to their energies.

As we will see, electrons do not behave like anything we are familiar with in the macroscopic
world. Our knowledge of electronic structure is the result of one of the major developments of
twentieth-century science, the quantum theory. In this chapter we will Describe the development
of the quantum theory and how it led to a consistent description of the electronic structures of
the elements. we will explore some of the tools used in quantum mechanics, the new physics
that had to be developed to describe atoms correctly

Quantum Mechanical Description of Atom

The spectacular success of Bohr's theory was followed by a series of disappointments Bohr' s
approach did not account for the emission spectra of the atoms containing more than one
electron, such as atoms of helium and lithium. Nor did it explain why extra lines appear in the
hydrogen emission spectrum when a magnetic field is applied. Another problem arose with the
discovery that electrons are wavelike: How can the "position" of a wave be specified? We
cannot define the precise location of a wave because a wave extends in space.

To describe the problem of trying to locate a subatomic particle that behaves like a wave,
Werner Heisenberg formulated what is now known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle:it is
impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum p (define as mass times velocity) and
the position of a particle with certainty. Stated mathematically,
 ∆x ∆p ≥ _h_
4π

Where ∆x and ∆p are the uncertainties in measuring the position and momentum respectively.
The equation says that if we make the measurement of the momentum of the particle more
precise (that is, if we make ∆p as a small quantity), our knowledge of the position will become
correspondingly less precise (that is ∆x will become larger). Similarly, if the position of the
particle is known more precisely, then its momentum measurement must be less precise.
Applying the Heisenberg uncertainty principle to the hydrogen atom, we see that in reality the
electron does not orbit the nucleus in a well- defined path, as Bohr thought. If it did, we could
determine precisely both the position of the electron (from the radius of the orbit) and its
momentum (from its kinetic energy) at the same time, a violation of the uncertainty principle.

Bohr made a significant contribution to our understanding of atoms, and his Suggestion that the
energy of an electron in an atom is quantized remains unchallenged. But this theory did not
provide a complete description of electronic behavior in atoms. In 1926 the Austrian physicist
Erwin Schrodinger, using a complicated mathematical technique, formulated an equation that
describes the behavior and energies of Submicroscopic particles in general, an equation
analogous to Newton's law of motion for macroscopic objects. It is important to know, however,
that the equation incorporates both particle behavior, in terms of mass m, and wave behavior, in
terms of a wave function, and which depends on the location in space of the system (such as an
electron in an atom).

The wave function itself has no direct physical meaning. However, the probability of finding the
electron in a certain region in space is proportional to the square of the wave function. The idea
of relating wave function to probability stemmed from a wave theory analogy. According to wave
theory, the intensity of light is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave. The most
likely place to find a photon is where the intensity is greatest, that is, where the value of wave
function is greatest.

Schrodinger s equation began a new era in physics and chemistry, for it launched a new field,
quantum mechanics (also called wave mechanics). We now refer to the developments in
quantum theory from 1913-the time Bohr presented his analysis for the hydrogen atom to 1926
as "old quantum theory"

Electron Configuration

 The electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or

other physical structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals. For example, the electron
configuration of the neon atom is 1s 2s2p".
 Electronic configurations describe electrons as each moving independently in an orbital,
in an average field created by all other orbitals. Mathematically, configurations are
described by Slater determinants or configuration state functions.
  According to the laws of quantum mechanics, for systems with only one electron, an
energy is associated with each electron configuration and, upon certain conditions,
electrons are able to move from one configuration to another by the emission or
absorption of a quantum of energy, in the form of a photon.
 Knowledge of the electron configuration of different atoms is useful in understanding the
structure of the periodic table of elements. The concept is also useful for describing the
chemical bonds that hold atoms together. In bulk materials, this same idea helps explain
the peculiar properties of lasers and semiconductors.

Aufbau Principle

 The Aufbau Principle states that, hvpothetically, electrons orbiting one or more atoms fill
the lowest available energy levels before filling higher levels (e.g., 1s before 2s). In this
way, the electrons of an atom, molecule or ion harmonize into the most stable electron
configuration possible.
 Aurbau is a German noun that means construction or "building-up. The Aufbau Principle
is sometimes called the building-up principle or the Aufbau Rule.
 The details of this "building-up" tendency are described mathematically by atomic orbital
functions. Electron behavior is elaborated by other principles of atomic physics, such as
Hund's Rule and the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Hund's rule asserts that even if multiple
orbitals of the same energy are available, electrons fill unoccupied orbitals first, before
reusing orbitals occupied by other electrons. But, according to the Pauli Exclusion
Principle, in order for electrons to occupy the same orbital, they must have different
spins (-1/2 and 1/2).

Pauli Exclusion Principle

The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that, in an atom or molecule no can have the same four
electronic quantum numbers. As an orbital can contain a maximum of only two electrons, the
two electrons must have opposing spins. This means assigned an up-spin +1/2), the other must
be down-spin (-1/2).

Electrons in the same orbital have the same first three quantum numbers, e.g., n=1n=1,
1=01=0, ml=0ml=0 for the 1s subshell. Only two electrons can have these numbers. so that their
spin moments must be either ms= - 1/2 or ms =+ 1/2. If the 1s orbital contains only one electron,
we have one msms value and the electron configuration is written as 1s1 (corresponding to
hydrogen).If it is fully occupied, we have two msms values. and the electron configuration is 1s
(corresponding to helium). Visually these two cases can be represented as
 1s Orbital

↑ ↑↓
H He

Hund's Rules

The Aufbau section discussed how that electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals first, and then
move up to higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are full. However, there is
a problem with this rule. Certainly, 1s orbitals should be filled before 2s orbitals, because the 1s
orbitals have a lower value of n, and thus a lower energy. What about the three different 2p
orbitals? In what order should they be filled? The answer to this question involves Hund's rule.

Hund's Rule states that:

1. Every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly occupied.
2. All of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin (to maximize total
spin).

When assigning electrons to orbitals, an electron first seeks to fill all the orbitals with similar
energy (also referred to as degenerate orbitals) before pairing with another electron in a half-
filled orbital. Atoms at ground states tend to have as many unpaired electrons as possible. In
visualizing this process, consider how electrons exhibit the same behavior as the same poles on
a magnet would if they came into contact, as the negatively charged electrons fill orbitals, they
first try to get as far as possible from each other before having to pair up.

Diamagnetism

 Any time two electrons share the same orbital. their spin quantum numbers have to be
different. In other words, one of the electrons has to be "spin-up," with, while the other
electron is spin-down," with. This is important when it comes to determining the total spin
in an electron orbital. In order to decide whether electron spins cancel, add their spin
quantum numbers together. Whenever two electrons are paired together in an orbital, or
their total spin is 0, they are called diamagnetic electrons.

 Think of spins as clockwise and counterclockwise. If one spin is clockwise and the other
is counterclockwise, then the two spin directions balance each other out and there is no
leftover rotation. Note what all of this means in terms of electrons sharing an orbital:
Since electrons in the same orbital always have opposite values for their spin quantum
numbers (ms), they will always end up canceling each other out. In other words, there is
no leftover spin in an orbital that contains two electrons.
 Electron spin is very important n determining the magnetic properties of an atom. If all of
the electrons in an atom are paired up and share their orbital with another electron, then
 the total spin in each orbital is zero and the atom is diamagnetic. Diamagnetic atoms are
not attracted to a magnetic field, but rather are slightly repelled.

Paramagnetism

 Electrons that are alone in an orbital are called paramagnetic electrons. Remember that
it an electron is alone in an orbital, the orbital has a net spin, because the spin of the
lone electron does not get canceled out. If even one orbital has a net spin, the entire
atom will have a net spin.
 Therefore, an atom is considered to be paramagnetic when it contains at least one
paramagnetic electron. In other words, an atom could have 10 paired (diamagnetic)
electrons, but as long as it also has one unpaired (paramagnetic) electron, it is still
considered a paramagnetic atom.
 Just as diamagnetic atoms are slightly repelled from a magnetic field, paramagnetic
atoms are slightly attracted to a magnetic field. Paramagnetic properties are due to the
realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field.
 Paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externally applied
magnetic field, because thermal motion randomizes the spin orientations. Stronger
magnetic effects are typically only observed when d- or f-electrons are involved. The
size of the magnetic moment on a lanthanide atom can be quite large, as it can carry up
to seven unpaired electrons, in the case of gadolinium(I) (hence its use in MRI).

The Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table

 In 1829, Johann Dobereiner studied groups of three elements which were chemically
Similar, An example of this group of three elements are chlorine, bromine, and iodine.
He called the arrangement as the Law of Triads. This works well when he predicted that
the atomic mass of bromine (79.9) will be close to the average of the atomic masses of
1dine (126.9) and chlorine (35.45). However, this arrangement was not true with other
groups of three elements.

 In 1864, John Newlands noted that when the first 20 elements were arranged in the
increasing order of their atomic masses, similar properties recurred at periodic interval.
He noticed that every eight element had similar properties. He called the pattern the Law
of Octaves.
 In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev and the German chemist Lothar Meyer
independently proposed a much more extensive tabulation of the elements based on the
regular, periodic recurrence of properties. Mendeleev's classification system was a great
improvement over Newlands's for two reasons. First, it grouped the elements together
more accurately. according to their properties. Equally important, it made possible the
prediction of the properties of several elements that had not yet been discovered. For
example,
  Mendeleev proposed the existence of an unknown element that he called eka-aluminum
and predicted a number of its properties. (Ekais a Sanskrit word meaning "tirst"; thus
eka-aluminum would be the first element under aluminum in the same group.)

Electron Configuration

The electron configuration of an atom is the representation of the arrangement of electrons

distributed among the orbital shells and subshells. Commonly, the electron configuration is used
to describe the orbitals of an atom in its ground state, but it can also be used to represent an
atom that has ionized into a cation or anion by compensating with the loss of or gain of
electrons in their subsequent orbitals. Many of the physical and chemical properties of elements
can be correlated to their unique electron configurations.

The valence electrons, electrons in the outermost shell. are the determining factor for the unique
chemistry of the element.

Before assigning the electrons of an atom into orbitals, one must become familiar with the basic
concepts of electron configurations. Every element on the Periodic Table consists of atoms,
which are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons exhibit a negative charge
and are found around the nucleus of the atom in electron orbitals, defined as the volume of
space in which the electron can be found within 95% probability. The four different types of
orbitals (5,p.d, and ) have different shapes, and one orbital can hold a maximum of two
electrons. The p. d, and T orbitals have different sublevels, thus can hold more electrons. Given
by the atomic number of the element. Orbitals on different energy levels are similar to each
other, but they occupy different areas in space. The 1s orbital and 2s orbital both have tne
Cnaracteristics of an s orbital (radial nodes., spherical volume probabilities, can only hold two
electrons, etc.) but, as they are found in different energy levels, they occupy different spaces
around the nucleus. Each orbital can be represented by specific blocks on the periodic table.
The s-block is the region of the alkali metals including helium (Groups 1 & 2), the d-block are
the transition metals (Groups 3 to 12), the p-block are the man group elements from Groups 13
to 18, and the f-block are the lanthanides and actinides series.

Rules for Assigning Electron Orbitals

Occupation of Orbitals

 Electrons fill orbitals in a way to minimize the energy of the atom. Therefore, the
electrons in an atom fill the principal energy levels in order of increasing energy (the
electrons are getting farther from the nucleus). The order of levels filled looks like this:

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s,

4d, 5p, 6s, 4f. 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, and 7p

 One way to remember this pattern, probably the easiest, is to refer to the periodic table
and remember where each orbital block falls to logically deduce this pattern. Another
 way is to make a table like the one below and use vertical lines to determine which
subshells correspond with each other.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

 The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons can have the same four
quantum numbers.

Chemical Bonding: lonic Bond

 Elements do react with other elements and compounds. There is a force that holds the
different compounds together It is a lasting attraction between atoms that enables the
formation of chemical compounds called Chemical Bonding.
 The bond may result from the Electrostatic force of attraction between atoms with
opposite charges. or through the sharing of electrons. The strength of chemical bonds
varies considerably: there are "strong bonds" and weak bonds"

Lewis Dot Symbol

 Consist of a symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron in an atom of
the element is what we called the Lewis Dot Symbol. It is used to represent elements to
show the process or how elements share and transfer their electrons with another
element and to show how an element looks like when bonded with another element.
 Noble gases are elements that have a low chemical reactivity, these elements has the
most number of valence electron except for Helium. One way to know the Lewis Dot
Symbol is to know the group where the element belongs. For example Sodium belongs
to Group 1A so it will have one dot, Aluminum will have three dots since it belongs to
Group 3A.

lonic Bonds

 Elements that have low ionization energy forms cations and high electron a tends to
form anions. Ions are most likely to form in a ionic compounds, those cations are called
the alkaline earth metals and anions are the halogens.
 lonic Bond is the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic compound. lonic
compounds typically have high melting and boiling point, and are hard and brittle. It
conducts electricity in a aqueous solution and dissolves in water but do not dissolve
organic solvents. This bond usually occurs on metal to non-metal elements.
 lonic bonding can result from a redox reaction when atoms of an element give some of
their electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. In doing so, cations are
formed. The atom of another element then accepts the electron(s), again to attain a
stable electron configuration, and after accepting electron(s) the atom becomes an
anion.

One example is NaCl or also called as table salt. When sodium (Na) and chlorine
(CI) are combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations (Na+), and the
Chlorine atoms each gain an electron to form anions (CI. These ions are then attracted to each
other in a 1:1 ratio to form sodium Chloride (NaCl). The chemical formula for Na Cl is:

Na +Cl → Na+ +Cl-→ NaCl

Using the Lewis Dot Symbol, we can write it as:

 However, to maintain charge neutrality, striet ratios between anions and cations are
observed so that ionic compounds, in general, obey the rules of stoichiometry despite
not being molecular compounds. For compounds that are transitional to the alloys and
possess mixed ionic and metallic bonding, this may not be the case anymore. Many
sulfides, e.g., do form non-stoichiometric compounds.
 lonic compounds in the solid state form lattice structures. The two principal factors in
determining the form of the lattice are the relative charges of the ions and their relative
sizes. Some structures are adopted by a number of compounds; for example, the
structure of the rock salt sodium chloride is also adopted by many alkali halides, and
binary oxides such as MgO.

Covalent Bonds

 Atoms can combine to achieve an octet of valence electrons by sharing electrons.

Covalent bond or also called as molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the
sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared
pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between
atoms. Covalent bonding formation occurs when the electrons are shared with another
element or molecule. For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to
attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic
configuration. Covalent bonds usually occur on non-metal to non-metal elements.
 Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. They have lower enthalpies of
fusion and vaporization. It also has poor electrical and thermal conductivity and they are
soft or brittle solid form.
 There are several types of chemical formulas that you can use to represent covalent
bonds. These formulas are used because in covalent bonds they combine in many
ways, and many different possible covalent compounds may result to unlike ionic
 compounds that are easily to predict the formula based on the loss and gain of
electrons.

Empirical formula: Just the elements

 The empirical formula indicates the different types of elements in a molecule and the
lowest whole-number ratio of each kind of atom in the molecule. For example, suppose
that you have a compound with the empirical formula:

C2H6O

 Three different kinds of atoms are in the compound, C, H, and O, and they're in the
lowest whole-number ratio of 2 C to 6 H to 1 O. So the actual formula (called the
molecular formula or true formula) may be any of the following, or another multiple of
2:6:1.

C2H6O C4H12O2 C6H18O3 C8H24O4

Molecular or true formula: Inside the numbers

 The molecular formula, or true formula, tells you the kinds of atoms in the compound and
the actual number of each atom.
 You may determine, for example, that the following empirical formula is actually the
molecular formula, too, meaning that there are actually two carbon atoms, six hydrogen
atoms, and one oxygen atom in the compound:

C2H6O
 For ionic compounds, this formula is enough to fully identify the compound, but its not
enough to identify covalent compounds. To write a formula that stands for the exact
compound you have in mind, you often must write the structural formula instead of the
molecular formula.

Structural formula: Add the bonding pattern

 The structural formula shows the elements in the compound, the exact number of each
atom in the compound, and the bonding pattern for the compound. The electron-dot
formula and Lewis formula are examples of structural formulas.

 Lewis structure is a representation of covalent bonding in which shared electron pairs

are shown either as lines or as pairs of dots between two atoms and lone pairs are
shown as pairs of dots in a Lewis structure.
Lewis Structure of water

Let us consider the Lewis structure of the water molecule. Lewis dot symbol for oxygen is two
unpaired dots or two unpaired electrons, as we expect that O might form two covalent bonds.
Because hydrogen has only one electron, it can forn only one covalent bond. In this case, the O
atom has two lone pairs. The hydrogen atom has no lone pairs because its only electron is used
to form a covalent bond.

When molecules have this structure, it shows or illustrates the octet rule defined as: an atom
other than hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by eight valence electrons. Base
from the octet rule. covalent bonds occurs when there are not enough electrons in each atom to
complete the rule.

Covalent bond is considered one of the "strong bonds". Atoms can form different types of
covalent bonds. In a single bond, two atoms are held together by one electron pair.

Examples are H2 and Cl2:

H-H CI-CI
Lewis structure of H, and Cl, showing single bond

The Carbon Atom

 Carbon is the only element that can form so many different compounds because each
carbon atom can form four chemical bonds to other atoms, and because the carbon
atom is just the right, small size to fit in comfortably as parts of very large molecules.
 Having the atomic number 6, every carbon atom has a total of six electrons. Two are in a
completed inner orbit, while the other four are valence electrons outer electrons that are
available for forming bonds with other atoms.

 The carbon atoms four valence electrons can be shared by other atoms that have
electrons to share, thus forming covalent (shared-electron) bonds. They can even be
shared by other carbon atoms, which in turn can share electrons with other carbon
atoms and so on, forming long strings of carbon atoms, bonded to each other like links in
a chain. Silicon (Si), another element in group 14 of the periodic table, also has four
valence electrons and cal. make large molecules called silicones, but its atoms are too
large to fit together into as great a variety of molecules as carbon atoms can.
  Carbon's ability to form long carbon-to-carbon chains is the first of five reasons that there
can be so many different carbon compounds; a molecule that differs by even one atom
is, of course, a molecule of a different compound.

 The second reason for carbon's astounding compound-forming ability is that carbon
atoms can bind to each other not only in straight chains, but in complex branching, like
the branches of a tree. They can even join head-to-tail" to make rings of carbon atoms.
There is practically no limit to the number or complexity of the branches or the number of
rings that can be attached to them, and hence no limit to the number of different
molecules that can be formed.

Polymers

 Polymers are substances whose molecules have high molar masses and are composed
of a large number of repeating units. There are both naturally occurring and synthetic
polymers. Among naturally occurring polymers are proteins, starches, cellulose, and
latex Synthetic polymers are produced commercially on a very large scale and have a
Wide range of properties and uses. The materials commonly called plastics are all
synthetic polymers.
 Polymers are formed by chemical reactions in which a large number of molecules called
monomers are joined sequentially, forming a chain. In many polymers, only one
monomer is used. In others, two or three different monomers may be combined.
Polymers are classified by the characteristics of the reactions by which they are formed.
If all atoms in the monomers are incorporated into the polymer, the polymer is called an
addition polymer. If some of the atoms of the monomers are released into small
molecules, such as water, the polymer is called a condensation polymer. Most addition
polymers are made from monomers containing a double bond between carbon atoms.
Such monomers are called olefins, and most commercial addition polymers are
polyolefins. Condensation polymers are made from monomers that have two different
groups of atoms which can join together to form, for example. ester or amide links.
Polyesters are an important class of commercial polymers. as are polyamides (nylon).

An important industrial application of organic reaction is polymerization. Polymers are large

molecules consisting of simple repeating units called monomers. The polymerization reaction
involves the joining together of monomers thereby forming large molecules.

Polymers can be natural or synthetic. Its description is given below.

1. Naturally polymers- polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids

2. Synthetic-man made polymers and can be classified as
 Fibers- threadlike
 Plastics- molded objects
 Elastomers- rubber-like

Characteristics of Polymers
The majority of manufactured polymers are thermoplastic, meaning that once the polymer is
formed it can be heated and reformed over and over again. This property allows for easy
processing and facilitates recycling. The other group, the thermosets, cannot be remelted. Once
these polymers are formed, reheating will cause the material to ultimately degrade. but not melt.

Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the following general
attributes.

1. Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Consider all the cleaning fluids in you home
that are packaged in plastic. Reading the warning labels that describe what happens when the
chemical Comes in contact with skin or eyes or is ingested will emphasize the need for chemical
resistance in the plastic packaging. While solvents easily dissolve some plastics, other plastics
provide safe, non-breakable packages for aggressive solvents.

2. Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. A walk through your house will
reinforce this concept, as you consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets and wiring
that are made or covered with polymeric materials. Thermal resistance is evident in the kitchen
with pot and pan handles made of polymers. The coffee pot handles, the foam core of
refrigerators and freezers, insulated cups. coolers. and microwave cookware. The thermal
underwear that many skiers wear is made of polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is
acrylic and polyester.

3. Generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of strength.
Consider the range of applications, from toys to the frame structure of space stations, or from
delicate nylon fiber in pantyhose to Kevlar, which is used in bulletproof vests. Some polymers
float in water while others sink. But, compared to the density of stone, concrete, steel, copper,
or aluminum, all plastics are lightweight materials.

4. Polymers can be processed in various ways. Extrusion produces thin fibers or heavy
pipes or films or food bottles. Injection molding can produce very intricate parts or large car
body panels. Plastics can be molded into drums or be mixed with solvents to become adhesives
or paints. Elastomers and some plastics stretch and are very flexible. Some plastics are
stretched in processing to hold their shape, such as soft drink bottles. Other polymers can be
foamed like polystyrene (StyrofoamTM), polyurethane and polyethylene.

5. Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics andd colors.
Polymers have many inherent properties that can be further enhanced by a wide range of
additives to broaden their uses and applications. Polymers can be made to mimic cotton, silk,
and wool fibers; porcelain and marble; and aluminum and zinc. Polymers can also make
possible products that do not readily come from the natural world, such as clear sheets and
flexible films.

6. Polymers are usually made of petroleum, but not always. Many polymers are made of
repeat units derived from natural gas or coal or crude oil. But building block repeat units can
sometimes be made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics
from cotton linters. Some plastics have always been made from renewable materials such as
cellulose acetate used for screwdriver handles and gift ribbon. When the building blocks can be
made more economically from renewable materials than from fossil fuels, either old plastics find
new raw materials or new plastics are introduced.

7. Polymers can be used to make items that have no alternatives from other materials.
Polymers can be made into clear, waterproof films. PVC is used to make medical tubing and
blood bags that extend the shelf life of blood and blood products. PVC safely delivers flammable
oxygen in non-burning flexible tubing. And anti-thrombogenic material, such as heparin, can be
incorporated into flexible PVC catheters for open heart surgery, dialysis, and blood collection.
Many medical devices rely on polymers to permit effective functioning.

Common Examples of Polymers

 Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, Wool, silk and natural rubber have
been used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose,
which is the main constituent of wood and paper.
 The synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, phenol formaldehyde resin (or
Bakelite), neoprene, nylon, polyvinyl chloride (PVC or vinyl), polystyrene, polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more.
 Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer used for the preparation
of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms

Biomolecules

 A biomolecule or biological molecule is any molecule that is present in living organisms,

including large macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic
acids, as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites,
and natural products. A more general name for this class of material is biological
materials. Biomolecules are usually endogenous but may also be exogenous
 For example, pharmaceutical drugs may be natural products or semisynthetic
(biopharmaceuticals) or they may be totally synthetic.

Proteins

 Proteins are polymers of amino acids; they play a key role in nearly all biological
processes. Enzymes, the catalysts of biochemical reactions, mostly proteins. Proteins
also facilitate a wide range of other functions, such as transport and storage of vital
substances, coordinated motion, mechanical support, and protection against diseases.
The human body contains an estimated 100,000 different kinds of proteins, each of
which has a specific physiological function.
 Proteins are polymers specifically polypeptides formed from sequences of monomer
amino acids. By convention, a chain under 40 amino acids is often identified as a
peptide, rather than a protein. lo be able to perform their biological function, proteins fold
into one or more specific spatial conformations driven by a number of non-covalent
interactions such as hydrogen bondin8, 10nic interactions, Van der Waals forces, and
hydrophobic packing.
  To understand the functions of proteins at a molecular level, it is often necessary to
determine their three-dimensional structure. This is the topic of the scientific field of
structural biology, which employs techniques such as X-ray crystallography, NMR
spectroscopy, and dual polarization interferometry to determine the structure of proteins.
 Protein structures range in Size from tens to several thousand amino acids. By physical
size, proteins are classified as nanoparticles, 1-100 nm. Very large aggregates can be
formed from protein subunits. For example, many thousands of actin molecules
assemble into a microfilament.
 A protein may undergo reversible structural Changes 1n performing its biological
function. The alternative structures of the same protein are referred to as different
conformations, and transitions between them are called conformational changes.

Amino acid

 Any of a group of organic molecules that consist of a basic amino group (-NH2), an
acidic carboxyl group (-COOH), and an organic R group (or side chain) that is unique to
each amino acid. The term amino acid is short for "a-amino [alpha-amino] carboxylic
acid."
 Each molecule contains a central carbon (C) atom, termed the a-carbon, to which both
an amino and a carboxyl group are attached. The remaining two bonds of the d-carbon
atom are generally satisfied by a hydrogen (H) atom and the R group. The amino acids
differ from each other in the particular chemical structure of their R group.

Nucleic Acids

 Nucleic acids are high molar mass polymers that play an essential role in protein
synthesis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two types of
nucleic acid. DNA molecules are among the largest molecules known; they have molar
masses of up to tens of billions of grams. On the other hand, RNA molecules vary
greatly
 In size, some is having a molar mass of about 25,000g. Compared with proteins, which
are made of up to 20 different 20 amino acids, nucleic acids are fairly simple in
composition. A DNA or RNA molecule contains only four types of building blocks:
purines, pyrimidines, furanose sugars, and phosphate groups. Each purine and
pyrimidine is called a base.

Lipids

Lipids (oleaginous) are chiefly fatty acid esters, and are the basic building blocks of biological
membranes. Another biological role is energy storage (e.g. triglycerides). Most lipids consist of a
polar or hydrophilic head (typically glycerol) and one to three nonpolar or hydrophobic fatty acid
tails, and therefore they are amphiphilic. Fatty acids consist of unbranched chains of carbon
atoms that are connected by single bonds alone (saturated fatty acids) or by both single and
double bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). The chains are usually 14-24 carbon groups long, but it
is always an even number.
For lipids present in biological membranes, the hydrophilic head is from one of three classes:

 Glycolipids, whose heads contain an oligosaccharide with 1-15 saccharide residues.

 Phospholipids, whose heads contain a positively charged group that is linked to the tail
by a negatively charged phosphate group.
 Sterols, whose heads contain a planar steroid ring, for example, cholesterol.
Other lipids include prostaglandins and leukotrienes which are both 20-carbon fatty acyl units
synthesized from arachidonic acid. They are also known as fatty acids.

Carbohydrates

 Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and
milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates one of the basic
food groups are important to a healthy Life.
 Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are molecular compounds made from just three
Cicents: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Monosaccharaides (e.g. glucose) and
disaccharides (e.g. sucrose) are relatively small molecules. They are often called
sugars. Other Carbohydrate molecules are very large (polysaccharides such as starch
and cellulose).
 Carbohydrates may be simple or complex. The simple carbohydrates are also known as
simple sugars. The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides. Some examples are
glucose (also called blood sugar. grape sugar, and dextrose), fructose (known as fruit
sugar and levulose). The names in parenthesis are their names and suggest where they
are found of their optical properties. Glucose. ructose and galactose are all hexoses,
meaning they have six carbon atoms in their molecules. They all have the same
molecular formula, C6H12O6. Other simple sugars may contain only three C atoms
(triose), four C atoms (tetrose), and five C atoms (pentose).
 These groupings (in parenthesis) are based on the number of C atoms present. Simple
sugars can exist in cyclic or ring form of glucose, the OH group of C-1 may be oriented
below the plane or above the plane. This orientation is important in determining the kind
of polysaccharide that forms.
 Carbohydrates are characterized by the presence of several alcohol or hydroxyl groups
(-OH) and carbonyl group (-C=O). They can be grouped into aldoses and ketoses.
Aldoses are characterized by the presence of aldehyde group while ketoses are
identified by the presence of ketone group. Glucose (an aldose) and fructose (a ketose)
differ in the position of the carbonyl group in the two molecules. This accounts for their
difference in properties. Fructose has less physiological effects on the body when
compared to glucose.

Note: You can write your answers in yellow pad or bond paper
Deadline is on May 12 11:59pm
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Activity 1: Chemical Nomenclature
Instructions: Give the name or formula of the following ionic compounds:

1. PbO __________________

2. Li3PO4 __________________

3. TiL4 __________________

4. N2O4 __________________

5. Mg3P2 __________________

6. Sodium phosphide __________________

7. Calcium oxide __________________

8. Silver bromide __________________

9. Aluminum sulfide __________________

10. FeCl3 __________________

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Deadline is on May 15 11:59pm
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Activity 2: Balancing Equation

1. Zn + AgCl → ZnCl2 + Ag

2. N2 + H2 → NH3

3. NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O

4. KNO3 → KNO2 + O2

5. K + H2O → KOH + H2

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Deadline is on May 20 11:59pm
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Activity 3: Electron Configuration
Show by orbital diagram the electron configuration of the following atoms:
1. Cl

2. O

3. Ne

4. K

5. Ag

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Deadline is on May 25 11:59pm
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Activity 4: Ionic Compounds
Complete the table with information needed.

1. Potassium and bromine

Ion name Ion Symbol Anion/Cation How many? Chemical

Formula

2. potassium and oxygen

Ion name Ion Symbol Anion/Cation How many? Chemical

Formula

3. magnesium and bromine

Ion name Ion Symbol Anion/Cation How many? Chemical

Formula

Note: You can write your answers in yellow pad or bond paper
Deadline is on May 28 11:59pm
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Activity 5: Carbohydrates
1. Give some importance of carbohydrates in our daily life. Cite some examples

2. Name the 4 different types of Organic molecules

3. List the 3 elements that make up carbohydrates.