Lectures 1 and 2
Lectures 1 and 2
1. What is Biochemistry?
Biochemistry is the science related to an understanding of the chemical structure of
living organisms and the chemical processes which take place in them.
Clinical Biochemistry
Clinical Biochemistry is the application part of Biochemistry for diagnosis of
the clinical conditions by determining various constituents in different body
fluids.
Different body fluids used for diagnosis include blood (plasma, serum), urine,
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), sputum, stools, semen etc.
For example, quantitative determination of glucose in blood, help in the
diagnosis of diabetes millets.
4. Biomolecules:
All living things are made of cells and all cells are made of a set of molecules
known as biomolecules.
Biomolecules are made up of chemical elements.
Although slightly more than 100 elements exist in the universe, only 24 are known
to be essential for the structure and function of the human body.
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2) Mineral Elements (Abundant minerals):
These minerals are present, almost, in the form of inorganic ions.
Example: calcium is the most abundant minerals in humans.
3) Trace elements:
These elements are also important for life.
These are present in small quantities. Iron represents the most abundant
element in this group.
all of the elements except fluoride are essential
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1. Water Dissociation (Ionization):
The degree of water ionization at equilibrium is small. For example, at 25°C only
about two of every 109 molecules in pure water are ionized at any instant.
(1)
(2)
= Kw (3)
where Kw designates the product (55.5 M)(Keq), the ion product of water at
25°C.
The value for Keq, determined by electrical-conductivity measurements of pure
water, is 1.8 X 10-16 M at 25oC. Then, substituting this value for Keq in Equation
(3) gives the value of the ion product of water (seen in Equation 4):
= Kw (4)
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Thus the product [H+] [OH-] in aqueous solutions at 25oC always equals 1 X 10-
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M2
When there are exactly equal concentrations of H+ and OH- (as in pure water),
the solution is said to be at neutral pH.
From the concentration of H ions [H+], the pH of pure water can be calculated as
follows:
Remembering that by looking up in log tables, log1=0 and log 10=1, and pH
calculation becomes :
pH = 0 +7(1)= 7
2. The pH Scale:
The ion product of water dissociation (Kw) is the basis for the pH scale.
Biochemical reactions are often defined in terms of hydrogen ion (H+)
concentrations.
Soren Sörensen defined pH of a solution as the negative logarithm of the
concentration (in moles/litre) of hydrogen ions, OR.
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The pH scale specifies how acidic or how basic a solution is. For precisely, the
number of hydrogen ions present in a solution is a measure of the acidity of the
solution.
The pH scale has values that range from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic).
A pH of 7, the middle of the scale, is neutral, neither acidic nor basic.
3.1 Definitions:
Compounds containing hydrogen atoms that can release hydrogen ions in
solutions are referred to as an acid (a proton donor) such as hydrochloric acid.
Bases are compounds that can accept a hydrogen ion (a proton accepter) such as
the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-).
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Acids and bases are classified as strong when the reaction with water is virtually
100% complete and as weak when the reaction with water is much less than
100% complete (perhaps as little as 2–3%).
Note that the above equations are written with a single arrow. This
indicates that the reaction has little or no tendency to proceed in the
reverse direction to establish equilibrium.
(Conjugate base)
Ionization of an acid yields its conjugate base, and the two are termed a
conjugate acid–base pair, for example acetic acid (CH3COOH) and acetate
(CH3COO-) are a conjugate acid–base pair
(Conjugate base)
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Equation 5
The pK of an acid is the pH at which it is half dissociated. i.e. when [A-] =[HA].
4. Henderson–Hasselbalch equation
The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation expresses the relationship between pH, pK and
the ratio of acid to base, and can be used to calculate these values.
[conjugate base]
[acid]
Henderson–Hasselbalch equation
Example:
A solution containing acetic acid and acetate with a pKa of 4.8 can resist a change in pH from
3.8 to 5.8 with maximum buffering capacity at pH = 4.8.
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5. Buffers
A buffer is a mixture of an undissociated acid and its conjugate base (the form of the
acid having lost its proton).
It causes a solution to resist changes in pH when either H+ or OH- is added.
A buffer has its greatest buffering capacity in the pH range near its pKa
The buffering capacity of the acid–base pair can be defined as the pK ± 1 pH unit.
Two factors determine the effectiveness of a buffer, its pKa relative to the pH of the
solution and its concentration.
Biological fluids such as blood are buffered. For example, in healthy individuals the
pH of the blood is carefully controlled at pH 7.4.
The major buffering components in most biological fluids are the phosphate ion
(H2PO4- , pK 6.82) and the carbonate ion (HCO3-, pK 6.35) because they have pK
values in this range.
Enzymes need an optimum pH (buffer the pH) to work properly and to avoid their
denaturation (loss of activity).
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Advantages: It is efficient as compared to other buffer systems because:
a) It is present in higher concentration than other buffer systems (26-28
mmol/l)
b) It produces H2CO3 which is a weak acid and volatile and CO2 is exhaled
out.
Disadvantage:
a) Its pKa value is away from the physiological pH, and thus the plasma
b) It appears to be poorly protected against an influx of OH- ions.
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Lecture 2- Carbohydrates Chemistry (Part 1)
1. Definition
Carbohydrates (sugars) are polyhydroxy compounds with a functional aldehyde or
ketone group or they are organic molecules formed from C, O, and H with a general
formula of (CH2O)n.
They are also represented with general formula Cn(H2O)n and according to this formula
carbohydrates are also called “hydrate of carbon”.
2. Functions
(i) Carbohydrates act as a major source of energy for all tissues. Sugars represent the
primary source of energy in the brain, red blood cells (RBCs), and retinal cells.
(ii) They represent a storage form of energy (starch in plants and glycogen in animals).
(iii) Carbohydrates are components of cell membranes for cell-cell interaction
(glycoproteins and glycolipids).
(iv) They can form molecules that are essential for medical and biological purposes:
a) Carbohydrates are components of nucleic acids and blood group substances.
b) Some drugs are derivatives of carbohydrates such as streptomycin (an antibiotic).
c) Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a derivative of carbohydrates.
3. Classifications
i. Monosaccharides: such as glucose and fructose.
ii. Disaccharides: including sucrose and lactose, consist of two monosaccharide units
joined through bridging oxygen atoms. Such a bond is called a glycosidic bond.
iii. Oligosaccharides: consist of three to ten monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic
bonds such as Raffinose "α-Galactose (1–6) α-Glucose (1–2) β-Fructose".
iv. Polysaccharides: the largest and most complex carbohydrates, which are long, often
highly branched, chains of monosaccharides. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are all
examples of polysaccharides.
4. Natural Sources
Carbohydrate can be obtained from grains rice, potatoes, breads, cereals, sugar cane,
fruits, milk, and honey are an important source of energy for animals.
A healthy diet should contain all types. The quantity of sucrose should be minimized
because its large quantities in the diet promote obesity and tooth decay.
Deficiency: Low intake associated with inadequate total energy intake causes
starvation.
Excessive intake: High concentrations can lead to increased risk of obesity, diabetes
mellitus, and atherosclerosis.
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5. Monosaccharides
They are the simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller units under mild
conditions.
The most abundant monosaccharide in nature and certainly the most important
nutritionally is the 6-carbon sugar glucose. Glucose (C6H12O6) often called “blood
sugar” because it is the major monosaccharide found in the blood.
Most monosaccharides in the body contain five or six carbon atoms and are called
pentoses and hexoses, respectively.
5.1 Subdivisions:
Monosaccharides can be subdivided into two groups:
On the basis of the functional groups they contain:
For example, a monosaccharide with an internal ketone group (–C=O) is a ketose.
If a terminal aldehyde group (–CHO) is present, it is called an aldose.
Depending on the number of carbon atoms:
For example, trioses have three carbons, pentoses have five carbons, and hexoses
have six carbons
An aldose A ketose
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D-Glucose D-Fructose
(iii) Enantiomers: Any molecule containing a chiral carbon can exist as a pair of enantiomers
either D- or L- optical isomers. Both D- and L- forms are mirror images. In dextrorotatory
(D) form, the –OH is to the right hand while in levorotatory (L) form, the –OH is to the left.
Most of the monosaccharides found in living systems belong to the D series of optical
isomers. The chiral carbon exists farthest from the oxidized end (figures 2.2 and 2.3).
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(iv) Epimers: They are two isomers differ in the configuration of –OH group
around one carbon atom. For example, galactose and glucose are C-4 epimers
because configuration of hydroxyl group on 4th carbon atom of galactose is
different from glucose. Similarly, mannose and glucose are C-2 are epimers.
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α-D-Glucose β-D- Glucose
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(ii) Anomeric carbon: Anomers are those monosaccharides that differ in
configuration of OH group on anomeric carbon. The anomeric carbon of an
aldose is carbon 1; and in ketoses carbon 2. Formation of ring structure
generates α- and β- forms. For example, in the α-glucose anomer, the hydroxyl
group of C-1 (anomeric carbon) is below the ring, and in the β-glucose anomer,
the C-1 hydroxyl group is above the ring.
Free aldehyde
β -D-Glucopyranose α -D-Glucopyranose
(β -D-Glucose) (α -D-Glucose)
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(iv) Glycosidic bond: The bond between the anomeric carbon atom and any of the
hydroxyl groups on the second monosaccharide is called glycosidic bond.
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