Door Knob

Design

Door hardware selection is usually based on appearance, cost, and availability, rarely on function. In
order to assure the most usable hardware, designers must carefully consider not only appearance but
also the size, shape, and feel of each element of door hardware and how easy it is to use. Typical design
features of a doorknob include: no sharp edges or ridges; a shape that is easily grasped or turned; a
textured finish or non-slip coating on knob to improve grip; and a shaft long enough to fit hand behind
knob.

If a new design is required, a two-dimensional model is usually made using computer-aided design
software. A three dimensional prototype is then fabricated so that a mold or die can be made of the
desired shape. If a metal casting process is used, a pattern in wood or clay is made from which to make
the mold.

Raw Materials

Most doorknobs are made of metal, with the most common type brass. The term brass refers to a group
of alloys that contain a combination of varying amounts of copper and zinc. The material is usually
received as a rod or billet of suitable diameter and is machine cut to the required length. The raw
material must conform to standards developed by the American Society of Testing and Materials
regarding physical, mechanical, chemical, thermal, and microstructural properties for each specific
process.

The Manufacturing

Process

Though there are several processes used for metal doorknobs, including casting where a molten metal is
poured into a mold, brass doorknobs are typically forged. Forging is a process in which heated metal is
forced into shaped dies under very high pressure. Forging can produce products having superior
strength, toughness, reliability, and quality (up to 250% stronger than castings). Forging can also be
more efficient and economical.

Forging

1 The billet must first be heated to 1,400° F (759.9° C) in a gas-fired furnace to soften the metal. The
billet is then placed in a specially designed set of steel dies that are shaped to conform to the profile of
the product being made. A press applies high pressure to force the heated billet into the die cavity,
where the billet now takes the shape of the doorknob.

2 After the doorknob is ejected from the press, it is cooled, trimmed to size, tempered, and cleaned to
remove heat scale produced during the process.

Surface preparation

3 Next, the doorknob goes through a series of finishing steps. Separate coining, milling, drilling, and
tapping processes produce a surface ready for the polishing operation.

The average doorknob is 2.25 in (5.715 cm) in diameter. The basic components are the knob rose, shank,
spindle, and knob-top. The knob-top is the upper and larger part that is grasped by the hand. The shank
is the projecting stem of a knob and contains a hole or socket to receive the spindle. The knob rose is a
round plate or washer that forms a knob socket and is adapted for attachment to the surface of a door.
The knob is attached to the spindle, a metal shaft that turns the latch of the lock.

The average doorknob is 2.25 in (5.715 cm) in diameter. The basic components are the knob rose, shank,
spindle, and knob-top. The knob-top is the upper and larger part that is grasped by the hand. The shank
is the projecting stem of a knob and contains a hole or socket to receive the spindle. The knob rose is a
round plate or washer that forms a knob socket and is adapted for attachment to the surface of a door.
The knob is attached to the spindle, a metal shaft that turns the latch of the lock.

One or more buffing steps are used to achieve a brilliant finish.

Coating

4 For further protection, an organic or inorganic coating is applied using several different processes.
Organic coatings include polyurethanes, acrylics, and epoxies. Because the solvents used in organic
coatings can produce hazardous materials and quality problems, manufacturers are turning to inorganic
coatings based on inert metals. These are applied using electroplating or physical vapor deposition
(PVD).

5 PVD applies a coating produced by sputtering and thermal evaporators in an airtight chamber. The
chamber is evacuated to high vacuum pressures (less than one millionth of an atmospheric pressure) by
a series of pumps. A thin coating is deposited one molecule at a time. For successful PVD, the brass
surface must first be extensively cleaned in a series of washing and agitating tanks, followed by
electroplating with semiprecious materials.

Quality Control
The raw material must be of suitable composition for the forging process, as established by the
American Society for Testing and Materials. Various process parameters throughout the manufacturing
process are monitored and controlled to ensure the final product meets quality standards. The finished
doorknob is inspected for dimensions, surface finish, and other properties. Some of these properties
may have to conform to certain building codes.

Byproducts/Waste

Since forgings are designed to approximate final part shape, little waste is produced compared to other
processes. The forging process also results in uniformity in composition, dimensions, and structure from
piece to piece and lot to lot, which also minimizes rejects.

The Future

Security and access control systems for doors will continue to become more sophisticated as the cost of
electronics decreases. Though there will always be a demand for mechanical hardware, electrical
hardware may have faster growth. New building codes may be required to accommodate this hardware.

The common doorknob will continue to play an important role in the building industry. Restoration and
renovation of older buildings will continue to make antique doorknobs or their reproductions popular.

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Key

I claim:

1. A key manufacturing method, comprising: a key body manufacturing procedure comprising a

first process to feed material, a second process to mold said material into a pre-determined shape
through pressure die casting to form a crude key body, a third process to cut the side edge of said crude
key body, a fourth process to mill said crude key body into thickness, curvature and length ac cording to
pre-determined specifications, a fifth

process to mill a bitting on said crude key body, and a sixth process to number and classify the key body
thus formed according to the shape of bitting; a sheath manufacturing procedure comprising a pro

cess to plane a copper rod, a process to mill a coni cal front end on said copper rod, a process to lathe

a groove piercing through said copper rod, and a

process to trim two opposite inner walls in said

groove; and

a key body and sheath combining procedure being to fasten a key body obtained from said key body
manufacturing procedure in a sheath obtained from said sheath manufacturing procedure to form an
unitary key. 2. A key manufacturing method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said key body manufacturing
procedure is to produce a plurality of key bodies of same shape of bit

ting at a time. 3. A key manufacturing method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said key body and sheath
combining procedure is to fasten a key body in a sheath by means of point welding process, pin joint,
doweled joint, rivet joint or punching process. :k

Raw Materials

The raw material of silverware is stainless steel, sterling silver, or, in the case of silver-plate, a base
metal (such as a high-quality copper alloy) over which a layer of silver is electrically deposited.
Stainless steel is a combination of steel, chrome and nickel. The finest grade of metal used in producing
quality lines is 18/8 stainless steel. This means that it contains 18 percent chrome, 8 percent nickel.
Stainless steel is very popular because of its easy care, durability, and low price.

The majority of silver is obtained as a byproduct of the extraction of lead, copper and zinc. Silver is
separated from smelted lead bullion by the Parkes process, in which zinc is added to the molten bullion
that has been heated to above the melting point of zinc. When the zinc has dissolved, the mixture is
cooled and a crust of zinc-silver alloy forms on the surface, because the silver combines more readily
with zinc than with lead. The crust is removed, pressed to remove excess lead and then processed in a
retort to recover the zinc for reuse, leaving a silver-lead bullion with a high silver content. Further
refining of the bullion is carried out in a cupellation furnace, where air is blown across the surface of the
molten metal to oxidize the lead and other impurities to a slag, leaving the silver, which is cast into
anode blocks. Final purification of the silver is made by an electrolytic process. Sterling silver consists of
925 pure silver and 75 parts of an alloy (usually copper). This proportion is fixed by law and therefore
never varies. The copper alloy adds durability without sacrificing the natural beauty and workability of
silver.

Silverplate is the result of a process that bonds pure silver (silver more pure than sterling) to a strong
base metal. The resulting tableware is durable, has the look and feel of silver, but is much less expensive
than sterling.

The Manufacturing

Process

Blanking

1 Production begins with rectangular, flat blanks of stainless steel, sterling silver, or in the case of plated
flatware, an alloy. Large rolls are stamped in individual blanks, which are flat pieces roughly the same
shape as the piece to be produced.

Rolling

2 Through a series of rolling operations, these blanks are graded or rolled to the correct thickness and
shapes required by the manufacturer's flatware patterns. First the blanks are rolled crosswise from left
to right, right to left, and lengthwise, then trimmed to outline. Each spoon, for instance, must be thick at
the base of the handle to resist bending. This gives graded pieces the right balance and a good feel in
the hand. Each piece is now in the form of a cleanly finished shape in the rough dimension of the utensil.
Annealing

3 Between operations, the blanks must pass through annealing ovens to soften the metal for further
machine operations. The annealing, done under great heat, must be very accurately controlled so the
final piece will be resistant to bending and to nicks and dents when in use. The last annealing is the most

The First step in cutlery manufacture involves blanking the stainless steel or sterling silver to the proper
shape. A series of rolling operations then gives the piece the correct thickness. After heat treatment and
trimming, the piece has a pattern embossed on it in a stamping operation. Finally, the piece is buffed
and polished.

The First step in cutlery manufacture involves blanking the stainless steel or sterling silver to the proper
shape. A series of rolling operations then gives the piece the correct thickness. After heat treatment and
trimming, the piece has a pattern embossed on it in a stamping operation. Finally, the piece is buffed
and polished.

important, because the pieces must be just the right degree of hardness when they are embossed. Then
the metal can be forced easily into all the tiny details in the dies and the ornamentation will be faithfully
reproduced.

Cutting to outline

4 The rolled blanks are placed in the cutout press by an operator, to remove the excess metal and to
fashion the shape of the piece. This process is similar to cutting shapes from rolled dough. The shape of
the piece is cut out of the metal and the excess metal is remelted and transformed back into sheets of
metal to be used again. This trimming must ensure an accurate fit of the pieces into the dies when the
design is applied.

Forming the pattern

5 The next step is the forming of the pattern. Each pattern has its own hardened steel dies—two dies for
each piece, one with the pattern for the front of the piece, and the other with the pattern for the back
of the piece. These are carefully set in the hammers by die setters. The operator quickly places a piece in
place under the drop hammer, which descends with a hydraulic pressure of 200 tons. (The bases of the
drop hammers are bedded in 160 cubic yards of cement.) The metal is squeezed into every tiny detail of
the ornamentation in the die, embossing the pattern on the piece. The blow of the hammer hardens the
piece for use in the home. Surplus metal around the outline of the piece is then removed by clipping
presses.

Special steps — knife, spoon, and fork

6 Special steps are necessary for the creation of knives, spoons, forks, and holloware pieces. To make
the hollow handle for the knife, after two strips of metal are formed to shape, they are then soldered
together, buffed and polished until the seam is no longer visible. The blade and handle are

This illustrations shows how a fork looks after each operation is performed. Although the tines are
pierced before the pattern is applied, the strip of metal that connects the tines together isn't removed
until after the pattern is embossed.

This illustrations shows how a fork looks after each operation is performed. Although the tines are
pierced before the pattern is applied, the strip of metal that connects the tines together isn't removed
until after the pattern is embossed.

permanently joined by means of a powerful cement, which bonds with great strength and durability.

7 With the spoon, after the pattern has been embossed upon the front and back of the handle, the next
step is the forming of the bowl. The forming is done again under the same powerful drop hammers from
accurate steel dies. Each bowl requires two hammer blows. Surplus metal around the outline of the
spoon is removed by clipping presses. A small burr still remains to be removed at a later operation.

8 The forming of fork tines is a similar process to that of the forming of the spoon's bowl, but the
operation takes place before the pattern is applied to the handle. After a fork is cut to outline, it is
pierced and tined: the tines are pieced out, and the small piece of metal that holds the tip of the tines
together is removed in another operation after the pattern has been applied.

Silver plating

9 For the silver-plated pieces, the electroplating process is an additional step. The pieces are first
prepared by being buffed so that the edges are smooth and the surfaces are free from small holes.
When the buffing is completed, the pieces are given a thorough cleaning with as many as 12 different
chemical solutions. Finally, they undergo electrolysis, in which a layer of silver is electrically deposited
over the base metal.

Buffing and sand polishing

10 The knives, forks and spoons are now 1 0J buffed, then polished. Depending on the pattern, special
finishing processes can give silver-plated and sterling silver pieces a bright, mirror-like finish, a soft,
satiny glow, or a brushed or florentine finish.

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Ring

Manufacturing Process

Engagement rings, wedding bands, dress rings, pendants and earrings are handmade in our onsite
workshop.

There is an immense difference between handmade and handcrafted jewellery. A handmade ring begins
with raw material (for example, a 6mm square 18ct yellow or white gold bar). The metal is rolled out,
soldered, hammered, shaped and worked to form a ring. Each setting is individually carved out, claws
soldered, hammered and shaped (depending on the design) to create a place for the diamonds to be set.
Once the diamonds are set, then ring is then cleaned up, polished and rhodium plated. The result is a
high quality, secure and stable ring that has been work hardened. The more the metal is worked, the
stronger and longer lasting the ring will be.

A handcrafted ring is made by a method called casting. This is a process where the piece is first carved or
milled out of wax then a plaster mould of the wax ring is taken. Once the plaster is set, it is placed in a
kiln for the wax to burn out. The next step is to pour metal into the plaster mould where the wax once
was, and when the metal has set, the plaster is removed. The ring is then set with diamonds and
polished, resulting in a ring that hasn’t been work hardened and is, therefore, not as durable as a
handmade ring. If the person you are purchasing a ring from does not go out of their way to explain
these processes to you, it usually means it is handcrafted.

A handmade plain solitaire ring can take anywhere from 10 to 13 hours to make, whereas a handcrafted
ring takes between 1 to 2 hours.

FAUCET

Raw Materials

Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is the most widely used material for faucets due to its resistance to
soft-water corrosion and hard-water calcification. It usually contains some alloying elements—like
bismuth—to make it easier to process. Brass is received as bar stock of 0.13-2 in (0.33-5 cm) in diameter,
depending on the size of faucet. The majority of the other components that make up a faucet are made
of other metals or ceramics and are received as finished parts from other manufacturers.
Design

To meet a variety of consumers' needs, faucets come in a wide range of styles, colors, and finishes.
Ergonomic designs may involve a longer spout length and easier to operate handles. The shape of the
faucet and its finish will affect the manufacturing process. Some designs will be more difficult to
machine or forge than others. A different finishing process may be used to achieve a different look.

For the homeowner, special finishes are available, including brushed nickel, polished nickel, satin black,
gold, platinum, and a variety of colors. Consumers also now customize the look of the faucet, combining
more than one type of finish. Warranties are longer and more features are available. Prices to the
consumer ranged in the spring of 2000 from $40 all the way up to $500.

The Manufacturing Process

The manufacturing process for faucets has become highly automated, with computers controlling most
of the machines. Productivity and efficiency have thus improved over the years. The basic process
consists of forming the main body of the faucet (some-times including the spout if no swivel is needed),
applying a finish, and then assembling the various components, followed by inspection and packaging.
The faucet industry has also been impacted by environmental regulations, which have required special
processes to be developed.

Forming

1 There are two methods used to make the faucet bodies. Most manufacturers use a machining process
to shape the body into the required size and dimensions. This involves first cutting the bars into short
slugs and automatically feeding them into a computerized numerically controlled machining center of
multi-spindle and multi-axis design. This machine performs tuming, milling, and drilling operations. It
typically takes about one minute to make a part.

2 Some faucet manufacturers use hot forging instead of machining, since this method can produce a
near-net shape in about three seconds with little waste. Forging is the process of shaping metals by
deforming them in some way. In hot forging, heated metal is forced into a die that is almost the same
shape as the faucet body. The pressure is slowly increased over the course of several seconds to make
sure the die is completely filled with metal. Only minor machining is required to produce the exact
dimensions.

Finishing
3 After machining, the parts are ready for the finishing process. Those components that come into
contact with water may first require a special surface treatment to remove any remaining lead. This
involves a leaching process that eliminates lead molecules from the brass surface. The conventional
finish is chrome since this material is most resistant against corrosion. First a base coating of
electroplated nickel is applied, followed by a thin coating of electroplated chromium. The chrome layer
is deposited from a plating bath containing certain additives that improve corrosion resistance.

4 If brass plating is used, a clear polymer coating is applied to improve durability. For white and other
colored finishes, a similar polymer or epoxy plastic with color added is sprayed onto the faucet in an
electrically charged environment. Both coatings then are heat cured.

5 To achieve a polished brass look, physical vapor deposition is used, which applies

Once the parts are assembled, they are pressure tested.

Once the parts are assembled, they are pressure tested.

the metal coating in a vacuum chamber. This chamber has four components: a vacuum pump to provide
a controlled environment free of contaminants; a tank that emits several types of gases; a target rod
acts as the metal source; and racks to hold the faucet parts. The target is made of a corrosion-resistant
material such as zirconium.

6 An electric arc heats the target to vaporize the material, then strikes the surface of the faucet at high
speed and reacts with the mixture of gases. One gas provides the color and another provides the
corrosion resistance. As the target material combines with these gases, it adheres to the faucet part,
creating a bond that is virtually indestructible. Some manufacturers use a spiral coil around the target to
provide a uniform distribution of the coating.

Assembly

7 After plating, the parts are stored in bins until assembly. Assembly can involve both manual and
automated processes. For some faucets, prelubricated rubber seals or o-rings are installed by hand.

8 Finally, the faucets and other components are sent for final assembly. This process takes place on
rotary assembly machines, which are precisely controlled, or by robots. The sprout, if separate, is first
installed, followed by the ceramic cartridge. This cartridge is screwed in place with a brass using a
pneumatic gun, and then the handle is attached by hand. Sometimes the copper tubes are installed
before assembly. After assembly, the faucets are packaged in boxes along with any other components
that are needed for final installation
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WRENCH

How It's Made? - Wrenches

How It's Made? - Wrenches

By Bill Dickson February 5, 2016 56651 Views

It’s one of the most common tools in the world. If you’ve tightened a nut or any sort of bolt, you
probably used a variation of this tool. Whether you’re using a combination, pipe, ratchet or other
variant…a wrench is a must have for anyone! This week on How It’s Made, Tool Parts Direct takes a look
at the history and the manufacturing of a basic wrench.

The Early Beginnings And Its Use

Photo Courtesy of American Farmer via ESNPC’s Blog

Even though there has been wrench-like tools in use since the beginnings of the 15th century, modern
wrenches didn’t come into popularity until the 19th century. The wrench as we know it was originally
called a spanner in Victorian England. Solymon Merrick is widely credited as the creator of the modern
wrench and he patented the wrench in 1835. Shortly after the patent, the many other inventors
followed up on the idea and created different kinds of wrenches for different kinds of situations. Original
wrenches were first made of cast iron, but eventually shifted to steel for stronger durability and longer
tool life.

Photo Courtesy of Footprint Tools

The simplicity of the design is one of the main reasons why it’s widely adapted. It guarantees its easy
duplication and ability to be mass produced all over the globe. It helps give enough torque to loosen and
tighten bolts without stressing the person using the wrench.

Design and Science

The wrench’s physics are relatively simple and it’s used mostly as a lever. There are notches inside the
wrench’s mouth to give a better grip. The end of the wrench is pulled at right angle to tighten or loosen
nuts and bolts.

If you have an adjustable wrench, you can change the size of the head to accommodate the right size of
whatever you’re trying to loosen or tighten. Wrenches can be used be just about anybody, but are must
for mechanics, plumbers and others who work with a variety of machinery.

Other types of wrenches that are common include a pipe wrench, ratchet wrench, Allen wrench and the
famous Monkey wrench.

The Manufacturing Process

Since there are so many types of wrenches, we’ll focus on the combination wrench since it’s one of the
most common types of wrenches used by the public. First, a steel bar is sent into a die cutting machine
which cuts the bars to a certain length. The bar lengths are then called billets.

After the billets are cut to size, a machine then feeds each billet into an induction heater in order to
heat the metal and allow it to be forged into a certain shape. Once the billets are heated to a certain
temperature, the dies then forge the heated metal into the shape of a wrench.
Once the wrench is forged into shape, another die machine trims the excess metal. The wrenches
eventually flow down a conveyor belt and start to cool off. They’re then dumped into a pick-up box.

After the wrenches are picked up, a factory worker begins to grind off the trim lines to give the
wrenches a smooth finish. Then, the wrench is inserted into a bend machine to give the box end of a
wrench a 15 degree angle.

A vertical milling machine then drills a hole into the box end. A broach tool is also used to help give the
wrench hole a hexagonal shape. Other wrenches go through similar methods as well. After that, the
wrenches undergo a heat treatment to harden and strengthen the metal. The wrenches are then placed
onto another conveyor and polished for eight hours with ceramic stones. Finally, the wrenches are
inserted into a nickel solution and submerged in the liquid to protect the metal from corrosion.

Once that is finished, the wrenches are washed and polished for another eight hours until they are
shining. Then, they’re ready to be shipped out.

BADMINTON RACKET

1. A badminton racket comprising: a frame formed circularly; a shaft joined to the frame; a joint installed
reaching inside the frame and the shaft at a joint portion of the frame and the shaft; and an expandable
resin placed between the joint and the frame.

2. A badminton racket as claimed in claim 1 characterized in that the joint is made of a resin.

3. A badminton racket manufacturing method comprising: a resin sheet tube forming process that forms
a resin sheet tube by placing an expandable resin that expands when heated on an inner side of a
thermoplastic resin sheet and rolling the thermoplastic resin sheet into a cylindrical shape; an
expandable resin placing process that places an expandable resin that expands when heated to an outer
periphery of a portion of a joint, the joint being to be installed to reach inside the frame formed with the
resin sheet tube and inside a shaft, the portion being to be installed in the frame; and a joining process
that joins the frame and the shaft by installing the joint placed with the expandable resin inside both
end portions of the resin sheet tube, bent circularly and butted against each other, and the shaft, and
setting the frame, the shaft and the joint in a die, and then heating the frame, the shaft and the joint.

4. A badminton racket manufacturing method according to claim 3, characterized in that the expandable
resin has a resin and a foaming agent that expands when heated.
How Products Are Made

Made How Volume 3 Scissors

Scissors

Background

Scissors are cutting instruments consisting of a pair of metal blades connected in such a way that the
blades meet and cut materials placed between them when the handles are brought together. The word
shears is used to describe larger instruments of the same kind. As a general rule, scissors have blades
less than 6 in (15 cm) long and usually have handles with finger holes of the same size. Shears have
blades longer than 6 in (15 cm) and often have one small handle with a hole that fits the thumb and one
large handle with a hole that will fit two or more fingers.

Scissors and shears exist in a wide variety of forms depending on their intended uses. Children's scissors,
used only on paper, have dull blades to ensure safety. Scissors used to cut hair or fabric must be much
sharper. The largest shears are used to cut metal or to trim shrubs and must have very strong blades.

Specialized scissors include sewing scissors, which often have one sharp point and one blunt point for
intricate cutting of fabric, and nail scissors, which have curved blades for cutting fingernails and toenails.
Special kinds of shears include pinking shears, which have notched blades that cut cloth to give it a wavy
edge, and thinning shears, which have teeth that thin hair rather than trim it.

The earliest scissors known to exist appeared in the Middle East about 3,000 or 4,000 years ago and
were known as spring scissors. They consisted of two bronze blades connected at the handles by a thin,
curved strip of bronze. This strip served to bring the blades together when squeezed and to pull them
apart when released. Steel shears of a similar design are still used to cut wool from sheep.

Pivoted scissors of bronze or iron, in which the blades were connected at a point between the tips and
the handles, were used in ancient Rome, China, Japan, and Korea. Despite the early invention of this
design, still used in almost all modern scissors, spring scissors continued to be used in Europe until the
sixteenth century.
During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, spring scissors were made by heating a bar of iron or steel,
then flattening and shaping its ends into blades on an anvil. The center of the bar was heated, bent to
form the spring, then cooled and reheated to make it flexible. Pivoted scissors were not manufactured in
large numbers until 1761, when Robert Hinchliffe of Sheffield, England, began using cast steel to make
them. Cast steel, recently invented at the time by Benjamin Huntsman, also of Sheffield, was made by
melting steel in clay crucibles and pouring it into molds. This resulted in a more uniform steel with fewer
impurities.

During the nineteenth century, scissors were hand-forged with elaborately decorated handles. They
were made by hammering steel on indented surfaces known as bosses to form the blades. The rings in
the handles, known as bows, were made by punching a hole in the steel and enlarging it with the
pointed end of an anvil.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, scissors were simplified in design to accommodate
mechanized production. Instead

Scissors

of being forged entirely by hand, blades and handles were now formed by using drop hammers.
Powered by steam, these large, heavy devices used dies to shape the scissors from bars of steel. Modern
versions of drop hammers are still used to manufacture scissors today.

Raw Materials

Scissors are usually made of steel. Some scissors used for special purposes are made from other metal
alloys. Scissors used to cut cordite (an explosive substance resembling twine) must not produce sparks.
Scissors used to cut magnetic tape must not interfere with magnetism.

Steel scissors exist in two basic forms. Carbon steel is used to make scissors in which the blade and the
handle form one continuous piece. Carbon steel is manufactured from iron and about 1% carbon. It has
the advantages of being strong and staying sharp. Scissors made from carbon steel are usually plated
with nickel or chromium to prevent them from rusting.

Stainless steel is used to make scissors in which a plastic handle is fitted to the metal blade. Stainless
steel is manufactured from
Scissors

iron, about 1% carbon, and at least 10% chromium. It has the advantages of being light and rustproof.
The handles of stainless steel scissors are made from a strong, light substance such as ABS (acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene) plastic.

The Manufacturing

Process

Making the blanks

1 Before they are sharpened and attached, the two halves of a pair of scissors are known as blanks. A
blank may consist of a blade and a handle in one piece or it may consist of only the blade. In the latter
case, a metal handle will be welded to the blade or a plastic handle will be attached to it.

2 Inexpensive scissors may be made from blanks formed by cold stamping. In this process, a sharp die in
the shape of the blank is stamped into a sheet of unheated steel. The die cuts through the steel to form
the blank.

3 Blanks may also be made by molding. O Molten steel is poured into a mold in the shape of the blank.
The steel cools back into a solid and the blank is removed.

4 Most quality scissors are made from blanks formed by drop forging. Like cold stamping, this process
involves shaping the blanks with a die. This die, known as a drop hammer, pounds into a bar of red-hot
steel to form the blank. The pressure of the drop hammer also strengthens the steel.

Processing the blanks

5 The blanks are trimmed to the proper shape by cutting away excess metal. A hole is drilled through the
blank. This hole will later allow two completed blades to be attached to each other.

6 The trimmed blanks are hardened by heating them, then cooling them quickly in cold air, water, oil, or
another substance. The temperature to which they are heated and the medium in which they are cooled
varies depending on the type of steel from which they are made and the desired characteristics of the
blade.

7 The hardened blanks are heated again and allowed to cool slowly in air. This second heating, known as
tempering, gives the blank a uniform hardness. If the blades of a pair of scissors did not have uniform
hardness, the harder places on one blade would soon wear out the softer places on the other blade.

8 The repeated heating and cooling causes the blanks to warp. They are straightened by being placed on
an anvil and lightly tapped with a hammer. This process is known as peening.
Grinding and polishing

9 The blank is ground into a blade by applying the edge to a rapidly moving sanding belt or abrasive
wheel. The surface of the belt or wheel is covered with small particles of an abrasive substance and
works in the same way as sandpaper. The hard abrasive grinds away enough steel to form a sharp edge.
During this process, the blade is cooled with water or various liquids known as cutting fluids to prevent it
from heating and warping. The sharpened blade is then polished in a similar manner using belts or
wheels, containing much smaller particles of abrasive.

Making the handles

10 For many scissors, the handles are I 0 / formed from the start as part of the blank. If not, they may be
made of a metal alloy or from plastic. If they are metal, they are made in the same way as the blanks
and then welded to them. If they are plastic, they are made by injection molding. In this process, molten
plastic is forced under pressure into a mold in the shape of the handles. It is allowed to cool and the
mold is opened to remove the handles. The handles contain hollow slots into which the end of the
blanks can be inserted. A strong adhesive is used to keep the handle firmly attached.

Assembling the scissors

11 Two polished blades are attached to each other by a rivet or screw through the previously drilled
holes. Rivets, which cannot be adjusted by the consumer, are used to make less expensive scissors.
Adjustable screws are used in more costly scissors.

12 The scissors are adjusted to ensure. that the two blades work together correctly. They may be
painted or plated with nickel or chrome to protect them from rust. The scissors are inspected for flaws,
the screw or rivet is lubricated, and the scissors are wrapped for shipping to consumers.

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Plastic Bottles

Plastic Water Bottle Manufacturing Process

The first stage in bottle manufacturing is stretch blow molding. The PET is heated and placed in a mold,
where it assumes the shape of a long, thin tube (the process by which the plastic is forced into the mold
is called injection molding). The tube of PET, now called a parison, is then transferred into a second,
bottle-shaped mold. A thin steel rod, called a mandrel, is slid inside the parison where it fills the parison
with highly pressurized air, and stretch blow molding begins: as a result of the pressurized air, heat and
pressure, the parison is blown and stretched into the mold, assuming a bottle shape. To ensure that the
bottom of the bottle retains a consistently flat shape, a separate component of plastic is simultaneously
joined to the bottle during blow molding.

The mold must be cooled relatively quickly, so that that the newly formed component is set properly.
There are several cooling methods, both direct and indirect, that can effectively cool the mold and the
plastic. Water can be coursed through pipes surrounding the mold, which indirectly cools the mold and
plastic. Direct methods include using pressurized air or carbon dioxide directly on the mold and plastic.

Once the bottle (or, in continuous manufacturing, bottles) has cooled and set, it is ready to be removed
from the mold. If a continuous molding process has been used, the bottles will need to be separated by
trimming the plastic in between them. If a non-continuous process has been used, sometimes excess
plastic can seep through the mold during manufacturing and will require trimming. After removing the
bottle from the mold and removing excess plastic, the plastic bottles are ready for transportation

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Plastic Containers Manufacturing Process

Molding Methods for Plastic Containers

Extrusion Blow MoldingIn extrusion blow molding a round, hollow tube or parison is formed by an
extruder. A mold cavity, composed of two halves, closes around the parison and pinches off one end.
Compressed air expands the parison to conform against the cold mold cavity walls. When sufficiently
cool, the mold opens and the container is removed and trimmed of excess plastic or flash. Flash, a basic
characteristic of extrusion blow molding, is formed when the parison is pinched off by the mold. Since
most resins can be reprocessed, the flash is not wasted but is used as "regrind." Wall distribution,
thickness and weight can be controlled by parison programming. While the parison is extruded,
programming changes in the relation of mandrel and die can be used to shift material from heavier,
stronger areas to lighter, weaker areas. This method aids significantly in maximizing container
performance and minimizing container weight and cost.

Injection Blow MoldingThe process of injection blow molding (IBM) is used for the production of hollow
plastic objects. Injection blow molding is performed in basically three stages. At the first stage, melted
plastic is injected into a mold cavity to produce a preform parison. The preform is shaped like a test
tube, but with a molded screw finish at the top. The preform is then transferred to the second, blow-
molding stage. Air is blown through a core pin to expand the preform against a cold mold cavity. The
container is then transferred to the third station for ejection. Two main types of processes exist:

One-step injection molding – the melted polymer is injected into the final shape of the container in a
cold mold, it's then released.

Two-step injection molding – the first step in the injection of melted plastic in a mold, resulting in the
creation of a preform. The cold preform is then taken onto another machine, enclosed in a mold,
heated, stretched with a pin to reach the desired length and then blown in the shape of the chosen
mold.

Stretch Blow MoldingStretch blow molding uses either the injection or extrusion blow molding process
as a basic foundation. In either case, a preform parison is molded and then transferred to a blow
molding cavity. The parison is stretched biaxially during blow molding to orient and align the molecules.
This orientation improves the gas barrier, stiffness, clarity and impact strength of the container. As a
result, containers can be reduced in weight. Resins which can be stretch blow molded include PET, PVC
and Polypropylene. PET has by far the most common use in carbonated beverage containers.

Injection MoldingInjection molded containers can be straight sided or tapered, narrow or wide mouth
shapes such as jars, tubs and vials. Material is injected into a cavity where pressure forces the resin to
conform to the mold body. Containers are capable of holding to a tighter dimensional tolerance, and are
more uniform in wall distribution. A wide variety of resins can be processed via the injection molding
process, the most popular being polypropylene, styrene and polyethylene.

Multi-Layer Bottles - Co-ExtrusionThe newest of bottle blowing technology, co-extruded multi-layered

bottles bond various plastic resins together with tie layers to produce bottles with barrier and heat-
stable qualities suitable for use with hot-filled, hermetically sealed food products. Currently EVOH
(ethylene vinyl alcohol) is used as the central layer because of its barrier properties. Polypropylene or
polyethylene is used as the inner and outer walls because of their heat tolerance and clarity. The hot-fill
process creates a vacuum which will draw in the side walls of a plastic container. This effect must be
compensated for in bottle design, either by using an oval shape which will cloak the indentation or by
employing strengthening ribs or panels in a round bottle design. Possible applications include: juices,
sauces, jams, toppings, mayonnaise, and pickled products.