Rice Quality - How Is It Defined by Consumers, Industry, Food Scientists, And...

Trends in Food Science & Technology 92 (2019) 122–137
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Trends in Food Science & Technology

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Review
Rice quality: How is it defined by consumers, industry, food scientists, and T

geneticists?
Marie Claire Custodio∗, Rosa Paula Cuevas, Jhoanne Ynion, Alice G. Laborte,
Maria Lourdes Velasco, Matty Demont
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: Background: Quality is a powerful engine in rice value chain upgrading. However, there is no consensus on how
Value chain upgrading “rice quality” should be defined and measured in the rice sector.
Intrinsic attributes Scope and approach: We adopt a Lancasterian definition of rice quality as a bundle of intrinsic and extrinsic
Perception attributes. We then review how rice quality is (i) perceived and defined by consumers and industry stakeholders
Sensory evaluation
in rice value chains in Southeast and South Asia; (ii) measured and defined by food technologists; and (iii)
Gene × environment
predicted through genetics.
Key findings and conclusions: Consumers are heterogeneous with respect to their perceived differentiation of rice
quality among regions, countries, cities, and urbanization levels. Premium quality is defined by nutritional
benefits, softness and aroma in Southeast Asia, and by the physical appearance of the grains (uniformity,
whiteness, slenderness), satiety, and aroma in South Asia. These trends are found to be consistent with industry
perceptions and have important implications for regional and national breeding programs in terms of tailoring
germplasm to regions and rice varieties to specific local market segments. Because rice is traded internationally,
there is a need to standardize definitions of rice quality. However, food technologists have not reached unani-
mity on quality classes and measurement; routine indicators need to be complemented by descriptive profiles
elicited through sensory evaluation panels. Finally, because rice quality is controlled by multiple interacting
genes expressed through environmental conditions, predicting grain quality requires associating genetic in-
formation with grain quality phenotypes in different environments.
1. Introduction “rice quality” is required. Understanding how the market and the in-
dustry perceive rice and differentiate it into quality classes could con-
Quality is a powerful engine in food value chain (VC) upgrading in tribute to more efficient, demand-driven, and sustainable rice VCs
developing countries. However, the concept is abstract; for example, in (Demont, Fiamohe, & Kinkpé, 2017; Demont & Ndour, 2015; My,
the rice sector, there is currently no uniformly applicable definition of Demont, Van Loo, de Guia, et al., 2018).
“rice quality” and there is even less unanimity on how it should be Rice, as a product, is a bundle of characteristics which gives rise to
measured. Agronomic traits are measured by their ability to increase its utility. Through these characteristics, consumer preferences are ex-
yields and/or alleviate certain biotic or abiotic stresses of crops; in pressed (Lancaster, 1966). Perception of rice quality may also be judged
contrast, measuring quality attributes is not as straightforward because based on these characteristics or attributes, which could be classified as
“rice quality” is relative and context-specific (Fitzgerald, McCouch & either intrinsic or extrinsic (Demont & Ndour, 2015). The former refers to
Hall, 2009). For example, what is considered “low quality” for rural grain quality traits such as color, cleanliness, purity, grain shape and
consumers in India may be perceived as “premium quality” by urban size, uniformity of size and shape, head rice (HR), softness, and aroma
consumers in Senegal (Demont, Rutsaert, Ndour, & Verbeke, 2013). while extrinsic attributes include packaging, labeling, and branding.
Rice quality remains in the eye (and in the mouth) of the beholder—the These attributes acquire meaning through the historical, geographical,
consumer—and since rice consumption is embedded in a historical, and socio-cultural context in which rice consumption is embedded. For
geographical, and socio-cultural context (Cuevas, de Guia, & Demont, instance, rice which can be cooked firm and dry is widely preferred by
2017; Kaosa-ard & Juliano, 1992), a universal, intercultural construct of South Asian consumers because the combination of these two attributes
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.C. Custodio).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.039
Received 27 September 2017; Received in revised form 12 July 2019; Accepted 17 July 2019
Available online 25 July 2019
0924-2244/ © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).
M.C. Custodio, et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 92 (2019) 122–137
characterizes parboiled rice, which is traditionally consumed in the define them. A single attribute can be perceived as being representative
region (International Rice Research Institute, 2016). Another example for all three quality classes. The second general observation is that al-
is the preference for broken rice by Senegalese consumers as a result of though perceived quality differentiation is heterogeneous among re-
long-term importation of cheap broken rice from Asia (Demont et al., gions (Fig. 1), countries (Fig. 2), cities (Fig. 3), and urbanization levels
2013). (Fig. 4), it is remarkably homogeneous among socio-economic classes
In this article, we aim to provide an inter-disciplinary review of how (SECs) within a country (Fig. 5).
rice quality is (i) perceived and defined by consumers and the industry Fig. 1 juxtaposes urban consumers' quality perception in SEA versus
in Asia; (ii) measured and defined in the realm of food science and SA. In SEA, premium-quality rice is perceived to feature nutritional
technology; and (iii) predicted through genetics. We conducted an ex- benefits (i.e., contains vitamins and minerals), softness (i.e., soft and
pert-based literature review by inviting key experts to review the lit- shiny, and soft when chewed), and aroma. Although perceived as pre-
erature on rice quality within their disciplines; i.e., (i) consumer re- mium, nutritional benefit is not necessarily a highly preferred attribute
search, (ii) value chain analysis, (iii) food science, and (iv) genetics. by consumers in the region (Custodio et al., 2016b). Since consumers
Each of the experts relied on their personal expertise, their networks of normally eat rice as white polished grains wherein vitamin and mineral
partners, and their knowledge of the state-of-the-art literature within content is either minimal or absent (Fitzgerald, Bergman, et al., 2009;
their disciplines related to the topic of rice quality. Both peer-reviewed IRRI, 2016), the perceived “premium-ness” of nutritional benefit does
literature and IRRI's internal country reports were reviewed and an not seem to translate to preference and consumption. One possible
emphasis was given to the more recent literature. The experts regularly explanation may be limited physical and economic access to healthier
reviewed the sections within the manuscript outside their disciplinary rice or that characteristics of available healthier options do not match
area to ensure that similar quality traits were discussed along the four their preferences. Unlike the nutritional benefit of rice, softness and
disciplinary areas to obtain a complete inter-disciplinary Lancasterian aroma are preferred characteristics of consumers in SEA (Custodio
overview of rice quality as a bundle of intrinsic and extrinsic attributes. et al., 2016b; Wangcharoen, Phanchaisri, Daengpok, Phuttawong,
We conclude with a concrete set of recommendations for VC upgrading Hangsoongnern, & Phanchaisri, 2016). The perceived characteristics of
to rice breeders, food technologists, geneticists, industry stakeholders, good-quality rice are uniformity of size and shape, whiteness, long and
and policy makers. thin uncooked grains (i.e., long and slender), and round and fat cooked
grains (i.e., bold cooked grains). The latter suggests that consumers in
2. Rice quality as perceived by consumers and the industry in Asia SEA, in general, prefer rice that exhibit volume expansion rather than
enhanced grain elongation. Good-quality rice is likewise perceived to
To obtain a thorough understanding of how rice quality is perceived provide higher satiety (i.e., makes you feel full quickly). Poor-quality
and differentiated throughout rice VCs in Asia, we review evidence rice is perceived to feature impurities, firm and dry texture, rough
from multi-country consumer surveys and key informant interviews texture, poor cooking quality, and small broken grains. In SA, perceived
with industry stakeholders conducted in selected countries in Southeast quality differentiation by urban consumers is similar to consumers in
Asia (SEA) and South Asia (SA) in 2013–2014 (Custodio, Demont, SEA except for a few attributes. First, what is considered “good-quality”
Laborte, Diaz, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Ynion, et al., rice by most consumers in SEA (i.e., uniformity of grain size and shape,
2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, & Ynion, 2016; Custodio, Paguirigan, whiteness, slenderness of uncooked rice grains, and higher satiety) is
Laborte, Ynion, & Demont, 2015; Diaz, Laborte, Custodio, Velasco, & dominantly perceived as “premium rice” by consumers in SA. On the
Paguirigan, 2014; Velasco, Custodio, Laborte, & Suphanchaimat, 2015; other hand, although bold cooked grains are associated with good-
Velasco, Laborte, Bona, & Garcia, 2016) The consumer surveys covered quality rice in SEA, in SA they are associated dominantly with poor-
24 cities across eight locations (Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, quality rice. These findings agree with SA consumers’ general pre-
Vietnam, Cambodia, Eastern and Southern India, and Bangladesh), and ference for slender grains (Custodio et al., 2016b); a shift from pre-
13 rural districts in Eastern India and in Bangladesh. The surveys were ference for medium-shaped grains in the 1980s (Juliano & Villareal,
complemented with focus group discussions (FGDs) with farmers and 1993, pp. 12–34). Secondly, while the majority of consumers inter-
with key informant interviews with industry stakeholders (i.e. traders, viewed in SA consider firm and dry texture a characteristic of either
millers/processors, exporters, wholesalers, and retailers) operating premium- or good-quality rice, most consumers in SEA consider this as
along the rice VCs serving the urban markets in six out of the eight an indicator for poor quality. One possible explanation for this is that
locations (see supplement S2 for sample size). consumers in SA probably acquired the preference for firm and dry
cooked rice grains, such as those with high AC (Graham, 2002), which
2.1. Intrinsic quality attributes is a typical quality attribute generated by parboiling of rice, a tradi-
tional practice in SA (Custodio et al., 2016a; 2016b; 2016c). In both
2.1.1. Quality perception of consumers in Asia regions, the presence of small broken grains is perceived by consumers
Rice quality is context-specific and consumers are heterogeneous as a characteristic of poor-quality rice. In the 1980s, Asian consumers
with respect to how they perceive and differentiate quality. Custodio, tended to focus on HR (i.e., ratio of whole grains to broken grains) as an
Demont, Laborte, and Ynion (2016) and Calingacion, Laborte, Nelson, important quality characteristic (Damardjati & Oka, 1992; Sriswasdilek,
Resurreccion et al. (2014), for example, illustrate how consumer pre- Kongseree, & Attaviriyasook, 1992). Even until the 2000s, in some
ferences for grain quality attributes are geographically segmented developing countries, HR was a major determinant of quality grades in
across SEA and SA. In response to consumer heterogeneity, the rice urban markets (Rachmat, Thahir, & Gummert, 2006). However, due to
industry tends to supply a wide range of quality classes, from poor- to progressive upgrading of milling technology and post-milling opera-
good- to high-quality rice, tailored to different market segments. Con- tions in Asia (Barker, Herdt, & Rose, 1985, pp. 172–184), high HR has
sumers’ perceptions of rice quality classes were surveyed across SEA become a minimum quality standard and attention has now shifted to
and SA; the results are visualized in Figs. 1–5. Consumers were asked to grain homogeneity (uniform grain size and shape) as a criterion for
classify a set of pre-defined grain quality attributes among three dif- premium- or good-quality rice.
ferent quality classes; the bar diagrams represent the proportions of When we zoom in at country level, more differences in perceptions
consumers who classified the attributes as being representative for appear (Fig. 2). In Thailand, a lead exporter in the region, quality
“poor”, “good”, or “premium” rice quality. The first general observation perceptions of urban consumers largely reflect the regional average for
that can be made is that consumers do not unanimously perceive these SEA (Fig. 1). A noticeable difference, though, is that Thai consumers
quality classes as being distinct from one another; i.e., there is sub- perceive rice with firm and dry texture as a characteristic of good
stantial overlap between classes with respect to the attributes that quality, whereas this characteristic is mostly attributed to poor-quality
123
Fig. 1. Perception of premium-, good-, and poor-quality rice of urban consumers based on surveys in 24 cities in selected Southeast and South Asian countries in
2013–2014. The perception was based on a single-answer question with 15 pre-defined statements. For each statement, respondents were asked which of the three
quality levels they associate it with. Sample sizes and locations: Refer to S1 and S2. Sources: Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Diaz, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte,
Ynion, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, & Ynion, 2016; Custodio, Paguirigan, Laborte, Ynion, & Demont, 2015; Velasco, Custodio, Laborte, & Suphanchaimat,
2015.
rice in other SEA countries (except in the Philippines). This finding calls made it possible for parboiled rice to be more white/less yellow
for further investigation because previous studies (e.g., Calingacion (Custodio et al., 2016a; 2016b) which could have made white rice
et al., 2014) indicate general preference of Thai consumers for sticky available to consumers, even in parboiled form. Additionally, whiteness
texture (0–2% amylose content, AC) to quite soft and sticky (low AC; is a preferred rice characteristic of urban consumers in these locations
10–19%) in the Northern and Northeastern regions and for firmer and (Custodio et al., 2016b). The perception of poor-quality rice seems to be
less sticky texture (intermediate AC; 20–25%) in the Central Plains (AC similar among consumers across the eight locations surveyed: small and
ranges from Kumar & Khush, 1986; descriptions from Tuaño, Regalado, broken grains, rough texture, long cooking time, and too much water
& Juliano, 2016). Another interesting finding in Thailand is the per- requirement for cooking.
ception of long and slender grains and whiteness as characteristics of Even within a country, quality perception is far from homogenous
good-quality rice. Although historically, these are preferred character- and can vary from city to city. We illustrate this through the case of
istics of rice (Unnevehr, 1986; Juliano & Villareal, 1993, pp. 12–34; Eastern India (Fig. 3). Urban consumers in some cities seem to be less
Calingacion et al., 2014; Custodio et al., 2016b), another recent study demanding than consumers in other cities. For example, many of the
found that Thai consumers consider aroma, taste, and texture more attributes that are associated with premium- and good-quality rice in
important than color (e.g., whiteness) and appearance (e.g., size and Kolkata are mainly considered premium attributes in Patna. Secondly,
shape) (Wangcharoen et al., 2016). Thai consumers may have now although presence of small and broken grains, high water requirement
considered color and appearance as minimum requirements and hence for cooking, and long cooking time are perceived by consumers in most
are no longer considered as characteristics exclusively of premium- cities as characteristics of poor-quality rice, in Bhubaneswar these are
quality rice. In SEA, the perception of premium-quality rice of Thai mostly perceived as characteristics of either premium- or good-quality
consumers is prominently reflected in the Philippines and in Indonesia rice. Finally, although minimal impurities is a minimum requirement in
and to a lesser extent in Vietnam and in Cambodia (Fig. 2). This finding most cities, it is still considered a criterion for premium quality in Patna
suggests that Thailand's exports may have also influenced rice quality and Dhanbad. Heterogeneity in rice quality perception is also evident
perception of importing countries, similarly with their influence on between urban and rural consumers, illustrated through the case of
preferences (Custodio et al., 2016b). Similar to Thai consumers, con- Dhaka, Bangladesh (Fig. 4). Firm and dry texture and higher satiety, for
sumers in Vietnam and in Cambodia discriminate nutritional benefit example, are perceived more positively (premium or good quality) by
and aroma of rice as characteristics of premium-quality rice. We ob- rural consumers than by urban consumers. One of the reasons why rural
served that quality perception of consumers in these two countries is populations tend to prefer parboiled rice is its higher satiating power,
similar in the same manner that rice preferences are shared (Custodio which helps rural workers maintain their energy levels for agricultural
et al., 2016b). In Eastern and Southern India, the perceived attributes of work. Remarkably, perceived quality differentiation is fairly similar
premium-quality rice pertain to nutritional benefit, to uniformity of size across SECs, illustrated through the case of urban consumers in Vietnam
and shape, and to aroma. The majority of consumers surveyed in (Fig. 5). The fact that this is similar in all countries (Custodio,
Eastern and Southern India perceive whiteness as a characteristic of Paguirigan, Laborte, Ynion, & Demont, 2015; Custodio et al., 2016a;
premium-quality rice. This may seem contradictory because parboiled 2016b; 2016c; Velasco et al., 2015) suggests that even the less affluent
rice is widely consumed in SA and the process of parboiling tradition- consumers seem to have a well-defined perception of the different
ally makes rice yellowish. However, modern processing technology has quality classes even if low-income consumers, particularly in rural
124
Fig. 2. Perception of premium-, good-, and poor-quality rice of urban consumers by country based on surveys in 24 cities in selected Southeast and South Asian
countries in 2013–2014. The perception was based on a single-answer question with 15 pre-defined statements. For each statement, respondents were asked which of
the three quality levels they associate it with. Sample sizes and locations: Refer to S1 and S2. Sources: Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Diaz, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont,
Laborte, Ynion, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, & Ynion, 2016; Custodio, Paguirigan, Laborte, Ynion, & Demont, 2015; Velasco, Custodio, Laborte, &
Suphanchaimat, 2015.
areas, do not seem to have economic power to express their preferences perceptions towards aroma as a quality attribute. For instance, VC ac-
(Cuevas, Pede, McKinley, Velarde, & Demont, 2016). tors in Thailand and in Cambodia consider aroma as a characteristic of
good- and premium-quality rice but for VC actors in the Philippines,
2.1.2. Quality perception of rice farmers and industry stakeholders in Asia good-quality rice can be non-aromatic. Grain size and shape require-
To assess transmission of perceived quality differentiation along rice ments for good-quality rice also appear to differ across the countries
VCs in SEA and SA, we summarize some evidence from key informant surveyed. In Cambodia, rice with medium-sized grains is considered
interviews with VC actors and FGDs with farmers (Table 1; Custodio good quality while in Vietnam, the Philippines, and Thailand, good-
et al., 2016a; Custodio et al., 2016c; Diaz et al., 2014; Velasco et al., quality rice is long and slender. The acceptable level of broken grains
2015; Velasco et al., 2016). The first general observation that can be varies across the different countries: VC actors in Thailand seem to have
made is that farmers’ perceptions of quality classes are fairly consistent more stringent standards because the acceptable level of broken grains
with other VC actors. Hence, in the succeeding discussion, we refer to for good-quality rice is 5%; in contrast, VC actors in the Philippines and
VC actors to include farmers and other actors in the VC. Within each Vietnam accept up to 15% broken grains.
region, industry perceptions are fairly consistent with consumer per- Low-quality rice is similarly perceived by the VC actors in SEA as
ceptions. In SEA, premium-quality rice is characterized by soft texture, rice that hardens upon cooling and has low grain homogeneity. In
long and slender grains, whiteness, translucency, aroma, and high HR Vietnam and in the Philippines, yellowish grains were also deemed by
(i.e., minimal or no broken grains). Like consumers (Fig. 2), VC actors VC actors as low-quality rice. High volume expansion is perceived as
in Thailand and Vietnam perceive rice with nutritional benefits as characteristic of low-quality rice by VC actors in Vietnam. However,
premium quality. this characteristic is perceived by VC actors in Thailand and the
Good-quality rice is perceived to have soft texture—but not as soft Philippines as a property of premium-quality rice. VC actors in Thailand
as premium—and becomes hard when cooled and has a small amount seem to be aware of consumer preference, in all SECs, towards high
of broken grains. Similar with consumers, VC actors have different volume expansion, a feature of aged rice (Custodio et al., 2016b;
125
Fig. 3. Perception of premium-, good-, and poor-quality rice of urban consumers based on surveys in five cities in Eastern India in 2013–2014. The perception was
based on a single-answer question with 15 pre-defined statements. For each statement, respondents were asked which of the three quality levels they associate it with.
Sample sizes: Kolkata n = 201, Guwahati n = 150, Bhubaneswar n = 150, Patna n = 150, Dhanbad n = 152. Sources: Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Ynion, et al., 2016;
Custodio, Demont, Laborte, & Ynion, 2016; Custodio, Paguirigan, Laborte, Ynion, & Demont, 2015.
Velasco et al., 2015). In the Philippines, high volume expansion is perceived to have long slender or medium slender grains (i.e., fine or
preferred by consumers in the middle and in the lower SECs and is seen medium fine grains), white and polished—but not as much as pre-
as an economical way to feed the family (Custodio et al., 2016b). mium—and high HR (i.e., with 5% broken grains). VC actors in Eastern
Perhaps this is a reason why rice varieties with high volume expansion India appeared to be more demanding than those in Bangladesh. For
are considered as premium-grade rice. instance, VC actors in Eastern India consider aroma as a characteristic
Industry stakeholders interviewed in SA have fairly similar per- of good- and premium-quality rice; for VC actors in Bangladesh, how-
ceptions of premium-, good-, and poor-quality rice as consumers in the ever, as long as the rice has no unpleasant smell, it is considered of good
region. The perceived characteristics of premium-quality rice are non- quality. Low-quality rice, on the other hand, was associated with no
sticky texture, extra-long to long slender grains (i.e., very fine to fine aroma in Eastern India and with unpleasant smell in Bangladesh. Also,
grains), and fragrance (Table 1). Good-quality rice is generally VC actors in Eastern India deem that good-quality rice should be clean
Fig. 4. Perception of premium-, good-, and poor-quality rice of consumers in urban and rural districts of Dhaka, Bangladesh based on surveys in 2013–2014. Notes:
The perception was based on a single-answer question with 15 pre-defined statements. For each statement, respondents were asked which of the three quality levels
they associate it with. Sample sizes: Urban Dhaka n = 296, Rural Dhaka n = 296. Sources: Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Diaz, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, &
Ynion, 2016; Custodio, Paguirigan, Laborte, Ynion, & Demont, 2015.
126
Fig. 5. Perception of premium-, good-, and poor-quality rice of urban consumers by socio-economic classes (SECs) based on surveys in Vietnam in 2013. The
perception was based on a single-answer question with 15 pre-defined statements. For each statement, respondents were asked which of the three quality levels they
associate it with. SEC, as an indicator of a household's (HH) affluence level, is a spectrum wherein a household falls into one of the classes A,B, C, D; SEC A is the most
affluent and SEC D is on the other end of the spectrum. In Vietnam, the HH's monthly income is the basis of SEC. Sample sizes: SEC A n = 50, SEC B n = 110, SEC C
n = 107, SEC D n = 32. Locations: Refer to S1. Source: Custodio, Demont, Laborte, & Ynion, 2016
but VC actors in Bangladesh allow the presence of 5% impurities for surveyed (with the exception of Thailand), even where purchase of
good-quality rice. In both locations, low-quality rice is perceived to packaged rice is prominent (Table 2). The packaged rice bought by
have sticky texture and very soft texture, short and bold grains (i.e., consumers in Vietnam, in Cambodia, and in Bangladesh has informa-
coarse) and high amount of broken grains and impurities (i.e., black tion on the variety name, label, or origin but the details were not ela-
grains, stones, husks). borated in our survey. This information was not collected in the other
countries but we hypothesize that the same may be true, especially in
Thailand where branding seems to be well advanced (Velasco et al.,
2.2. Extrinsic quality cues
2015). In India, it was reported by Reardon et al. (2014) that mill in-
formation, type of rice, and, sometimes, trader information are typically
The definition and perception of rice quality can be further re-
featured on the rice package. In Vietnam, My et al. (2018) found that
inforced through extrinsic quality cues such as labeling, branding, and
urban consumers were willing to pay price premiums for rice that was
packaging. Extrinsic quality cues are powerful drivers for building
labeled and certified as being sustainably produced and even more so
value of a rice product, for reducing quality uncertainty, and for
when supplementary information on certification and traceability was
forming quality expectations (Demont et al., 2013; Demont & Ndour,
provided.
2015; My et al., 2018) through product information. Whether rice is
Consumers' awareness of different rice types through their labels
sold in loose or in packaged format, product information can be con-
likewise confirms that extrinsic quality cues are powerful drivers in
veyed in several ways such as in-store merchandise, communication
building value for the product (e.g., equity of a specific variety) and
with the retailers, and in packaging.
forming quality expectations (e.g., intrinsic attributes of a specific
Reardon, Chen, Minten & Adriano (2014) observed a shift in mar-
variety). In the context of branding, “equity” is related to the degree of
keting rice from loose to packaged rice in Asia. Loose means rice bought
brand name recognition, to perceived quality, and to mental and
in small portions and the seller packs accordingly (sealed or placed in
emotional associations. Rice is sold and marketed to consumers through
unsealed bag) while packaged means the bag is sealed or pre-packed.
different labels such as variety name, trade name or a generic term
Our findings support this transformation happening in some locations.
adopted by traders, a brand name which identifies its sellers (e.g.,
Among consumers surveyed in the different cities in Asia, we found that
company) to differentiate their product from that of competitors, and
the purchase of packaged rice is more prominent in Thailand, Cam-
rice type. We attempted to measure the saliency of these rice labels by
bodia, South India, and Bangladesh while rice is mostly purchased in
looking at the average proportion of consumers being aware of these
loose format in the Philippines, Vietnam, and Eastern India (Table 2).
classifications. In Eastern India, we classified the rice labels as trade/
Majority of consumers interviewed in the Philippines purchase rice
brand name, rice type, and variety name (Table 3). Variety names in-
from traditional channels particularly from neighborhood stores or
clude official release names, alternative names, and local variety
“sari-sari” stores where a variety of products are sold by piece or in
names. We classified Basmati separately to include brand/trade names
small portions. In Vietnam, there are more consumers who purchase
for Basmati and any Basmati variety. We observed that awareness is
rice from rice wholesalers-retailers (i.e., sellers who specialize in selling
more diverse among urban consumers in Patna and Dhanbad. Brand/
rice either in wholesale or retail) who they can request to “custom-
trade names are salient among urban consumers in Guwahati. Both
pack” small portions and even to mix different kinds of rice.
brand/trade names and variety names are salient among consumers in
Our observations on packaging and information on the package
Bhubaneswar.
confirm the role of extrinsic quality cues in building value for the pro-
The awareness of the trade name “Barpetiya” is an example of
duct. Rice is mostly bought in traditional channels in the countries
127
Table 1
Perception on premium-, good-, and low-quality rice of value chain actors in selected locations in South and Southeast Asia in 2013–2014.
Location Attribute Premium quality Good/Medium quality Low quality
d
Thailand Texture Soft ; Slightly sticky (in the Northeast region) Soft; Becomes hard when cooled; Slightly sticky Becomes hard when cooled
Size and shape Longd Longd Shortd
Color White; Translucent; Not chalky White; Translucent but less than premium; Not Chalkyd
chalkyd
Aroma With fragranced With fragrance No fragrance
Purity No impuritiesa
Homogeneity High HR; Uniform size, shape, color With variations in size & shape; With 5% Higher % of broken grains; With variations in
broken grains and color variation size, shape, color
Others Shiny; Good cooking quality; High nutritional High volume expansion Poor cooking quality; Not tasty
valued; High volume expansion
Philippines Texture Softd Moderately soft after cooking but hard when Becomes hard when cooled
cooled
Size and shape Longd; Slender Longd;Slender
Color Whited Yellowish; Discoloredd;
Aroma With fragrance No fragrance With bad smelld
Purity
Homogeneity High HRd With 5–15% broken grains; High HRd With 25% broken grainsd
Others High volume expansion; Tastyd Not shiny
Vietnam Texture Softd; Stickyd Non-sticky; Becomes hard when cooledd;
Dryd
Size and shape Slender Long Shortd
Color White; Translucent Yellowish; Chalkyd
Aroma With fragranced
Purity With impuritiesa
Homogeneity High HR With 10–15% broken grains High % of broken grains; With variations in
size, shape and color
Others High nutritional valued; Tasty; Low volume Sweet; Medium volume expansion Not sweet; High volume expansiond
expansion
Cambodia Texture Soft; soft and sticky Soft but not as soft as premium; Soft and sticky; Becomes hard when cooled
Not too sticky
Size and shape Slender; Long Slender; Medium size
Color Translucent Less chalky grains Chalky
Aroma With fragrance With fragrance No fragrance
Purity No impuritiesa
Homogeneity High HR High HR; Uniform size, shape, color High % of broken grains
Others Shiny; Tasty Shiny; Tasty; Longevityb Not shiny; Not tasty
Eastern India Texture Softd; Non-stickyd Stickyd; Very soft
Size and shape Long; Slenderd; Very fine to finec,d Less slender than premium; Finec Shortd; boldd
Color White Discolored
Aroma With fragrance With fragrance; Less aromatic than premium No fragrance
Purity No impuritiesa No impuritiesa With impuritiesa
Homogeneity High HR; Uniform size, shape, colord High HR; With 5% broken grains, color High % of broken grains; With variations in
variation, admixture size, shape and colord
Others Shiny; Less cooking timed; Very tastyd; Easy to Polished but not very shiny; Tasty Long cooking time; Not tastyd
digest
Bangladesh Texture Non-sticky Non-sticky Sticky; Soft/becomes too soft if cooked rice is
soaked in water overnight
Size and shape Longd; Slender; Very fine to finec,d Fine to medium finec,d; Medium size Coarsec,d; Bold
Color White White but not as white as premium; white even Not very white
if parboiled
Aroma With fragranced No bad smell With bad smell
Purity With 5% impuritiesa,d With impuritiesa
Homogeneity With 5% broken grains Higher % of broken grains
Others Tastyd; Longevityb Tastyd; Longevityb Not tastyd
Notes: The data are based on key informant interviews with industry stakeholders and focus group discussions with farmers. Sample sizes and locations: Refer to S1 and
S2. Sources: Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Diaz, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Ynion, et al., 2016; Diaz, Laborte, Custodio, Velasco, & Paguirigan, 2014;
Velasco, Custodio, Laborte, & Suphanchaimat, 2015; Velasco, Laborte, Bona, & Garcia, 2016.
a
Impurities refer to black grains, stones, or husks.
b
Longevity refers to cooked rice which does not easily spoil.
c
There are different classifications of grains in South Asia. Very fine to fine grains refer to extra-long and long slender grains, medium fine grains refer to medium
slender grains, coarse grains refer to short bold grains.
d
Refer to attribute which was also mentioned by farmers in the FGDs.
quality expectation formed on the basis of geographic origin (i.e., pro- indicates that provenance of the product is becoming increasingly part
venance). “Barpetiya” is widely known to originate from Barpeta of consumer quality perception and hence, implies perception on its
District in Assam State and has high awareness among consumers in authenticity and sustainability.
Guwahati which is located in Assam State (Custodio et al., 2016c). It The popularity of Mahsuri variety in Bhubaneswar illustrates the
has two specific types: “Aijong” and “Joha” Barpetiya Aijong” is known role of labels in building product value. Mahsuri variety has high
to be non-aromatic, to have medium fine grains, and to be neither so awareness levels among consumers in Bhubaneswar (Custodio et al.,
sticky nor soft. “Barpetiya Joha” is known to be aromatic, to have short 2016c). However, the original Mahsuri variety, which was released in
grains, and to be somewhat sticky. Consumer awareness of Barpetiya the 1960s, is no longer grown by farmers but the variety name is still
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Table 2
Rice package format and purchase channels of urban consumers based on consumer surveys in 24 cities in selected Southeast and South Asian countries in 2013–2014
(% of respondents per location).
Southeast Asia South Asia
Thailand Philippines Indonesia Vietnam Cambodia East India South India Bangladesh
Package format
Loose rice only 34 82 49 84 45 80 18 32
Packaged rice only 62 18 44 16 53 17 70 62
Loose and packaged 5 0 7 0 2 3 12 6
Purchase channel
Traditional retailers only 57 93 98 98 100 98 96 98
Modern retailers only 37 5 2 1 0 2 3 2
Both traditional and modern 6 2 1 0 0 0 2 0
Notes: Descriptions of loose and packaged rice were read out to respondents as follows: “Loose rice means you can buy in small portions such as kilogram or even half
a kilo and the retailer packs accordingly. Packaged rice means the bag is sealed or pre-packed with or without name of variety or label or origin indicated in the bag”.
Traditional retailers refer to wet/fresh market or market stalls, neighborhood variety stores, grocery stores, mom & pop shops, and rice dealers. Modern retailers refer
to supermarkets, hypermarkets, and convenience stores or mini markets. Sample sizes and locations: Refer to S1 and S2. Sources: Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Diaz,
et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Ynion, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, & Ynion, 2016; Custodio, Paguirigan, Laborte, Ynion, & Demont, 2015;
Velasco, Custodio, Laborte, & Suphanchaimat, 2015
very popular. Traders may be labeling other varieties with similar grain “Barpetiya” in Assam State) and to reduce quality uncertainty (e.g., the
quality characteristics as Mahsuri, which suggests that Mahsuri has example of Mahsuri-labeled rice in Bhubaneswar and Dinorado-labeled
some level of equity among traders and consumers. This is also the case rice in the Philippines). Prominent rice brands in Thailand reinforce
for Dinorado rice, a type of rice preferred by consumers in the Phi- product value through differentiation and by ensuring quality stan-
lippines. dards. The presence of modern retailing in Thailand also reinforces
The case of branding and packaging in Thailand further reinforces the quality standards imposed on products. The trend in labeling rice to
role of extrinsic quality cues in building value, in reducing quality un- highlight its nutritional content/benefit (e.g., low glycemic index) to
certainty and in forming quality expectations. Across all the eight loca- consumers in SEA and SA is an area for future research to further the
tions, it is only in Thailand where modern retailing seems to be evident role of extrinsic quality cues in quality perception and more specifi-
(Table 2). Nearly half of urban consumers interviewed in Thailand cally, as a nutrition cue for consumers. Though seen in modern retail
purchase rice from modern channels such as supermarkets/hy- stores in more developed countries such as Thailand, labeling is still
permarkets. This was prominently observed in Greater Bangkok and unregulated in Asia unlike in the developed economies in Europe, the
among consumers in the upper socio-economic class (SEC AB; Velasco United States of America, and Australia which impose stringent mea-
et al., 2015). This finding supports the structural transformation in the surements and standards.
retail segment happening in Asia (Reardon et al., 2014) characterized
by increased penetration of supermarkets in more developed cities. 3. Rice quality as measured and defined by food technologists
Branding and packaging likewise seem to be more advanced in Thai-
land (Table 2). Urban Thai consumers usually purchase branded- Rice quality is context-specific and judgments are based on a hier-
packaged rice (e.g., Royal Umbrella, Mah Boon Krong/MBK, Ben- archy of values of consumers. However, despite the subjectivity of
jarong). Branded rice is perceived to be of better quality as modern “quality” as a social construct, several of the intrinsic attributes that
retailers consider these to have undergone standard quality checks and people use to judge the quality of rice have indicators that can be
better milling and packaging processes (Velasco et al., 2015). quantitatively measured. From a food technology standpoint, rice grain
In summary, rice quality is reinforced through the different extrinsic quality is defined by the different combinations of these quantitative
quality cues. Trade names, including variety names used as generic indicators. Generally, these metrics can be classified as addressing raw-
terms, are used to form quality expectations (e.g., the case of grain quality (inclusive of appearance and milling quality), cooking and
Table 3
Average proportion of consumers’ awareness of rice brands, types and varieties in selected cities and rural districts in Eastern India based on surveys conducted in
2013–2014 (% of respondents per city).
Cities Rural districts
Rice label Kolkata Guwahati Bhubaneswar Patna Dhanbad Rural West Bengal Rural Odisha
Brand/trade name 31 45 43 25 31 30 33
Basmati 25 13 12 24 21 19 14
Rice type 16 14 3 27 25 6 2
Variety name 25 27 42 21 23 44 51
Others 1 1 0 3 1 1 0
None/Don't know 3 1 0 0 0 0 0
Notes: Per respondent, we first list all brand, type and variety responses and then calculate the proportion of each category among all responses. Trade names are
generic terms adopted by traders for particular rice. Brand names identify the sellers (e.g. company) to differentiate their product from competitors. For simplicity,
we treated brand and trade name under one classification. Rice types refer to parboiled rice, raw or non-parboiled rice, and “arwa” (slightly polished non-parboiled
rice). We classified Basmati separately to include brand/trade names for Basmati and any Basmati variety. Variety names include official release names, alternative
names and local variety names. For each respondent, the percent awareness of each of the rice classification was computed to determine the average proportion.
Sample sizes: Refer to S2. Sources: Custodio, Demont, Laborte, Ynion, et al., 2016; Custodio, Demont, Laborte, & Ynion, 2016; Custodio, Paguirigan, Laborte, Ynion, &
Demont, 2015
129
eating quality, or nutritional quality (Kaul, 1970). Some of these clas- classified as short grains. In contrast, all five classification systems seem
sification systems are not yet unified, which can lead to potential im- to agree about the ranges for grain shape. Dela Cruz and Khush (2002),
pacts in international rice trade and varietal improvement programs. on the other hand, published a score scale for visual classification
Many of the attributes that distinguish high- from low-quality rice, on (Table 4). Clearly, there is a need to standardize definitions that can be
the other hand, have no equivalent quantitative indicators; this leads to used globally, especially since rice is traded internationally.
ambiguity in how rice quality is further defined by food technologists. Whiteness is an ambiguous quality indicator elicited from con-
Hence, here, we discuss in-depth indicators of intrinsic grain quality sumers because it may refer to two different grain characteristics.
attributes that are quantifiable and review the knowledge gaps that Typically, rice grains are called “white” by consumers when the grains
keep other attributes ambiguous. are translucent; also, consumers describe well-milled rice as “white”
(i.e., no bran left on the milled grain) (e.g., Fig. 1). The former refers to
the degree of chalkiness of the rice grains while the latter alludes to the
3.1. Raw-grain quality indicators degree of milling of rice. Chalkiness has an effect on HR recovery, an-
other indicator of milling quality (Raju, Manjunath, & Srinivas, 1991).
Consumers, particularly those who buy loose rice, typically judge Because of their economic importance, significant investments have
rice varieties and make purchase decisions based on their first im- been put in improving these attributes of milled grains.
pressions on the characteristics of the raw grain. Thus, raw-grain Chalkiness affects the appearance of the grain as it refers to the
quality is a crucial component on the salability of rice varieties in their degree of opacity of the endosperm, whether this occurs in the dorsal
target markets. These raw-grain attributes mostly deal with the visual side (white back), in the ventral side (white belly), or at the center
properties of the grains, some of which can be quantified. Some of these (white core) of the grain (Ashida, Iida, & Yasui, 2009). Chalkiness is
attributes may not be top-of-mind for consumers (i.e., these attributes attributed to the presence of intergranular air spaces in the endosperm,
are not mentioned unless participants are prompted in surveys) but are which cause light to scatter, and therefore opacity. The opacity of
important quality indicators because non-compliance to consumer re- chalky grains is different from that of waxy grains because light is
quirements lead to non-purchase. There are also attributes which have diffused by micropores and hollows in waxy rice, rather than by air-
different terminology between consumers and food technologists. spaces between starch granules (Ashida et al., 2009); these micropores
Hence, in this section of the paper, the attributes evaluated by food appear to not have an effect on the mechanical strength of the waxy
technologists may be termed differently from those surveyed from grain. Methods for quantifying chalk and classifying rice based on
consumers or have been excluded from the surveys. chalkiness have been extensively reviewed. Classifying grains based on
Grain size and shape are strong criteria for purchasing. Breeders a visual assessment of the chalky proportion of the grain is widely used
normally consider these attributes first in varietal improvement pro- (e.g., Gu, Chen, Chen, Wang et al., 2015). The advent of image analysis
grams (Adair, Beachell, Jodon et al., 1966). Because grain length is capacity has improved the objectivity in classification of rice grains and
more variable than grain width (Anacleto, Cuevas, Jimenez, Llorente, has allowed for an increasingly quantitative measurement of the pro-
Nissila, et al., 2015), the size is defined, mainly, by grain length. Grain portion of chalky grains (e.g., Yoshioka, Iwata, Tabata, Ninomiya, &
shape, on the other hand, is defined as the ratio of grain length to grain Ohsawa, 2007). However, despite improvements in measuring chalk,
width (Graham, 2002). These values are then used to classify rice into there is no standard method in classifying grains into different quality
quality classes. However, it appears that classification systems based on categories. For instance, grains can be classified into three groups based
grain size and shape feature different ranges of grain lengths and on the rating scale: 1 (< 10% chalkiness), 5 (10–20% chalkiness), and 9
length/width ratios (Table 4); hence, there is no universal definition of (> 20% chalkiness) (Graham, 2002). Alternatively, grains could be
the different grain sizes. The system followed by the United Kingdom classified into three categories based on grain width and its association
(HM Revenue & Customs, 2015) indicates that grains with lengths with the presence of the white belly (Raju et al., 1991), again through
greater than 6.0 mm are classified as long-grain but it does not include visual inspection. On the other hand, Yoshioka, Iwata, Tabata,
the extra-long-grain class reported by Belsnio (1992). Khush, Paule, & Ninomiya, & Ohsawa, 2007 proposed seven classes for chalkiness:
de la Cruz, 1979 and Adair et al. (1966) likewise had an extra-long- perfect rice, white-based, white-back, white-back and white-based,
grain category; however, in their classification system, extra-long grains white-belly, white-core, and milky-white. Another approach is to only
according to Belsnio (1992) can still be classified as long-grain. cite the actual values obtained from imaging analyses. For instance, a
Medium- and long-grain are also defined differently by these classifi- study involving 16,860 rice samples showed that chalkiness exhibited a
cation systems. On the other hand, these four reported classification non-normal distribution with a strongly positive skew; the distribution
systems seem to agree that grains with lengths approaching 5.0 mm can indicated that the majority of the samples tended to have 0–15%
be considered short. The only exception among these classification chalkiness (Anacleto et al., 2015). The unimodal nature of the dis-
systems (Table 4) is the one published by the Codex Alimentarius tribution further suggests that chalkiness can be seen as a continuum
Commission (1995, pp. 1–6). In this system, grains that can be con- rather than a set of distinct classes.
sidered of medium and of long lengths in the other systems may be
Table 4
Comparison of milled rice grain quality classes based on grain size and shape (length/width ratio).
Reference Grain length (mm) classifications Grain shape (length/width ratio)
Extra long Long Medium Short Long/Slender Medium/Bold Short/Bold/Round
Khush, Paule, & de la Cruz, 1979 > 7.50 6.61–7.50 5.51–6.60 < 5.50 > 3.00 2.01–3.00 1.01–2.00
Adair et al. (1966)
a
Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1995 ≥6.6 6.2–6.5 < 6.2 ≥3.0 2.0–2.9 < 1.9
Belsnio, 1992 b ≥7.0 6.0–6.9 5.0–5.9 < 5.0 > 3.0 2.0–2.9 < 2.0
HM Revenue & Customs, 2015 > 6.0 5.3–5.9 ≤5.2 ≥3.0 2.0–2.9 < 2.0
Dela Cruz & Khush, 2002 c 1 3 5 7 1 5 9
a
Length/width ratios were classified as long, medium, and short.
b
Length/width ratios were classified as slender, bold, and round.
c
Score scale for visual classification for grain lengths and length/width ratios.
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Table 5
Comparison of milled rice grain quality classes based on apparent amylose content (AC).
Reference Apparent amylose content ranges (%)
Waxy/Glutinous Very Low AC Low AC Intermediate AC High AC
Tuaño et al. (2011) 0–2 12–18 18–25 > 25

Kumar and Khush (1986) 0–2 3–9 10–19 20–25 > 25
Cagampang et al. (1973) 1–2 12–20 20–25 Moderate: 25–27
High: > 27
Calingacion et al. (2014) A: 11–15 A: 20–22 A: 25–27
B: 16–19 B: 23–24 B: > 27
Juliano (1992) 0–5 5–12 12–20 20–25 25–33
Suwannaporn et al. (2007) < 20 21–25 26–33
Coffman and Juliano (1987) 1–2 12–19 20–24 25–32
Khush, Paule, & de la Cruz, 1979 10–23 20–25 25–30
Because of its effects on visual appearance and HR (which are both Methods have been devised to measure AC: based on molecular size
strongly linked with consumer preferences, Fig. 2), rice grain chalkiness distributions, differential scanning calorimetry, precipitation with
has implications on the selling price of rice. In the Philippines for in- concanavalin A (reviewed in Kaufman, Wilson, Bean, Herald, & Shi,
stance, it was determined that there is a price penalty for increased 2015) and spectroscopy (e.g., Sohn, Himmelsbach, & Barton, 2004).
chalkiness of loose rice sold in various retail stores (Tuaño, Regalado, & Association of the Waxy gene with AC has allowed scientists to utilize
Juliano, 2016). known alleles of these genes to predict AC class as well (reviewed in
Head rice (HR) pertains to the proportion of milled rice grains that Biselli, Cavalluzzo, Perrini, Gianinetti et al., 2014). The assay of choice
are whole (whose lengths are greater than 75% of the lengths of the for cereal chemists is iodine colorimetry, which depends upon the in-
unbroken grain) vis-à-vis paddy grain by weight (Graham, 2002). It is tensity of the color reaction of the resulting iodine-amylose complex.
one of the most economically important attributes of rice; it has been Efforts to improve this colorimetric approach focused on (i) increasing
reported that decreasing proportions of HR is associated with de- throughput and ease of measurement by using autosamplers (Juliano,
creasing market value of milled rice (Demont et al., 2017; Demont & 1992), color charts (Avaro, Tong, & Yoshida, 2009), and 96-well plates
Ndour, 2015; Cuevas et al., 2016; Siebenmorgen, Counce, & Wilson, (Kaufman et al., 2015); and on (ii) reducing the interaction between
2011. Because HR is calculated from paddy grain, the theoretical iodine and amylopectin, the highly branched homoglucan polymer that
maximum HR that can be obtained is around 70% (Siebenmorgen et al., is also present in rice starch (Juliano et al., 2012). In attempts to avoid
2011). There are many factors that could affect HR; hence, in the real issues related to varying results caused by variations in methods, sci-
world, the maximum HR that can be attained may be 55–60%. Aside entists have conducted international efforts (Fitzgerald et al., 2009) to
from chalkiness, fissures in kernels are associated with reduced HR devise a standard method for measuring AC. These efforts have resulted
because these fissures cause mechanical failures within the kernels. eventually in the assays published by the ISO (International
These fissures can occur both during and after milling, and are re- Organization for Standardization [ISO], 2015a; 2015b). However, the
portedly associated with high temperature gradients in the grain be- standard methods do not seem to be followed universally yet. Rice can
tween milling and cooling steps (Pan, Khir, & Thompson, 2013) and be classified into three to five distinct AC classes, whose ranges have
with the temperature and the relative humidity of the air while rice is been arbitrarily set, as can be noted based on the differences in ranges
being milled (Siebenmorgen, Saleh, & Bautista, 2009). HR is also re- per reference (Table 5). It is interesting to note that the range of high
portedly associated with the proportion of strong kernels (those that AC is constant at > 25% across the different reports. However, the
can withstand 20N of bending force) rather than with the average ranges of the other AC classes among these reports tend to differ. There
breaking force of a sample. To reduce the incidence of HR through the are also suggestions to further differentiate low, intermediate, and high
reduction of grain fissures, scientists have devised intermittent drying AC classes into subgroups (Cagampang, Perez, & Juliano, 1973;
and tempering cycles that can reduce moisture gradients inside the rice Coffman & Juliano, 1987; Juliano, 1992; Calingacion et al., 2014). It is
grains (Schluterman & Siebenmorgen, 2007). The soak stress test was not known if such further differentiation is indeed needed until the
devised to screen rice varieties for fissuring, and therefore, for HR as relationships of AC with textural attributes, within AC classes, is better
well. Imaging techniques, alternatively, can be used to screen for fis- understood. Also, there is an apparent misalignment of how food sci-
suring in paddy or milled grain in a non-destructive fashion. Quantifi- entists define the different AC classes and how commercial actors define
cation of HR is typically conducted to screen advanced lines in breeding these. From a commercial standpoint, AC classes are low, intermediate/
programs. In classifying rice sold in the market, however, the values medium, and high (Suwannaporn, Pitiphunpong, & Champangern,
expressed are typically based on the proportion of broken grain to 2007), with varieties in very low AC and waxy classes being grouped
milled rice (Section 2.1). Premium-grade rice typically contains up to together with low-AC varieties. Different regions have different AC
5% broken grain while the Grade No. 4 contains around 24% broken requirements based on consumer preference (Calingacion et al., 2014)
grain (National Food Authority, 2013). The differences in the ways of and AC has a detrimental effect on market price of rice (Unnevehr,
expressing the proportion of head rice may cause confusion, particu- Juliano, & Perez, 1985), implying that different laboratories releasing
larly for quality inspectors who evaluate different batches of rice and different AC values and classifying rice using different systems (Table 5)
for breeders who need to set realistic targets for their varietal devel- can lead to potential issues in rice trading (e.g., rejection or acceptance
opment pipelines. of rice based on AC and pricing issues). Some of the challenges of re-
lying solely on AC are the variation of results one can get from different
3.2. Cooking and eating quality indicators lots of the same variety (Cagampang et al., 1973; Tuaño, Umemoto,
Aoki, Nakamura et al., 2011) and whether there are differences in
Amylose content (AC) is considered to be a major predictor of rice eating quality for varieties with AC along the endpoints of the AC class
eating quality as it has been associated with mechanical textural attri- ranges (Table 5).
butes such as hardness and stickiness (e.g., H. Li, Prakash, Nicholson, Gel consistency (GC) is a secondary test that is aimed to further de-
Fitzgerald, & Gilbert, 2016) and it is relatively simple to measure. fine the quality classes of varieties within the high-AC and the waxy
131
classes. This attribute is reportedly correlated with Brabender setback cooking and eating quality address mechanical textural attributes (e.g.,
viscosity but not as well as with AC (Cagampang et al., 1973). There are hardness and stickiness), cooking time, and one facet of aroma in rice.
various versions of this method such as those that involve the use of These current assays, though mostly high-throughput, have been found
alkali solutions (Cagampang et al., 1973; Tran, Daygon, Resurreccion, wanting as they do not provide a complete product profile of the or-
Cuevas et al., 2011) and those that involve neutral solutions (e.g., ganoleptic quality of a rice variety. For instance, current assays do not
Keeratipibul, Luangsakul, & Lertsatchayarn, 2008). Varieties can be measure geometric sensory attributes (e.g., roughness) or a rice sam-
grouped into three GC classes: high (hard and very flaky texture), ple's capacity to absorb moisture; in the same token, these assays do not
medium (flaky but softer rice), and low (soft and non-flaky rice). Most describe many flavors a consumer may perceive while eating rice (e.g.,
commonly, the gel lengths for the different GC classes are: ≤40 mm sweetness, mustiness, astringency). Hence, rice varieties may fall in the
(hard), 41–60 mm (medium), and > 60 mm (soft) (Graham, 2002). same quality class based on routine assays but consumers could easily
Gelatinization temperature (GT) is typically used as an indicator of distinguish them upon tasting (Champagne, Bett-Garber, Fitzgerald,
the cooking time (Cuevas, Daygon, Corpuz, Reinke et al., 2010), with Grimm et al., 2010).
three approaches being used to measure GT: (i) based on the pasting Some of these gaps in rice grain quality profile can potentially be
temperature from a viscosity profile (Dang & Bason, 2014); (ii) visually filled by measuring the intensities or detecting the presence of attri-
assessing and scoring the digestion of rice grains in an alkaline solution, butes through descriptive sensory evaluation.
aqueous potassium hydroxide (e.g., Eizenga, Ali, Bryant, Yeater et al., The terms used in descriptive sensory evaluation are not standar-
2013; Tuaño, Regalado, & Juliano, 2016); and (iii) obtaining the tem- dized: the words used to describe the rice samples and their definitions
perature peaks of endotherms through differential scanning calorimetry are highly dependent on the lexicon generated prior to sensory eva-
(e.g., Cuevas & Fitzgerald, 2012). It is unclear if the three methods luation; often, these terms reflect the relative importance of various
associate with each other or if they describe other properties of the properties over others and may be product-specific. For instance, the
grain altogether (e.g., Shu, Shen, Bao, Wuet et al., 2006). Gelatinization terms used to describe local and imported rice in West Africa include
temperature classes are either defined based on the temperature at appearance attributes (e.g., discoloration, uniformity of appearance),
which the crystalline forms of starch irreversibly melt or based on alkali aroma and flavor (e.g., typical odor, sweet, creamy), and mouthfeel
spreading values. Based on temperature, rice varieties can be classified (e.g., graininess, hardness, stickiness) (Tomlins, Manful, Larwer, &
into three classes: high (> 74 °C), intermediate (70–74 °C), and low Hammond, 2005). On the other hand, textural attributes included in
(< 70 °C) (Graham, 2002). Based on alkali spreading, on the other descriptive sensory analyses of mochi (glutinous rice cakes) focus on
hand, there are four GT classes (in parentheses are their corresponding softness, smoothness, stickiness, and Q-value (Chuang & Yeh, 2006).
scores): high (2), intermediate-high (3), intermediate (4–5), and low The lexicon used by food technologists in the USDA in descriptive
(6–7) (Graham, 2002). However, other reports seem to indicate that sensory profiling of cooked rice grains includes 13 flavor attributes,
there are only two classes of GT: high and low (e.g., Cuevas et al., perceived through smell and taste, and 14 texture attributes
2010). In this classification scheme, the temperature range of the in- (Champagne et al., 2010). The textural attributes include mechanical
termediate-GT class seems to be included in the low-GT class. The properties (e.g., hardness, stickiness) that are perceived while biting and
ambiguity in the delineations of the GT classes may pose issues to rice chewing the rice, geometric properties that are perceived as features as-
breeders whose targets fall at the intermediate GT levels and for people sociated with particle size, shape, and arrangement (e.g., coarse, pow-
in the rice trade, as GT class may be criterion for release and market dery), and properties related with perceptions of moisture (e.g.,
acceptance. moisture absorption) (McKenzie, Noble, & Takami, 2006). An even
Aroma is a value-adding character to rice since it is a preferred trait more comprehensive lexicon for aroma was used by Meullenet, Griffin,
by consumers. Rarely, however, do consumers describe the aroma of Carson, Davis, Davis et al. (2001) in investigating the preferences of
rice beyond the subjectivity of “with fragrance”, “no fragrance”, and Asian consumers based in the United States of America. The aromatics
“bad or unpleasant smell” (Table 1). Scientists have therefore devised and flavors are mostly named or described based on non-rice materials,
means to define what aroma in rice is. Good aroma tends to be asso- conjuring images and descriptions that a panelist can relate to; i.e., wet
ciated with pleasant aromatics found in Jasmine and Basmati rice types. cardboard, sulfur/piggy/sewer animal, burlap, hay-like, corn, and
Most often, the volatile compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2-AP) is found grassy/green bean.
in relatively high concentrations in these aromatic rice varieties, Descriptive sensory profiling comes in different approaches. Rating
lending a popcorn-like, cracker-like, roasted odor (Czerny, scales specific for textural attributes have been developed (Szczesniak,
Christlbauer, Christlbauer, Fischer et al., 2008). The aroma of 2-AP is Brandt, & Friedman, 1963). On the other hand, flavor attributes can be
also associated with milky odor (Paraskevopoulou, Amvrosiadou, gauged based on a universal rating scale (Meilgaard, Civille, & Carr,
Biliaderis, & Kiosseoglou, 2014), with sweet nutty odor (Kobayashi & 2007); alternatively, check-all-that-apply (CATA) questions can be used
Nishimura, 2014), and the smell of pandan (Laksanalamai & to describe complex aroma attributes, particularly those that are of low
Ilangantileke, 1993). 2-AP has a low odor threshold in water, and as enough intensities that the concern becomes whether an attribute is
such, can also be detected in varieties that are typically not flavorful present or not (reviewed in Varela & Ares, 2012).
(Buttery, Ling, & Juliano, 1982). The intensity of the aroma conferred As the rice market becomes increasingly complicated, with con-
by 2-AP is largely affected by both genetic background of the variety sumers becoming more demanding about the quality of the rice they
and the agronomic and postharvest conditions that the plants—and purchase, it is foreseen that these attributes that are not predicted by
subsequently the grains—had to undergo (reviewed in Wakte, Zanan, current grain quality routine assays may become of higher importance.
Hinge, Khandagale et al., 2017). Although humans can smell 2-AP, the Sensory evaluation, however, is a low-throughput approach; therefore,
method of choice for detecting this compound on a routine basis is gas it cannot be used routinely in varietal development. It is particularly
chromatography (Grimm, Bergman, Delgado, & Bryant, 2001). Aside useful in two arenas. First, the descriptive profiles developed through
from 2-AP, aroma in rice is defined by other volatile compounds present sensory evaluation provide supplementary information that can further
in the rice grain (reviewed in Anacleto et al., 2015). The presence and differentiate rice varieties that fall within the same quality class.
the varying concentrations of these other compounds make the aromas Second, sensory evaluation can provide a better understanding of the
of different rice varieties distinct from each other; i.e., Basmati and links from organoleptic properties (what people perceive) to intrinsic
Jasmine rice types. However, how these volatiles contribute to the grain properties (i.e., metabolomic and structural properties), and then
aroma of rice is unclear; hence, defining aromatic rice is still in- to the genes that code for these intrinsic grain properties. This becomes
complete. particularly important in discovering new genes of grain quality and in
Other organoleptic properties. The current routine indicators of the development of tools that can measure these non-routine attributes
132
in a quantitative and high-throughput manner. believe that there might be additional loci, other than SSIIa, that con-
tribute to the intermediate GT phenotype (Cuevas et al., 2010).
4. Rice quality as predicted by genes Exploratory work into finding additional QTLs within the same Wx
or SSIIa haplotype that could further explain cooked grain texture and
Improving yield to alleviate hunger while improving grain quality cooking quality have been reported. These efforts have been made
proved to be challenging in the early days of rice breeding (Zeng, Tian, possible by the advent of high-throughput genotyping and bioinfor-
Rao, Dong et al., 2017). Advances in the fields of functional genomics matics capacities. For instance, Yang et al. (2014) and Li, Bao, Corke, &
(e.g., The 3000 Rice Genomes Project, 2014) will eventually enable Sun, 2017 have used the Wx and SSIIa SNPs as covariates in an asso-
breeders to satisfy both food security and consumer preference re- ciation mapping approach that takes the gross-level population struc-
quirements through improved definition of breeding targets using ge- ture and kinship (Q + K) into account. Results from their studies in-
netic data (Fitzgerald et al., 2009a). However, grain quality is defined dicate that variability within the same GT class is associated with
by different combinations of different attributes (Cuevas et al., 2016; several SSR markers and other starch synthesis-related genes such as
Unnevehr, 1986). Each of these attributes may be controlled by mul- Wx, SSIIc, SBE1, SSIIb, and ISA3. Meanwhile, SBE1, SSIIc, GBSSII, SSIIa,
tiple sets of genes, possibly interacting with each other, leading to ad- and SSIIIb, all starch synthesis-related genes, were associated with
ditive, dominant, epistatic, or pleiotropic effects (Huang, Jiang, Zheng, variation within the same AC class. Additionally, the very low-AC
Wang, Wang et al., 2013) that influence the biochemical pathways that genotypes in a Guanxi germplasm collection were associated with a
ultimately lead to functional properties. The expression of these genes novel gene, LAC6, which most likely codes for a retrotransposon protein
may also be affected by environmental conditions. Hence, predicting (Yang, Nong, Xia, Zhang et al., 2017).
grain quality based on genetics requires associating genetic in- Grain weight is crucial in determining the yield in rice; hence, it is
formation—and the possible complexities it contains—with grain an attribute that breeders have been targeting to achieve food security
quality phenotypes while taking into consideration possible interac- and self-sufficiency goals. Grain weight depends on two factors: grain
tions with the environment. dimension and grain filling. Grain dimension, aside from being im-
Despite these possible complications, quantitative trait loci (QTLs) portant for yield, is also an important intrinsic quality cue (as discussed
associated with major indicators of grain quality have been mapped on in Section 2.1). Huang et al. (2013) reported that grain dimension is
the rice genome (reviewed in Anacleto et al., 2015). These indicators associated with 13 cloned genes and over 400 QTLs; 17 of these QTLs
are mostly associated with starch properties. Getting the right combi- have been mapped in different chromosomes. More are being reported
nation of starch properties is crucial for getting the right type of rice to as the technological approaches required to associate genotype with
meet market demand. Thus, genes and QTLs that are linked with starch phenotype are improving. Some of these genes and QTLs, plus newly
properties are under constant and strong selection pressure in the identified ones, have been associated with multiple biochemical sig-
course of rice domestication (Singh, Singh, Rai, Sidhu et al., 2017) and naling pathways (e.g., Yuan, Fan, Huang, Zhan et al., 2017), which il-
rice varietal development. Chromosome 6 in rice, for instance, is re- lustrate the complexity of regulation for this attribute. However, many
ported to carry a number of major genes controlling cooking and eating of these studies utilized biparental crosses to find these QTLs (e.g.,
quality indicators such as AC and GC (Wx), and GT (SSIIa) (reviewed in Takano-Kai, Jiang, Kubo, Sweeney et al., 2009; Wan, Weng, Zhai, Wang
Cuevas & Fitzgerald, 2012) while minor QTLs for these traits are et al., 2008); hence, these QTLs might be specific for these particular
mapped in other chromosomes. The published Wx alleles have been populations and may not be applicable for molecular marker develop-
reported to be diagnostic for eating quality and surface stickiness (Hori, ment of screening tools for breeding programs using different parent
Suzuki, Iijima, & Ebana, 2016), aside from AC and from GC. Mutations materials and with specific grain size targets. Moreover, for many of
in these genes may lead to significant changes to starch structure, and these QTLs, the biochemical pathways that they control are not yet
then to variations in functional properties of starch (reviewed in Singh elucidated; it remains to be seen if more of these QTLs will be devel-
et al., 2017). Moreover, most of the QTLs for pasting parameters have oped into tools that can predict quality in rice. Factors that make the
been reported in Chromosome 6, associated mainly with the Wx locus genetics of grain size regulation difficult to isolate include environ-
(e.g., Yang, Chen, Tong, Huang et al., 2014), and in Chromosome 2 mental interactions that affect gene expression and constant interac-
(Zhang, Zhang, Zhu, Zhao et al., 2008). The strong phenotypic asso- tions between the endosperm and the integuments of the developing
ciations with the Wx gene pose a challenge in defining grain quality seed (reviewed in Zuo & Li, 2014). Grain filling, on the other hand, has
(texture, in this case) because consumers are reportedly sensitive in been reported to involve 33 major enzymes in the developing grain
detecting differences in textural attributes within the same AC class linked with carbohydrate metabolism and starch synthesis (reviewed in
(Champagne et al., 2010), yet the genetic parameters that contribute to Chen, Yan, Wang, Gao et al., 2017). This indicates that the genetics of
the complexities of texture are still not yet well-understood. For in- grain filling, an activity that contributes to chalkiness, HR, and grain
stance, the genetics of geometric textural attributes or of perceptions of appearance (Section 3.1), is complex. Some progress has been achieved
moisture have not been fully explored, yet these attributes also con- in determining the gene(s) that lead to chalkiness and two QTLs have
tribute to the experience of eating rice and the development of con- been identified for HR (Wang et al., 2017). The effect of environmental
sumer preferences. Hence, predicting textural quality based on genetic conditions on the functionality of genes associated with parameters
information requires additional in-depth exploration into the pheno- such as HR (Li et al., 2018), further demonstrate the complexity of the
type-genotype associations for textural attributes aside from hardness grain filling process. Because the genetics of grain filling rate is not well
and stickiness (which are associated with AC). This presents an op- understood, it is typically skipped when breeders develop trait targets.
portunity to further refine the genetic definition of textural quality For instance, gene expression experiments suggest that there might be
within AC classes (with the same Wx alleles). It is not just AC, however; unknown pathways that regulate the expression of starch-synthesizing
there is a similar challenge in predicting rice GT based on SSIIa hap- genes in the endosperm; the known and the unknown pathways that
lotypes. Although there are three GT classes based on phenotype affect grain filling rates are involved mainly in amylopectin synthesis
(Section 3.2), the SSIIa gene only classifies rice into two groups: one (Inukai, 2017). This is expected because glutinous rice varieties, those
group with high and intermediate GT and another group with low GT that have the null wx allele, do not have amylose (Table 5) but have
(Cuevas et al., 2010; Eizenga, Ali, Bryant, Yeater et al., 2013). Current amylopectin. Amylopectin synthesis involves various enzymes such as
diagnostic markers for the SSIIa gene—or for the GT classes, for that soluble starch synthases, branching enzymes, and debranching enzymes
matter—cannot differentiate between samples with high and inter- (reviewed in Tetlow, Morell, & Emes, 2004) aside from those mentioned
mediate GT; this is a challenge for varietal development programs that are closely associated with GT. This indicates that there are po-
targeting intermediate GT (Calingacion et al., 2014). There is reason to tentially more genes involved in grain filling that could be used as tools,
133
individually or in combination, for predicting this quality attribute. programs. Regional programs can incorporate “regional traits” into
Perhaps, further advancement in genotype-phenotype association germplasm to be transferred to national programs, which can further
techniques will lead to a deeper understanding of the pathways in- develop regionally targeted germplasm into varieties tailored to specific
volved in grain filling and the numerous genetic factors that lead to national and local market segments. Rice VC actors can further re-
certain grain weight phenotypes. inforce rice quality through labeling, branding, and packaging, espe-
In contrast to the genetics of grain weight, it appears that there is a cially in Thailand, Cambodia, South India, and Bangladesh where
much more comprehensive understanding about the genetics and the consumers are used to purchase packaged rice.
biochemistry of aroma in rice. One recessive gene (referred to as Fgr, as Because rice is traded internationally, there is a need to standardize
BADH2, or as Os2AP) mapped on Chromosome 8 codes for the betaine definitions of rice quality that can be used globally. However, food
aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) enzyme; which, if non-functional, has technologists have yet to reach unanimity as to how rice quality should
been associated with the biosynthesis of the volatile compound 2-AP be quantitatively measured and categorized particularly with respect to
(Section 3.2) (Kovach, Calingacion, Fitzgerald, & McCouch, 2009). grain size and shape, chalkiness, HR, AC, and GT. There is often a
Aside from the non-functionality of BADH2, the overexpression of the misalignment between food scientists and VC actors on quality classes,
gene OsP5CS (mapped on Chromosome 5), coding for the Δ1-pyrroline- which may lead to potential issues in rice trading and prevent rice
5-carboxylate synthase (P5CS), is also correlated with the 2-AP content breeders from setting relevant breeding trait targets. Although demand
in rice because it is associated with the enhanced synthesis of proline, a for aroma is increasing in SEA and SA, defining aromatic rice is still
2-AP precursor (reviewed in Wakte et al., 2017). Ornithine and gluta- incomplete as aroma is determined by the presence and the varying
mate are alternate starting materials for 2-AP synthesis via the pathway concentrations of 2-AP and other volatile compounds in the rice grain.
involving P5CS as well (Huang, Teng, Chang, Chuang et al., 2008). As the current routine indicators of cooking and eating quality do not
Aside from 2-AP synthesis, P5CS is associated with drought and salinity provide a complete product profile of the organoleptic quality of a rice
tolerance (Hien, Jacobs, Angenon, Hermans et al., 2003). Overlapping variety, descriptive profiles need to be elicited through a sensory eva-
metabolite pathways to 2-AP accumulation probably contribute to luation panel to further differentiate rice varieties that fall within the
reasons why aromatic rice varieties tend to thrive in areas with un- same quality class.
favorable growth conditions (reviewed in Mo et al., 2016. Aside from Because each of the quality attributes of rice may be controlled by
the gene and environmental stress interactions, reports have shown that multiple sets of genes and the expression of these genes may be affected
mineral elements have effects on the expression of the aromatic phe- by gene interactions, crop management, and environmental conditions,
notype (Mo, Huang, Xiao, Ashraf et al., 2016). predicting grain quality based on genetics requires associating genetic
Other quality attributes, particularly geometric and moisture attri- information with grain quality phenotypes in different environments.
butes (Section 3.2), and volatile compounds in rice that contribute to Genetics research has focused on starch properties as the latter is crucial
fragrance have not been associated with genes or with QTLs. Given the for tailoring rice to the specificity of consumer preferences in SEA
high-throughput nature of current genotyping and association methods, versus SA. However, the genetic parameters that contribute to the
the limitations for developing molecular markers for these attributes complexities of texture and grain filling rate remain poorly understood,
are (i) the ability to quantitatively and objectively phenotype those hampering the development of precise breeding trait targets. In con-
attributes (i.e., not be limited to ratings based on sensory perceptions), trast, the the interactions among genetics, biochemistry, and environ-
and (ii) the capacity to identify and to link unknown volatile com- mental factors leading to aroma phenotypes are better understood.
pounds with sensory perception. Aroma in rice tends to express itself better under environmental stress
However, even if the genetic factors influencing the routine and the conditions, which explains why these varieties are often found in un-
additional grain quality attributes are elucidated, the genetic informa- favorable rice growing environments.
tion remains a predictive tool indicating the quality of a rice sample. Our review identified several challenges in defining rice quality
This is because genetics indicates predisposition towards a certain from consumers to genetics and the need for an international body,
characteristic. The interplay between genetics and environment can such as IRRI, to standardize international quality indicators for rice.
greatly influence gene expression, potentially leading towards pheno- The more rice VCs become demand-driven with modernization of retail
types that are different from what the genes code. and globalization of trade, the more urgent a uniform definition of rice
quality becomes. This definition is important for consumers to match
5. Conclusions, implications and future perspectives their quality expectations with their preferences; for VC actors to match
consumers’ expectations with supply and pricing; for rice breeders to
The rice sector currently lacks consensus on how “rice quality” set relevant breeding trait targets that correspond to regional pre-
should be defined and measured, despite its crucial role in VC up- ferences and local market segments; and finally for policy-makers to set
grading. An inter-disciplinary review of consumer, farmer and industry relevant targets for investment in agricultural research, infrastructure,
perceptions, food science and technology, and genetics literature re- and value chain upgrading to increase regional and national food and
veals that rice quality is context-specific and consumers are hetero- nutrition security.
geneous with respect to their perceived quality differentiation among
regions, countries, cities, and urbanization levels. However, within a Funding
given context, consumers from diverse SECs seem to remarkably agree
on how “poor”, “good”, or “premium” quality rice is defined, although This work was supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation,
these quality classes are not perceived as being distinct, but rather as a Seattle, WA, USA [Grants no. OPP1076488 and OPP1194925]; and the
gradient. In SEA, premium rice quality features nutritional benefits, CGIAR Research Program on Rice.
softness and aroma, while in SA the emphasis is more on the physical
appearance of the uncooked grains (uniformity in size and shape, Appendix A. Supplementary data
whiteness, slenderness) and the satiety the cooked product delivers,
characteristics that SEA consumers take for granted for any rice product Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
superior to “poor” quality rice. These trends are found to be consistent doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.039.
with farmer and industry perceptions, suggesting that rice VCs suc-
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 92 (2019) 122–137

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

Rice quality: How is it defined by consumers, industry, food scientists, and T

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Extra long Long Medium Short Long/Slender Medium/Bold Short/Bold/Round

Waxy/Glutinous Very Low AC Low AC Intermediate AC High AC

Tuaño et al. (2011) 0–2 12–18 18–25 > 25

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