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Unit of Competence: Determine Best Fit Topology

LO 1: Identify key information source

Introduction to Computer Network

This lesson introduces some basic principles of computer-based networking, discusses advantages of
networking, and presents the idea of connecting computers together to form a local area network (such as a
corporate intranet) and a wide area network (such as the Internet).

At its most elementary level, a computer network consists of two computers connected to each other by a
cable that allows them to share data. All computer networking, no matter how sophisticated stems from that
simple system. While the idea of connecting two computers by a cable may not seem extraordinary,
in retrospect it has proven to be a major achievement in communications.

Computer networking arose as an answer to the need to share data in a timely fashion. Personal computers
are powerful tools that can process and manipulate large amounts of data quickly, but they do not allow users
to share that data efficiently. Before networks, users needed either to print out documents or copy document
files to a disk for others to edit or use them. If others made changes to the document, there was no easy way
to merge the changes. This was, and still is, known as "working in a stand-alone environment."

Copying files onto floppy disks and giving them to others to copy onto their computers was sometimes
referred to as the "sneakernet." This early form of computer networking is one that many of us have used
and perhaps still use today.

Definition of computer network

A network is a group of connected computers that allows people to share resources.

Advantage of a computer network

 File sharing
 The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote file access.
A person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on the other

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workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. It saves the time which is wasted in copying a file
from one system to another, by using a storage device. In addition to that, many people can access
or update the information stored in a database, making it up-to-date and accurate. Resource
 sharing[Hardware and software sharing]
Hardware like Printer, hard disk, CD-ROM and different software can be shared. For example,
if there are four people in a family, each having their own computer, they will require four
modems (for the Internet connection) and four printers, if they want to use the resources at the
same time. A computer network, on the other hand, provides a cheaper alternative by the
provision of resource sharing. In this way, all the four computers can be interconnected, using
a network, and just one modem and printer can efficiently provide the services to all four
members. The facility of shared folders can also be availed by family members.
 Increased Storage Capacity: As there is more than one computer on a network which can easily
share files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. A standalone computer
might fall short of storage memory, but when many computers are on a network, memory of
different computers can be used in such case. One can also design a storage server on the network
in order to have a huge storage capacity.
 Centralized administration and support
Networking computers also simplifies administration and support tasks. From just a single
location, the network administrator can perform administrative tasks on any computer on the
network, remote troubleshooting, for technical personnel to support one version of an
operating system or application than to oversee a number of individual and unique systems
and setups.
 Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many software available in the market which are costly and
take time for installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the software can be stored or
installed on a system or a server and can be used by the different workstations.

More specifically, computers that are part of a network can share:

 Documents (memos, spreadsheets, invoices, and so on).

 E-mail messages.
 Word-processing software.
 Illustrations, photographs, videos, and audio files.
 Live audio and video broadcasts.
 Printers.
 Fax machines.
 Modems.
 CD-ROM drives and other removable drives, such as Zip drives.
 Hard drives.

And more sharing options exist. The capabilities of networks are constantly expanding as new ways are
found to share and communicate by means of computers.

Disadvantage of a computer network

 Security Issue: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues involved. If
a computer is a standalone, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if

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a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get unauthorized access by using different tools.
In case of big organizations, various network security software are used to prevent the theft of any
confidential and classified data.
 Rapid spread of computer virus: If any computer system in a network gets affected by computer
virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting affected too. Viruses get spread on a network
easily because of the interconnectivity of workstations. Such spread can be dangerous if the
computers have important database which can get corrupted by the virus.
 Expensive setup: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending on the number
of computers to be connected. Costly devices like routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the bills
of a person trying to install a computer network. He will also have to buy NICs (Network Interface
Cards) for each of the workstations, in case they are not inbuilt.
 Dependency on the main servers: In case the main File Server of a computer network breaks down,
the system becomes useless. In case of big networks, the File Server should be a powerful computer,
which often makes it expensive.
Hacker: A computer hacker is a person who finds out weaknesses in the computer and exploits it.
Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, or challenge
Workstation: PC connected to a network

Types of Computer Network

Based on the area coverage of the network, computer networks can be divides into two

A. Local Area Network (LAN)

B. Wide area Network (WAN)

C. Metropolitan area Network(MAN)

LANs
 Local area networks are used to interconnect distributed communities of computers located within
a single building or localized group of buildings.
 Since all equipment is located within a single establishment, LAN’s are normally installed and
maintained by the organization. Hence, they are also referred to as private data networks.
 Example: network in your class
MAN:
 Is a larger network that usually spans several buildings in the same city or town.
 Example: networks among Addis Ababa sub city administrations (Kifle Ketemas)

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WANs
 When data communication is necessary or desired beyond the reach of a MAN, a wide area
network (WAN) over public carrier networks is established.
 Institutions transferring large amounts of data between offices often decide to lease dedicated
transmission lines from public carriers, in what is termed an enterprise-wide private network.
 Example : network among news agency offices in different region of Ethiopia.

Types of networks based on configuration (Node Relationship)

Terms to be familiar

 Servers—Computers that provide shared resources to network users.

 Clients—Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server.
 Media—The wires that make the physical connections.
 Shared data—Files provided to clients by servers across the network.
 Shared printers and other peripherals—Additional resources provided by servers.
 Resources—Any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items, made available for use by
members of the network

Based on the computers relationship on the network, computer networks can be categorized as Peer to Peer
and Server based network

Peer-to-Peer Networks

In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the computers. All
the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer functions as both a client and a
server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire network. The user at each computer determines
what data on that computer is shared on the network. Peer to peer network are also called Workgroup

Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:

 There are 10 users or fewer.

 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist.
 Security is not an issue.
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the foreseeable future.

Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice than a server-based
network.

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Advantages of peer to peer network

 Easy to install and configure

 The cost of installation and operation is less

 A full time network administrator is not required

Disadvantages of peer to peer network

 Shared resources can be accessed by everyone

 Backup has to be performed on each computer separately

 No centralized security

Server Based network (client/server network)

In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network—with computers acting as both servers
and clients—will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks have dedicated servers. A dedicated
server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a client or workstation. Servers are described
as "dedicated" because they are not themselves clients, and because they are optimized to service requests
from network clients quickly and to ensure the security of files and directories. Server based network is also
known as Domain.

Advantages of server based network

 Centralized resources
o Easier to backup files

o Easier to find files

 Efficient

 Security

o One machine can secure entrire network

o One central login

 Scalability

Disadvantage of client server

 If the server goes down, it takes part or the whole network with it
 It is more expensive to install

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 Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT skills

Specialized servers

Servers must perform varied and complex tasks. Servers for large networks have become specialized to
accommodate the expanding needs of users. Following are examples of different types of servers
included on many large networks

File and Print Servers

File and print servers manage user access and use of file and printer resources. For example, when you are
running a word-processing application, the word-processing application runs on your computer. The word-
processing document stored on the file and print server is loaded into your computer's memory so that you
can edit or use it locally. In other words, file and print servers are used for file and data storage.

Application Servers

Application servers make the server side of client/server applications, as well as the data, available to clients.
For example, servers store vast amounts of data that is organized to make it easy to retrieve. Thus, an
application server differs from a file and print server. With a file and print server, the data or file is
downloaded to the computer making the request. With an application server, the database stays on the server
and only the results of a request are downloaded to the computer making the request.

A client application running locally accesses the data on the application server. For example, you might
search the employee database for all employees who were born in November. Instead of the entire database,
only the result of your query is downloaded from the server onto your local computer.

Mail Servers

Mail servers operate like application servers in that there are separate server and client applications, with data
selectively downloaded from the server to the client.

Fax Servers

Fax servers manage fax traffic into and out of the network by sharing one or more fax modem boards.

Communications Servers

Communications servers handle data flow and e-mail messages between the servers' own networks and other
networks, mainframe computers, or remote users who dial in to the servers over modems and telephone lines.

Directory Services Servers

Directory services servers enable users to locate, store, and secure information on the network. For example,
some server software combines computers into logical groupings (called domains) that allow any user on the
network to be given access to any resource on the network.
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Network Topology
The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement or physical layout of
computers, cables, and other components on the network. "Topology" is the standard term that most network
professionals use when they refer to the network's basic design. In addition to the term "topology," you will
find several other terms that are used to define a network's design:

 Physical layout
 Design
 Diagram
 Map

A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over another will have an impact on
the:

 Type of equipment the network needs

 Capabilities of the equipment
 Growth of the network
 Way the network is managed

Developing a sense of how to use the different topologies is a key to understanding the capabilities of the
different types of networks.

Before computers can share resources or perform other communication tasks they must be connected. Most
networks use cable to connect one computer to another.

Category of Topology

1. Logical: describes the way network data flows through the physical components.
2. Physical: Physical topology describes how the physical components on a network are connected.

Standard Topologies

All network designs stem from four basic topologies:

 Bus
 Star
 Ring
 Mesh

Bus Topology
The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in a straight line.
This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers.

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Communication on the Bus

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular computer and sending
out that data on the cable as electronic signals. To understand how computers communicate on a bus, you
need to be familiar with three concepts:

 Sending the signal

 Signal bounce
 Terminator

Sending the Signal Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all the computers on the
network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original signal accepts the
information. All other computers reject the data. Only one computer at a time can send messages.

Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number of computers attached to
the bus will affect network performance. The more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be
waiting to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be.

There is no standard way to measure the impact of a given number of computers on the speed of any given
network. The effect on performance is not related solely to the number of computers. The following is a list
of factors that—in addition to the number of networked computers—will affect the performance of
a network:

 Hardware capabilities of computers on the network

 Total number of queued commands waiting to be executed
 Types of applications (client-server or file system sharing, for example) being run on the network
 Types of cable used on the network
 Distances between computers on the network

Computers on a bus either transmit data to other computers on the network or listen for data from other
computers on the network. They are not responsible for moving data from one computer to the next.
Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.

Signal Bounce Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from one end of
the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back and forth
along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be stopped
after it has had a chance to reach the proper destination address.

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Terminator To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each end of the
cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers can send data.

Both ends of each cable segment on the network must be plugged into something. For example, a cable end
can be plugged into a computer or a connector to extend the cable length. Any open cable ends not plugged
into something must be terminated to prevent signal bounce.

Disrupting Network Communication

A break in the cable will occur if the cable is physically separated into two pieces or if at least one end of the
cable becomes disconnected. In either case, one or both ends of the cable will not have a terminator, the
signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop. This is one of several possible reasons why a network
will go "down." This network will not work because it now has unterminated cables.

The computers on the network will still be able to function as stand-alone computers; however, as long as the
segment is broken, they will not be able to communicate with each other or otherwise access shared
resources. The computers on the down segment will attempt to establish a connection; while they do so,
workstation performance will be slower.

Disadvantages of Bus topology

 If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the signal will travel back
and forth across the network and all communication will stop.
 The more computers there are on the bus, the greater the backup of computers waiting to put data
on the bus, and consequently, the slower the network.
 In addition, because of the way computers communicate in a bus topology, there may be a lot of
noise. Noise is the traffic generated on the network when computers attempt to communicate with
each other simultaneously.
Star Topology
In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a centralized component called a
hub or switch. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the
network

Advantage of Star topology

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 An advantage of the star topology is that if one computer on the star topology fails, only the failed
computer is unable to send or receive data. The remainder of the network functions normally.
Disadvantage of star topology

 The disadvantage of using this topology is that because each computer is connected to a hub, if
the hub fails, the entire network fails. In addition, noise is created on the network in a star
topology.

Ring Topology
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there are no
terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which
can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special series of bits that
travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The token is passed from computer
to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The sending computer modifies the token, puts
an electronic address on the data, and sends it around the ring. The data passes by each computer until it finds
the one with an address that matches the address on the data.

The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has been received.
After verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it on the network. The token
circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to send data.

Advantage of Ring topology

 The advantage of a ring topology is that each computer acts as a repeater, regenerating the signal
and sending it on to the next computer, thereby preserving signal strength.
Disadvantage of Ring topology
 The disadvantage of a ring topology is that only one computer at a time can send data on a single
token ring. Also, ring topologies are usually more expensive than bus technologies.
 If one computer fails, the network will fail

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Mesh Topology

A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology, each computer is
connected to every other computer by separate cabling. This configuration provides redundant paths
throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. While ease of
troubleshooting and increased reliability are definite pluses, these networks are expensive to install because
they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a
hybrid topology.

Advantage of Mesh topology

 An advantage of a mesh topology is its back-up capabilities by providing multiple paths through
the network.

Disadvantage of Mesh topology

 Because redundant paths require more cable than is needed in other topologies, a mesh topology
can be expensive.
Hybrid Topology
It is a combination of two or more standard topologies

Star Bus

The star bus is a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a star-bus topology, several star topology
networks are linked together with linear bus trunks.

If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest of the network. The other computers can continue to
communicate. If a hub goes down, all computers on that hub are unable to communicate. If a hub is linked to
other hubs, those connections will be broken as well.

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Star Ring

The star ring (sometimes called a star-wired ring) appears similar to the star bus. Both the star ring and the
star bus are centered in a hub that contains the actual ring or bus. Linear-bus trunks connect the hubs in a star
bus, while the hubs in a star ring are connected in a star pattern by the main hub.

Selecting a topology
There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the needs of an
organization. The following table provides some guidelines for selecting a topology.

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus Use of cable is economical. Network can slow down in heavy
traffic.

Media is inexpensive and easy to work with. Problems are difficult to isolate.

System is simple and reliable.

Cable break can affect many users.
Bus is easy to extend.
Ring System provides equal access for all computers. Failure of one computer can impact
Performance is even despite many users. the rest of the network.

Problems are hard to isolate.

Network reconfiguration disrupts

operation.

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Star Modifying system and adding new computers is If the centralized point fails, the
easy. network fails.

Centralized monitoring and management are

possible.

Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of

the network.
Mesh System provides increased redundancy and System is expensive to install
reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting. because it uses a lot of cabling.
Network Transmission media
Transmission Media
Transmission Medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data
communication system. The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined both by
the characteristics of the medium and characteristics of the signal.
Media of data transmission:
1. Guided Transmission media- Data transmission is through solid medium (wired system).
2. Unguided Transmission media– Data transmission through air /space (i.e. wireless system)

Guided transmission media (Cable)

Transmission capacity of guided media is described with respect to:
 Data rate or bandwidth
 Distance the media can run
Commonly Types of Cables
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Optical fiber
Coaxial Cable

In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulation, a braided metal
shielding, and an outer cover. The term shielding refers to the woven or stranded metal mesh (or other
material) that surrounds some types of cabling. Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray
electronic signals, called noise, so that they do not get onto the cable and distort the data. Cable that contains
one layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided metal shielding is referred to as dual shielded. For
environments that are subject to higher interference, quad shielding is available. Quad shielding consists of
two layers of foil insulation and two layers of braided metal shielding.

The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data. This wire core can be either
solid or stranded. If the core is solid, it is usually copper.
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Surrounding the core is a dielectric insulating layer that separates it from the wire mesh. The braided wire
mesh acts as a ground and protects the core from electrical noise and crosstalk. (Crosstalk is signal overflow
from an adjacent wire. For a more detailed discussion of crosstalk, see the section Unshielded Twisted-Pair
(UTP) Cable, later in this lesson.)

The conducting core and the wire mesh must always be kept separate from each other. If they touch, the
cable will experience a short, and noise or stray signals on the mesh will flow onto the copper wire. An
electrical short occurs when any two conducting wires or a conducting wire and a ground come into contact
with each other. This contact causes a direct flow of current (or data) in an unintended path. In the case of
household electrical wiring, a short will cause sparking and the blowing of a fuse or circuit breaker. With
electronic devices that use low voltages, the result is not as dramatic and is often undetectable. These low-
voltage shorts generally cause the failure of a device; and the short, in turn, destroys the data.

A no conducting outer shield—usually made of rubber, Teflon, or plastic—surrounds the entire cable.

Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair cabling

Types of Coaxial Cable

There are two types of coaxial cable:

 Thin (thinnet) cable

 Thick (thicknet) cable

Which type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of your particular network.

Thinnet Cable Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25 inches) thick. Because
this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type of network
installation.

Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately 185 meters (about 607 feet)
before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation

Thicknet Cable Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters (0.5 inches) in
diameter. Thicknet cable is sometimes referred to as Standard Ethernet because it was the first type of cable
used with the popular network architecture Ethernet. Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a thinnet
cable core. The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means that thicknet can

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carry signals farther than thinnet cable. Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1640 feet).
Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer distances, it is sometimes used as
a backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.

Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware

Both thin net and thick net cable use a connection component, known as a BNC connector, to make the
connections between the cable and the computers

Twisted-Pair Cable

In its simplest form, twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted around each
other

A number of twisted-pair wires are often grouped together and enclosed in a protective sheath to form a
cable. The total number of pairs in a cable varies. The twisting cancels out electrical noise from adjacent
pairs and from other sources such as motors, relays, and transformers.

Two types of twisted pair cable

 Unshielded twisted pair cable(UTP)

 Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

UTP, using the 10BaseT specification, is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast becoming the
most popular LAN cabling. The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters, about 328 feet

There are five categories of UTP

 Category 1 This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry voice but not data
transmissions. Most telephone cable prior to 1983 was Category 1 cable.

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 Category 2 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 megabits per second
(Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Category 3 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps. It consists of
four twisted pairs of copper wire with three twists per foot.
 Category 4 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 20 Mbps. It consists of
four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Category 5 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 100 Mbps. It consists of
four twisted pairs of copper wire.

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

STP cable uses a woven copper-braid jacket that is more protective and of a higher quality than the jacket
used by UTP. STP also uses a foil wrap around each of the wire pairs. This gives STP excellent shielding to
protect the transmitted data from outside interference, which in turn allows it to support higher transmission
rates over longer distances than UTP.

UTP

STP

Connection hardware Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone connectors to connect to a computer.
These are similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors. Although RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors look alike at first
glance, there are crucial differences between them.

The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger and will not fit into the RJ-11 telephone jack. The RJ-45 connector
houses eight cable connections, while the RJ-11 houses only four.

Fiber-Optic Cable

In fiber-optic cable, optical fibers carry digital data signals in the form of modulated pulses of light. This is a
relatively safe way to send data because, unlike copper-based cables that carry data in the form of electronic
signals, no electrical impulses are carried over the fiber-optic cable. This means that fiberoptic cable cannot
be tapped, and its data cannot be stolen.
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Fiber-optic cable is good for very high-speed, high-capacity data transmission because of the purity of the
signal and lack of signal attenuation.

Fiber-optic cable transmissions are not subject to electrical interference and are extremely fast, currently
transmitting about 100 Mbps with demonstrated rates of up to 1 gigabit per second (Gbps). They can carry a
signal—the light pulse—for many miles.

Fiber-Optic Cabling Considerations

Use fiber-optic cable if you:

 Need to transmit data at very high speeds over long distances in very secure media.

Do not use fiber-optic cable if you:

 Are under a tight budget.

 Do not have the expertise available to properly install it and connect devices to it.

Consideration for cable selection

As with most network components, there are trades-offs with the type of cable you purchase. If you work for
a large organization and choose the least expensive cable, the accountants might initially be pleased, but you
might soon notice that the LAN is inadequate in both transmission speed and data security.

Which cabling you select will depend on the needs of a particular site. The cabling you purchase to set up a
LAN for a small business has different requirements from those of a larger organization, such as a major
banking institution.

In the rest of this section, we examine some of the considerations that affect cabling price and performance.

Table 2.3 provides comparative information on cabling types.

Installation Logistics

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How easy is the cable to install and work with? In a small installation where distances are short and security
isn't a major issue, it does not make sense to choose thick, cumbersome, and expensive cable.

Shielding

The level of shielding required will affect cable cost. Almost every network uses some form of shielded
cable. The noisier the area in which the cable is run, the more shielding will be required. The same shielding
in a plenum-grade cable will be more expensive as well.

Crosstalk

Crosstalk and noise can cause serious problems in large networks where data integrity is crucial. Inexpensive
cabling has low resistance to outside electrical fields generated by power lines, motors, relays, and radio
transmitters. This makes it susceptible to both noise and crosstalk.

Transmission Rates

Transmission rates are measured in megabits per second. A standard reference point for current LAN
transmission over copper cable is 100 Mbps. Fiber-optic cable transmits at more than 1 Gbps.

Cost

Higher grades of cables can carry data securely over long distances, but they are relatively expensive; lower-
grade cables, which provide less data security over shorter distances, are relatively inexpensive.

Signal Attenuation

Different cable types have different rates of attenuation; therefore, cable specifications recommend specific
length limits for the different types. If a signal suffers too much attenuation, the receiving computer will be
unable to interpret it. Most networks have error-checking systems that will generate a retransmission if the
signal is too weak to be understood. However, retransmission takes time and slows down the network

Summary table

Twisted-pair
ThinNet coaxial ThickNet coaxial
Characteristics (10BaseT) Fiber-optic Cable
(10Base2) Cable (10Base5) Cable
Cable1
Cable cost More than UTP More than thinnet UTP: Least More than thinnet,
expensive but less than
STP: More than thicknet
thinnet

Usable cable 185 meters (about 500 meters (about UTP and STP: 2 kilometers (6562

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length2 607 feet) 1640 feet) 100 meters feet)

(about 328 feet)
Transmission 4-100 Mbps 4-100 Mbps UTP: 4-100 100 Mbps or more (
rates Mbps > 1Gbps)
STP: 16-500
Mbps
Flexibility Fairly flexible Less flexible than UTP: Most flexible Less flexible than
thinnet STP: Less flexible thicknet
than UTP
Ease of Easy to install Moderately easy to UTP: Very easy; Difficult to install
installation install often preinstalled
STP: Moderately
easy
Susceptibility to Good resistance to Good resistance to UTP: Very Not susceptible to
interference interference interference susceptible interference
STP: Good
resistance
Special features Electronic support Electronic support UTP: Same as Supports voice,
components are components are less telephone wire; data, and video
less expensive than expensive than often preinstalled
twisted-pair cable twisted-pair cable in buildings
STP: Supports
higher
transmission rates
than UTP
Preferred uses Medium to large Linking thinnet UTP: smaller Any size
sites with high networks sites on budget. installation
security needs STP: Token Ring requiring speed and
in any size high data security
and integrity

Unguided (wireless transmission) media

Wireless LANs use the following techniques for transmitting data:

1. Infrared transmission
2. Laser transmission

Infrared Transmission All infrared wireless networks operate by using an infrared light beam to carry the
data between devices. These systems need to generate very strong signals because weak transmission signals
are susceptible to interference from light sources such as windows. Many of the high-end printers sold today
are preconfigured to accept infrared signals. This method can transmit signals at high rates because of
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infrared light's high bandwidth. An infrared network can normally broadcast at 10 Mbps. Infrared
transmission mostly used to remote control system/

In infrared transmission the communicating bodies should be

 In direct line of sight

 If there is any body in between the communicating bodies will be unable to communicate

 Can not be used outdoors

Terrestrial Microwave
 Typically used where laying a cable is not practical
 Parabolic dish shaped antenna for directional and bar-like antenna for omni directional
transmission
 transmits/receives electromagnetic waves in the 2-40 GHz range
 Travels in a straight line (line-of-sight propagation)
 High data rates: 100’s Mbps
 Repeaters spaced 10 - 100 km apart
 Applications : telephone and data transmission- wireless LANs

Satellite Microwave
 Uses satellite in geostationary (geosynchronous) 36,000 km)orbit(
 Source transmits signal to satellite which amplifies or repeats it, and retransmits down
to destinations
 Optimum transmission in 1 - 10 GHz range;
 Bandwidth of 100’s MHz
 270msSignificant propagation delay about
 VSAT ( Very small Aperture Terminal) :- High speed data transmission using satellite

Introduction to Network Operating Systems

Just as a computer cannot operate without a computer operating system, a network of computers cannot
operate without a network operating system. Without a network operating system of some kind, individual
computers cannot share resources, and other users cannot make use of those resources.
This lesson provides a general introduction to network operating systems (sometimes referred to as NOSs). It
describes the basic features and functions of NOS and contrasts these with the capabilities of a stand-alone
operating system.
Depending on a network operating system's manufacturer, a desktop computer's networking software can be
either added to the computer's own operating system or integrated with it.

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Novell's NetWare is the most familiar and popular example of NOS in which the client computer's
networking software is added on to its existing computer operating system. The desktop computer needs both
operating systems in order to handle stand-alone and networking functions together.
Network operating system software is integrated into a number of popular operating systems including
Windows 2000 Server/Windows 2000 Professional, Windows NT Server/Windows NT Workstation,
Windows 98, Windows 95, windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7 and AppleTalk.

Coordinating Hardware and Software

A computer's operating system coordinates the interaction between the computer and the programs—or
applications—it is running. It controls the allocation and use of hardware resources such as:
 Memory.
 CPU time.
 Disk space.
 Peripheral devices.

In a networking environment, servers provide resources to the network clients, and client network software
makes these resources available to the client computer. The network and the client operating systems are
coordinated so that all portions of the network function properly. 
Multitasking
A multitasking operating system, as the name suggests, provides the means for a computer to process more
than one task at a time. A true multitasking operating system can run as many tasks as there are processors. If
there are more tasks than processors, the computer must arrange for the available processors to devote a
certain amount of time to each task, alternating between tasks until all are completed. With this system, the
computer appears to be working on several tasks at once.

Software Components
For computer operating systems that do not include networking functions, network client software must be
installed on top of the existing operating system. Other operating systems, such as Windows NT, integrate
the network and the computer operating systems. While these integrated systems have some advantages, they
do not preclude using other NOSs. When setting up multivendor network environments, it is important to
consider the issue of interoperability. (Elements or components of computer operating systems are said to
"interoperate" when they can function in different computer environments.) A NetWare server, for instance,
can interoperate with other servers such as Windows NT, and users of Apple computers can interoperate with
(that is, access resources on) both NetWare and Windows NT servers.

A network operating system

 Ties together all computers and peripherals.

 Coordinates the functions of all computers and peripherals.
 Provides security by controlling access to data and peripherals.

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 A network server ties the network together

Two major components of network software are:

 Network software that is installed on clients.

 Network software that is installed on servers.

Client Software
In a stand-alone system, when the user types a command that requests the computer to perform a task, the
request goes over the computer's local bus to the computer's CPU. For example, if you want to see a
directory listing on one of the local hard disks, the CPU interprets and executes the request and then displays
the results in a directory listing in the window.

 Directory listing request on a local hard disk

In a network environment, however, when a user initiates a request to use a resource that exists on a server in
another part of the network, the request has to be forwarded, or redirected, away from the local bus, out onto
the network, and from there to the server with the requested resource. This forwarding is performed by the
redirector.

The Redirector

A redirector processes forwarding requests. Depending on the networking software, this redirector is

sometimes referred to as the "shell" or the "requester." The redirector is a small section of code in the NOS
that:
 Intercepts requests in the computer.
 Determines if the requests should continue in the local computer's bus or be redirected
over the network to another server.

Redirector activity originates in a client computer when the user issues a request for a network resource or
service. The user's computer is referred to as a client because it is making a request of a server. The request
is intercepted by the redirector and forwarded out onto the network.

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The server processes the connection requested by client redirectors and gives them access to the resources
they request. In other words, the server services—or fulfills—the request made by the client.

 The redirector forwards requests for remote resources onto the network

Designators

If you need to access a shared directory, and you have permission to access it, your operating system will
usually provide several choices for how to access the directory. For example, with Windows NT you could
use Windows Explorer to connect to the network drive using the Network Neighborhood icon. You can also
map to the drive. (Drive mapping is the assignment of a letter or name to a disk drive so that the operating
system or network server can identify and locate it.) To map to the drive, right-click the directory icon from
the Network Neighborhood; a dialog box will prompt you to assign an available letter of the alphabet as a
drive designator, such as G:. Thereafter, you can refer to the shared directory on the remote computer as G:,
and the redirector will locate it. The redirector also keeps track of which drive designators are associated with
which network resources.

Peripherals

Redirectors can send requests to peripherals as well as to shared directories. The request is redirected away
from the originating computer and sent over the network to the target. In this case, the target is the print
server for the requested printer.
With the redirector, LPT1 or COM1 can refer to network printers instead of local printers. The redirector will
intercept any print job going to LPT1 and forward it out of the local machine to the specified network printer.

 Request to print redirected out LPT1 to a printer on the network

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Using the redirector, users don't need to be concerned with the actual location of data or peripherals, or with
the complexities of making a connection. To access data on a network computer, for example, a user need
only type the drive designator assigned to the location of the resource, and the redirector determines the
actual routing. 

Server Software
With server software, users at other machines, the client computers, can share the server's data and
peripherals including printers, plotters, and directories.
The request is forwarded by the redirector on to the network, where it is passed to the file and print server
containing the shared directory. The request is granted, and the directory listing is provided.

 Directory-listing request on a remote hard drive

Resource Sharing

Sharing is the term used to describe resources made publicly available for access by anyone on the network.
Most NOSs not only allow sharing, but also determine the degree of sharing. Options for sharing include:
 Allowing different users different levels of access to the resources.
 Coordinating access to resources to make sure that two users do not use the same resource
at the same time.

For example, an office manager wants everyone on the network to be familiar with a certain document (file),
so she shares the document. However, she controls access to the document by sharing it in such a way that:
 Some users will be able only to read it.
 Some users will be able to read it and make changes in it.

Managing Users
Network operating systems also allow a network administrator to determine which people, or groups of
people, will be able to access network resources. A network administrator can use the NOS to:
 Create user privileges, tracked by the network operating system, that indicate who gets to
use the network.
 Grant or deny user privileges on the network.
 Remove users from the list of users that the network operating system tracks.

To simplify the task of managing users in a large network, NOSs allow for the creation of user groups. By
classifying individuals into groups, the administrator can assign privileges to the group. All group members
have the same privileges, which have been assigned to the group as a whole. When a new user joins the

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network, the administrator can assign the new user to the appropriate group, with its accompanying rights
and privileges.

Managing the Network

Some advanced NOSs include management tools to help administrators keep track of network behavior. If a
problem develops on the network, management tools can detect signs of trouble and present these in a chart,
or other, format. With these tools, the network manager can take corrective action before the problem halts
the network. 

Choosing a Network Operating System

Network planning decisions must take into account the services and resources expected or required of the
network. Those resources, and how they are shared and accessed, are determined by the network operating
system.
In planning a network, the choice among network operating systems can be narrowed significantly if you
first determine which network architecture—client/server or peer-to-peer—best meets your needs. This
choice can often be made by deciding which kinds of security are called for. Server-based networking allows
you to include security capabilities well beyond those available to a peer-to-peer network. If security is not
an issue, a peer-to-peer networking environment might be appropriate.
After your network security needs have been identified, your next step is to determine the kinds of
interoperability necessary for the network as a whole. Each NOS addresses interoperability in different ways,
so you should keep your own interoperability needs in mind when evaluating each NOS. If your network
choice is peer-to-peer, your options for security and interoperability will be diminished because of the
limitations inherent in that architecture. If your network choice is server-based, further assessment is needed
to determine whether interoperability will be dealt with as a service on the network server or as a client
application on each networked computer. Server-based interoperability is easier to manage because, like
other services, it is centrally located; client-based interoperability requires installation and configuration at
each computer, making interoperability much more difficult to manage.
It is not uncommon to find both methods—a network service on the server and network client applications at
each computer—in a single network. For example, a NetWare server is often implemented with a service for
Apple computers, whereas Microsoft Windows network interoperability is achieved with a network client
application at each personal computer.
When choosing a network operating system, first determine the networking services that will be required.
Standard services include security, file sharing, printing and messaging; additional services include
interoperability support for connections to other operating systems. For any given NOS, determine which
interoperability services or networking clients are best implemented to suit your needs.
The major server-based network operating systems are Microsoft Windows NT 4 and Windows 2000 Server,
windows server 2003, windows server 2008, and Novell NetWare 3.x, 4.x and 5.x. The principal peer-to-peer
network operating systems are AppleTalk, Windows 95 and 98, windows XP, Windows Vista, windows 7
and UNIX (including Linux and Solaris). The lessons that follow examine the major network operating
systems to learn how each of them defines the networking environment.

Network Access method

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In networking, to access a resource is to be able to use that resource. This lesson introduces the role of access
methods in putting data on a network cable. It focuses on three major access methods: carrier-sense multiple-
access methods, token passing, and demand priority

The Function of Access Methods

The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network cable and takes data from the cable is
called an access method. Once data is moving on the network, access methods help to regulate the flow of
network traffic.

Traffic Control on the Cable

To understand traffic on a computer network, it helps to use an analogy. A network is in some ways like a
railroad track, along which several trains run. The track is interspersed with occasional railway stations.
When a train is on the track, all other trains must abide by a procedure that governs how and when they enter
the flow of traffic. Without such a procedure, entering trains would collide with the one already on the track.

There are important differences between a railroad system and a computer network, however. On a network,
all traffic appears to move simultaneously, without interruption. Actually, this appearance of simultaneity is
an illusion; in reality, the computers take turns accessing the network for brief periods of time. The more
significant difference arises from the higher speed at which network traffic moves.

Multiple computers must share access to the cable that connects them. However, if two computers were to
put data onto the cable at the same time, the data packets from one computer would collide with the packets
from the other computer, and both sets of data packets would be destroyed.

If data is to be sent over the network from one user to another, or accessed from a server, there must be some
way for the data to access the cable without running into other data. And the receiving computer must have
reasonable assurance that the data has not been destroyed in a data collision during transmission.

Access methods need to be consistent in the way they handle data. If different computers were to use
different access methods, the network would fail because some methods would dominate the cable.

Access methods prevent computers from gaining simultaneous access to the cable. By making sure that only
one computer at a time can put data on the network cable, access methods ensure that the sending and
receiving of network data is an orderly process.

Major Access Methods

The three methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the network media include:

 Carrier-sense multiple access methods (with collision detection or with collision avoidance).
 Token-passing methods that allow only a single opportunity to send data.
 Demand-priority methods.

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Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method

Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD), each
computer on the network, including clients and servers, checks the cable for network traffic

Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can it send data.
Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit data until the original
data has reached its destination and the cable is free again. Remember, if two or more computers happen to
send data at exactly the same time, there will be a data collision. When that happens, the two computers
involved stop transmitting for a random period of time and then attempt to retransmit. Each computer
determines its own waiting period; this reduces the chance that the computers will once again transmit
simultaneously.

With these points in mind, the name of the access method—carrier-sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD)—makes sense. Computers listen to or "sense" the cable (carrier-sense). Commonly,
many computers on the network attempt to transmit data (multiple access); each one first listens to detect any
possible collisions. If a computer detects a possible collision, it waits for a random period of time before
retransmitting (collision detection).

The collision-detection capability is the parameter that imposes a distance limitation on CSMA/CD. Due to
attenuation—the weakening of a transmitted signal as it travels farther from its source—the collision
detection mechanism is not effective beyond 2500 meters (1.5 miles). Segments cannot sense signals beyond
that distance and, therefore, might not be aware that a computer at the far end of a large network is
transmitting. If more than one computer transmits data on the network at the same time, a data collision will
take place that will corrupt the data

Contention Method

CSMA/CD is known as a contention method because computers on the network contend, or compete, for an
opportunity to send data.

This might seem like a cumbersome way to put data on the cable, but current implementations of CSMA/CD
are so fast that users are not even aware they are using a contention access method

CSMA/CD Considerations

The more computers there are on the network, the more network traffic there will be. With more traffic,
collision avoidance and collisions tend to increase, which slows the network down, so CSMA/CD can be a
slow-access method.

After each collision, both computers will have to try to retransmit their data. If the network is very busy,
there is a chance that the attempts by both computers will result in collisions with packets from other
computers on the network. If this happens, four computers (the two original computers and the two
computers whose transmitted packets collided with the original computer's retransmitted packets) will have
to attempt to retransmit. These proliferating retransmissions can slow the network to a near standstill.

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The occurrence of this problem depends on the number of users attempting to use the network and which
applications they are using. Database applications tend to put more traffic on the network than word-
processing applications do.

Depending on the hardware components, the cabling, and the networking software, using a CSMA/CD
network with many users running several database applications can be very frustrating because of heavy
network traffic.

Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access Method

Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least popular of the three major
access methods. In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually transmits data.
In this way, computers sense when a collision might occur; this allows them to avoid transmission collisions.
Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data increases the amount of traffic on the cable and slows
down network performance.

Token-Passing Access Method

In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet, called a token, circulates around a
cable ring from computer to computer. When any computer on the ring needs to send data across the
network, it must wait for a free token. When a free token is detected, the computer will take control of it
if the computer has data to send.

The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and additional information, such as
addressing, is attached to the frame in the form of headers and trailers, discussed later in this chapter.

Demand Priority Access Method

Demand priority is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-Mbps Ethernet standard known as
100VG-AnyLAN. It has been sanctioned and standardized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE) in its 802.12 specification, which is discussed later in this chapter.

This access method is based on the fact that repeaters and end nodes are the two components that make up all
100VG-AnyLAN networks. The repeaters manage network access by doing round-robin searches for
requests to send from all nodes on the network. The repeater, or hub, is responsible for noting all addresses,
links, and end nodes and verifying that they are all functioning. According to the 100VG-AnyLAN
definition, an end node can be a computer, bridge, router, or switch.

Demand-Priority Contention

As in CSMA/CD, two computers using the demand-priority access method can cause contention by
transmitting at exactly the same time. However, with demand priority, it is possible to implement a scheme in
which certain types of data will be given priority if there is contention. If the hub or repeater receives two
requests at the same time, the highest priority request is serviced first. If the two requests are of the same
priority, both requests are serviced by alternating between the two.
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In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at the same time because of the cabling
scheme defined for this access method. In this method, four pairs of wires are used, which enables quartet
signaling, transmitting 25 MHz signals on each of the pairs of wire in the cable.

Demand-Priority Considerations

In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the sending computer, the hub, and the
destination computer. This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts transmissions to the entire
network. In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end nodes and repeaters directly connected to it,
whereas in a CSMA/CD environment, each hub knows the address of every node in the network.

Demand priority offers several advantages over CSMA/CD including:

 The use of four pairs of wires.

By using four pairs of wires, computers can transmit and receive at the same time.

 Transmissions through the hub.

Transmissions are not broadcast to all the other computers on the network. The computers do not
contend on their own for access to the cable, but operate under the centralized control of the hub

How Networks Send Data

At first, one might assume that data is sent as a continuous stream of ones and zeros from one computer to
another. In fact, data is broken down into small, manageable packets, each wrapped with the essential
information needed to get it from its source to the correct destination. This lesson introduces the concept
of packets as the basic building blocks of network data communications.

The Function of Packets in Network Communications

Data usually exists as rather large files. However, networks cannot operate if computers put large amounts of
data on the cable at the same time. This is not called "sharing"; it is called "monopolizing the network."
There are two reasons why putting large chunks of data on the cable at one time slows down the network:

 Large amounts of data sent as one large unit tie up the network and make timely interaction and
communications impossible because one computer is flooding the cable with data.
 The impact of retransmitting large units of data further multiplies network traffic.

These effects are minimized when the large data units are reformatted into smaller packages for better
management of error correction in transmission. This way, only a small section of data is affected, and,
therefore, only a small amount of data must be retransmitted, making it relatively easy to recover from the
error.

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In order for many users at once to transmit data quickly and easily across the network, the data must be
broken into small, manageable chunks. This way, users each get their share of access to the network. These
chunks are called packets, or frames. Although the terms "packet" and "frame" are often used
interchangeably, there are some differences based on the type of network. This lesson uses the term "packet,"
meaning "a unit of information transmitted as a whole from one device to another on a network

When the network operating system at the sending computer breaks the data into packets, it adds special
control information to each frame. This makes it possible to:

 Send the original, disassembled data in small chunks.

 Reassemble the data in the proper order when it reaches its destination.
 Check the data for errors after it has been reassembled.

Packet Structure

Packets can contain several types of data including:

 Information, such as messages or files.

 Certain types of computer control data and commands, such as service requests.
 Session control codes, such as error correction, which indicate the need for a retransmission.

Packet Components

All packets have certain components in common. These include:

 A source address that identifies the sending computer.

 The data that is intended for transmission.
 A destination address that identifies the recipient.
 Instructions that tell network components how to pass the data along.
 Information that tells the receiving computer how to connect the packet to other packets in order to
reassemble the complete data package.
 Error-checking information to ensure that the data arrives intact.

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Header

The header includes:

 An alert signal to indicate that the packet is being transmitted.

 The source address.
 The destination address.
 Clock information to synchronize transmission.

Data

This describes the actual data being sent. This part of the packet varies in size, depending on the network.
The data section on most networks varies from 512 bytes—or 0.5 kilobytes (KB)—to 4 KB.

Because most original data strings are much longer than 4k, data must be broken into chunks small enough to
be put into packets. It takes many packets to complete the transmission of a large file.

Trailer

The exact content of the trailer varies depending on the communication method, or protocol. However, the
trailer usually contains an error-checking component called a cyclical redundancy check (CRC). The CRC is
a number produced by a mathematical calculation on the packet at its source. When the packet arrives at its
destination, the calculation is made again. If the results of both calculations are the same, this indicates that
the data in the packet has remained stable. If the calculation at the destination differs from the calculation at
the source, this means the data has changed during the transmission. In that case, the CRC routine signals the
source computer to retransmit the data.

Ethernet
This lesson introduces the Ethernet network architecture. Over the years, Ethernet has become the most
popular media access method to the desktop computer and is used in both small and large network
environments. Ethernet is a nonproprietary industry standard that has found wide acceptance by network
hardware manufacturers. Problems related to using Ethernet hardware products from different hardware
manufacturers in a single network are nearly nonexistent. This lesson presents an overview of the major
Ethernet components, features, and functions.

The Origin of Ethernet

In the late 1960s, the University of Hawaii developed a WAN called ALOHA. The university occupied a
wide area and sought to connect computers that were spread throughout the campus. One of the key features
of the university's network was its use of CSMA/CD as the access method.

This early network was the foundation for today's Ethernet architecture. In 1972, Robert Metcalfe and David
Boggs invented a cabling and signaling scheme at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) and in 1975

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introduced the first Ethernet product. The original version of Ethernet was designed as a system of 2.94
megabits per second (Mbps) to connect over 100 computers on a 1-kilometer (.62 miles) cable.

Xerox Ethernet was so successful that Xerox, Intel Corporation, and Digital Equipment Corporation drew up
a standard for a 10-Mbps Ethernet. Today, the 10-Mbps Ethernet is one of several specifications describing
methods for computers and data systems to connect and share cabling.

Ethernet Specifications

In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications for
connecting dissimilar devices. This set of standards is referred to as the OSI reference model (OSI stands for
Open Systems Interconnection). The Ethernet specification performs the same functions as the OSI physical
and data-link layers of this model. As you will see later, these specifications affect how hardware links, or
passes information to and from, ISO standards. In the 1980s the IEEE published Project 802. This project
generated standards for design and compatibility for hardware components that operated within the OSI
physical and data-link layers. The standard that pertains to Ethernet is the IEEE 802.3 specification.

Ethernet Features

Ethernet is currently the most popular network architecture. Notice that the cable is terminated at both ends.
This baseband architecture uses a bus topology, usually transmits at 10 Mbps, and relies on CSMA/CD to
regulate traffic on the main cable segment.

The Ethernet media is passive, which means it requires no power source of its own and thus will not fail
unless the media is physically cut or improperly terminated.

The Ethernet Frame Format

Ethernet breaks data down into packages in a format that is different from the packets used in other networks:
Ethernet breaks data down into frames. (Remember that the terms "packet" and "frame" can be used
interchangeably; in the context of Ethernet, the term "frame" is used.) A frame is a package of information
transmitted as a single unit. An Ethernet frame can be between 64 and 1518 bytes long, but the Ethernet
frame itself uses at least 18 bytes; therefore, the data in an Ethernet frame can be between 46 and 1500 bytes
long. Every frame contains control information and follows the same basic organization.

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Frame field Description

Preamble Marks the start of the frame
Destination and source The origin and destination addresses
Type Used to identify the network layer protocol, usually either IP or IPX
(Novell's Internetwork Packet Exchange)
Cyclical redundancy Error-checking field to determine if the frame arrived without being
check (CRC) corrupted

For example, the Ethernet II frame, used for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP),
which gets transmitted across the network, consists of the sections listed in Table 3.3 (TCP/IP has become
the de facto standard for data transmission over networks, including the Internet)

Ethernet networks include a variety of cabling and topology alternatives. The remaining sections of this
lesson present these alternatives based on their IEEE specification.

Ethernet specifications
The 10-Mbps IEEE Standards

This section looks at four 10 Mbps Ethernet topologies:

 10BaseT
 10Base2
 10Base5
 10BaseFL

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10BaseT Standard

In 1990, the IEEE committee published the 802.3 specification for running Ethernet over twisted-pair wiring.
The result, 10BaseT (10 Mbps, baseband, over twisted-pair cable), is an Ethernet network that typically uses
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable to connect computers. Usually, 10BaseT employs UTP, but shielded
twisted-pair (STP) cabling will also work without changing any of the 10BaseT parameters.

Most networks of this type are configured in a star pattern, but internally they use a bus signaling system like
other Ethernet configurations. Typically, the hub of a 10BaseT network serves as a multiport repeater and
often is located in a wiring closet of the building. Each computer is located at the endpoint of a cable that is
connected to the hub. Each computer has two pairs of wire; one pair is used to receive data, and one pair is
used to transmit data.

The maximum length of a 10BaseT segment is 100 meters (328 feet). Repeaters can be used to extend this
maximum cable length. The minimum cable length between computers is 2.5 meters (about 8 feet). A
10BaseT LAN will serve 1024 computers.

A multiport repeater (hub) can be used to extend an Ethernet LAN

The UTP cable features data transmission at 10 Mbps. It is easy to make changes by moving a modular patch
cord on the patch panel. A change at the patch panel will not affect other devices on the network; this differs
from a traditional Ethernet bus network.

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A patch panel makes moving computers easy

Patch panels should be tested for rates higher than 10 Mbps. The latest hubs can provide connections for both
thick and thin Ethernet cable segments. In this implementation, it is also easy to convert thick Ethernet cable
to 10BaseT cable by attaching a mini 10BaseT transceiver to the AUI port of any network interface card.
Table 3.4 summarizes 10BaseT specifications:

Table 3.4 10BaseT Specifications Summary

Category Notes
Cable Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP.
Connectors RJ-45 at cable ends.
Transceiver Each computer needs one; some cards have built in
transceivers.
Transceiver to hub distance 100 meters (328 feet) maximum.
Backbones for hubs Coaxial or fiber-optic cable to join a larger LAN or to
carry major traffic between smaller networks.
Total number of computers per LAN 1024 by specification.
without connectivity components

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10Base2 Standard

Another topology is 10Base2, given this name in the IEEE 802.3 specification because it transmits at 10
Mbps over a baseband wire and can carry a signal about two times 100 meters (the actual distance is 185
meters, or 607 feet).

This type of network uses thin coaxial cable, or thinnet, which has a maximum segment length of 185 meters
(607 feet) and a minimum cable length of at least 0.5 meters (20 inches) between workstations. There is also
a 30-computer maximum per 185-meter segment.

Thinnet cabling components include:

 BNC barrel connectors.

 BNC T connectors.
 BNC terminators.

Thinnet networks generally use a local bus topology. IEEE standards for thinnet do not allow a transceiver
cable to be used from the bus T connector to a computer. Instead, a T connector fits directly on the NIC.

A BNC barrel connector may be used to connect thinnet cable segments together, thus extending a length of
cable. For example, if you need a length of cable that is nine meters (30 feet) long, but all you have is a 7.5-
meter (25-foot) length and a 1.5-meter ( 5-foot) length of thinnet cable, you can join the two cable segments
together using a BNC barrel connector. However, the use of barrel connectors should be kept to a minimum
because each connection in the cable reduces the signal quality and adds to the risk of cable separation and
disconnection.

A thinnet network is an economical way to support a small department or workgroup. The cable used for this
type of network is:

 Relatively inexpensive.
 Easy to install.
 Easy to configure.

A single thinnet network can support a maximum of 30 nodes (computers and repeaters) per cable segment,
as per the IEEE 802.3 specification.

The 5-4-3 Rule

A thinnet network can combine as many as five cable segments connected by four repeaters; but only three
segments can have stations attached. Thus, two segments are untapped and are often referred to as "inter-
repeater links." This is known as the 5-4-3 rule.

As in the Figure, there are five segments, four repeaters, and trunk segments 1, 2, and 5 are populated (have
computers attached to them). Trunk segments 3 and 4 exist only to increase the total length of the network
and to allow the computers on trunk segments 1 and 5 to be on the same network.

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Figure The thinnet 5-4-3 rule: 5 segments, 4 repeaters, and 3 populated segments

Because normal Ethernet limits are too confining for a large business, repeaters can be used to join Ethernet
segments and extend the network to a total length of 925 meters (3035 feet). The following table summarizes
10Base2 specifications:

Table 3.5 10Base2 Specifications Summary

Category Notes
Maximum segment length 185 meters (607 feet).
Connection to network interface card BNC T connector.
Trunk segments and repeaters Five segments can be joined using four repeaters.

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Computers per segment 30 computers per segment by specification.

Segments that can have computers Three of the five segments can be populated.
Maximum total network length 925 meters (3035 feet).

10Base5 Standard

The IEEE specification for this topology is 10 Mbps, baseband, and 500-meter (five 100-meter) segments. It
is also called standard Ethernet.

This topology makes use of thick coaxial cable , also known as thicknet. Thicknet generally uses a bus
topology and can support as many as 100 nodes (stations, repeaters, and so on) per backbone segment. The
backbone, or trunk segment, is the main cable from which transceiver cables are connected to stations and
repeaters. The distances and tolerances for thicknet are greater than those for thinnet: a thicknet segment can
be 500 meters (1640 feet) long for a total network length of 2500 meters (8200 feet).

Thicknet cable composition

The thicknet cabling components include:

 Transceivers These are devices that can both transmit and receive, provide communications between
the computer and the main LAN cable, and are located in the vampire taps attached to the cable.
 Transceiver cables The transceiver cable (drop cable) connects the transceiver to the NIC.
 DIX (or AUI) connectors These are the connectors on the transceiver cable.
 N-series connectors, including N-series barrel connectors, and N-series terminators The thicknet
components work in the same way as the thinnet components. It also shows the DIX or AUI
connector on the transceiver cable.

NOTE

"AUI," an acronym for attachment unit interface, is a 15-pin (DB-15) connector commonly used to connect a
NIC to an Ethernet cable;

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Thicknet backbone with attached transceiver and cable

The 5-4-3 Rule in Thicknet

One thicknet Ethernet network can have a maximum of five backbone segments connected using repeaters
(based on the IEEE 802.3 specification), of which up to three can accommodate computers. The length of
the transceiver cables is not used to measure the distance supported on the thicknet cable; only the end-to-end
length of the thicknet cable segment itself is used.

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Thicknet 5-4-3 rule; 5 backbone segments, 4 repeaters, and 3 segments

Between connections, the minimum thicknet cable segment is 2.5 meters (about 8 feet). This measurement
excludes transceiver cables. Thicknet was designed to support a backbone for a large department or an entire
building. Table 3.6 summarizes 10Base5 specifications:

Table 3.6 10Base5 Specifications Summary

Category Notes
Maximum segment length 500 meters (1640 feet).
Transceivers Connected to the segment (in the tap).
Maximum computer-to-transceiver distance 50 meters (164 feet).
Minimum distance between transceivers 2.5 meters (8 feet).
Trunk segments and repeaters Five segments can be joined using four repeaters.
Segments that can have computers Three of the five segments can be populated.
Maximum total length of joined segments 2500 meters (8200 feet).
Maximum number of computers per segment 100 by specification.

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Combining Thicknet and Thinnet Cable

It is common for larger networks to combine thick and thin Ethernet cable. Thicknet cable is good for
backbones, while thinnet cable is used for branch segments. What this means is that the thicknet cable is the
main cable covering the long distances. The transceiver attaches to the thicknet cable, and the transceiver
cable's AUI connector plugs into a repeater. The branching segments of thinnet plug into the repeater and
connect the computers to the network.

10BaseFL Standard

The IEEE committee published a specification for running Ethernet over fiber-optic cable. The result,
10BaseFL (10Mbps, baseband, over fiber-optic cable) is an Ethernet network that typically uses fiber-optic
cable to connect computers and repeaters.

The primary reason for using 10BaseFL is to accommodate long cable runs between repeaters, such as
between buildings. The maximum distance for a 10BaseFL segment is 2000 meters (about 6500 feet).

The 100-Mbps IEEE Standards

New Ethernet standards are pushing the traditional Ethernet limits beyond the original 10 Mbps. These new
capabilities are being developed to handle such highbandwidth applications as:

 Computer-aided design (CAD).

 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
 Video.
 Imaging and document storage.

Two Ethernet standards that can meet the increased demands are:

 100BaseVG-AnyLAN Ethernet.
 100BaseX Ethernet (Fast Ethernet).

Both 100BaseVG-AnyLAN and Fast Ethernet are about 5 to 10 times faster than standard Ethernet. They are
also compatible with existing 10BaseT cabling systems. This means they allow for Plug and Play upgrades
from existing 10BaseT installations.

100VG-AnyLAN Standard

The 100VG (Voice Grade) AnyLAN is an emerging networking technology that combines elements of both
Ethernet and Token Ring architectures. Originally developed by Hewlett-Packard, it is currently being
refined and ratified by the IEEE 802.12 committee. The 802.12 specification is a standard for transmitting
802.3 Ethernet frames and 802.5 Token Ring packets.

This technology goes by any of the following names, all of which refer to the same type of network:

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 100VG-AnyLAN
 100BaseVG
 VG
 AnyLAN

Specifications

Some of the current 100VG-AnyLAN specifications include:

 A minimum data rate of 100 Mbps.

 The ability to support a cascaded star topology over Category 3, 4, and 5 twisted-pair and fiber-optic
cable.
 The demand-priority access method that allows for two priority levels (low and high).
 The ability to support an option for filtering individually addressed frames at the hub to enhance
privacy.
 Support for both Ethernet frames and Token Ring packets.

Topology

A 100VG-AnyLAN network is built on a star topology in which all computers are attached to a hub. Adding
child hubs to the central hub can expand the network. The child hubs act as computers to their parent hubs.
The parent hubs control transmission of computers attached to their children.

Parent hub with five attached child hubs

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Considerations

This topology requires its own hubs and cards. Also, the cable distances of 100BaseVG are limited when
compared to 10BaseVG and other implementations of Ethernet. The longest cable from the 100BaseVG hub
to a computer cannot exceed 250 meters (about 820 feet). Extending this limit requires special equipment
used to expand the size of a LAN. These cable-length limits mean that 100BaseVG will require more wiring
closets than 10BaseVG.

100BaseX Ethernet Standard

This standard, sometimes called Fast Ethernet, is an extension of the existing Ethernet standard. It runs on
UTP Category 5 data-grade cable and uses CSMA/CD in a star-wired bus topology, similar to 10BaseT
where all cables are attached to a hub.

Media Specifications

100BaseX incorporates three media specifications:

 100BaseT4 (4-pair Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP)

 100BaseTX (2-pair Category 5 UTP or STP)
 100BaseFX (2-strand fiber-optic cable)

These media are described further in Table 3.7:

Table 3.7 100BaseX Media Specifications

Value Represents Actual meaning

100 Transmission speed 100 Mbps
Base Signal type Baseband
T4 Cable type Indicates twisted-pair cable using four telephone-grade pairs
TX Cable type Indicates twisted-pair cable using two data-grade pairs
FX Cable type Indicates fiber-optic link using two strands of fiber-optic cable

Performance Considerations

Ethernet architecture can use multiple communication protocols and can connect mixed computing
environments such as Netware, UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.

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Segmentation

Ethernet performance can be improved by dividing a crowded segment into two less-populated segments and
joining them with either a bridge or a router. This reduces traffic on each segment. Because fewer computers
are attempting to transmit onto the segment, access time improves.

Using a bridge to segment a network and reduce network traffic

Consider dividing segments if large numbers of new users are joining the network or if new, high-bandwidth
applications, such as database or video programs, are being added to the network.

Network Operating Systems on Ethernet

Ethernet will work with most popular network operating systems including:

 Microsoft Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 2000.

 Microsoft Windows NT Workstation and Windows NT Server.
 Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional and Windows 2000 Server.
 Microsoft LAN Manager.
 Microsoft Windows for Workgroups.
 Novell NetWare.
 IBM LAN Server.

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 AppleShare.
 UNIX.

Lesson Summary

The following points summarize the main elements of this lesson:

 Ethernet is one of the most popular network architectures.

 Ethernet is governed by the specifications found in the OSI reference model physical layer and data-
link layer, as well as IEEE 802.3.

The bellow table summarizes the specifications for Ethernet architecture discussed in this lesson. It outlines
the minimum set of standards required to conform to IEEE specifications. A particular implementation of the
network architecture may differ from the information in the table.

Ethernet Specifications (IEEE 802.3) summary table

10Base2 10Base5 10BaseT

Topology Bus Bus Star bus
Cable type RG-58 (thinnet coaxial Thicknet; one-centimeter (3/8- Category 3, 4, or 5
cable) inch) shielded transceiver unshielded twisted-pair
cable cable
Connection to BNC T connector DIX or AUI connector RJ-45
NIC
Terminator 50 50 Not applicable
resistance, Ω
(ohms)
Impedance, Ω 50 ± 2 50 ± 2 85-115 unshielded
twisted-pair; 135-165
shielded twisted-pair
Distance 0.5 meters between 2.5 meters (8 feet) between 100 meters (328 feet)
computers (23 inches) taps and maximum of 50 between the transceiver
meters (164 feet) between the (the computer) and the
tap and the computer hub
Maximum cable 185 meters (607 feet) 500 meters (1640 feet) 100 meters (328 feet)
segment length
Maximum 5 (using 4 repeaters); 5 (using 4 repeaters). Only 3 Not applicable
connected Only 3 segments can segments can have computers
segments have computers connected.
connected.

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Maximum total 925 meters (3035 feet) 2460 meters (8000 feet) Not applicable
network length
Maximum 30 (There can be a 100
computers per maximum of 1024
segment computers per
network.)

Token Ring
This lesson introduces the Token Ring network architecture. The Token Ring architecture was developed in
the mid-1980s by IBM. It is the preferred method of networking by IBM and is therefore found primarily in
large IBM mini- and mainframe installations. Even though the popularity of Ethernet has decreased the
market share for Token Ring, it is still an important player in the network market. Token Ring specifications
are governed by the IEEE 802.5 standards.

The architecture of a typical Token Ring network begins with a physical ring. However, in its IBM
implementation, a star-wired ring, computers on the network are connected to a central hub. The following
figure shows a logical ring and a physical star topology. The logical ring represents the token's path between
computers. The actual physical ring of cable is in the hub.

Token Ring features

A Token Ring network includes the following features:

 Star-wired ring topology

 Token-passing access method

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 Shielded and unshielded twisted-pair (IBM Types 1, 2, and 3) cabling

 Transfer rates of 4 and 16 Mbps
 Baseband transmission
 802.5 specifications

How Token Ring Networking Works

When the first Token Ring computer comes online, the network generates a token. The token is a
predetermined formation of bits (a stream of data) that permits a computer to put data on the cables. The
token travels around the ring polling each computer until one of the computers signals that it wants to
transmit data and takes control of the token. A computer cannot transmit unless it has possession of the
token; while the token is in use by a computer, no other computer can transmit data.

After the computer captures the token, it sends a data frame out on the network. The frame proceeds around
the ring until it reaches the computer with the address that matches the destination address in the frame. The
destination computer copies the frame into its receive buffer and marks the frame in the frame status field to
indicate that the information was received.

The frame continues around the ring until it arrives at the sending computer, where the transmission is
acknowledged as successful. The sending computer then removes the frame from the ring and transmits a
new token back on the ring.

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