Understanding Teaching

UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING TEACHING AND and Learning

LEARNING

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Concept and Nature of Teaching
1.3.1 Concept of Teaching
1.3.2 Nature of Teaching
1.3.3 Teaching as Facilitation of Learning
1.3.4 Relationship of Teaching with Learning and Learner
1.3.5 Relationship of Teaching with Learning
1.3.6 Relationship of Learners with Learning
1.4 Learner-Centered Approach to Teaching – Learning
1.4.1 Meaning and Characteristics of Learner Centered Approach
1.4.2 Integrating Children’s Voices and Experiences in Teaching-Learning Process
1.4.3 Children’s Active Participation in Classroom Activities.
1.5 Concept and Nature of Learning
1.5.1 Concept of Learning
1.5.2 Nature of Learning
1.6 Learning: Development of Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes
1.6.1 Development of Knowledge
1.6.2 Development of Skills
1.6.3 Development of Attitudes
1.7 Different Ways Children Learn
1.7.1 Imitation
1.7.2 Observation
1.7.3 Experience
1.7.4 Teaching
1.7.5 Instruction
1.7.6 Trial and Error
1.7.7 Reflection
1.7.8 Experimentation
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Unit End Activities
1.10 Points for Discussion
1.11 Suggested Readings and References
1.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a well known fact that a child acquires a lot of knowledge and learns a lot of
skills, attitudes, manners from his/her mother, father, brother, sister, and
grandparents. All of them teach the child basic knowledge, skills and attitudes
required of living a good life. In this process the role of the mother is very crucial
and prominent in shaping the values of the child. Therefore, it is said, mother is
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Teaching and Learning at the first teacher of the child. When the child moves from family and neighborhood
Elementary Level
to a formal school, he/she is exposed to a different kind of learning environments.
In the school, he/she learns from teachers, peers and others. He/she is taught by
the teacher with new learning experiences in different subjects like mathematics,
language, social sciences, sciences, etc. Apart from gaining learning experiences
in subject areas, she/he acquires new learning experiences through sports, picnics,
group works, project works etc. Therefore, teaching and learning are closely
interrelated to each other. Although you have some understanding of these
concepts, in this unit, we will discuss the pedagogic understanding of these
concepts, relationship between them and the different ways through which the
students learn the subjects at elementary level.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
• define teaching;
• spell out the various characteristics of teaching;
• explain teaching as facilitation of learning;
• highlight the relationship of teaching with learning and learner;
• point out the relationship between learner and learning;
• define child-centered approach to teaching-learning;
• spell out the characteristics of child centered approach to teaching-learning;
• explain how to integrate children’s voices and experiences in the teaching-
learning process;
• suggest ways to bring in active participation of learners in classroom activities;
• explain the concept of learning;
• describe the nature of learning;
• explain learning as development of knowledge, skills and attitudes; and
• enlist and explain the different ways through which learners learn.

1.3 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF TEACHING

Teaching is a familiar term to all of us. Although the term is generally associated
with the schooling process, but one can find the act of teaching in many places.
In the family, parents teach children many things about good habits right from
the childhood. In the neighbourhood, elders teach children many things related
to community living. In schools, teachers teach students not only different
subjects, but also many things which are essential to be good citizens and lead a
productive social life. Teaching taking place in family and neighbourhood may
not be organized, whereas teaching provided in schools is well organized with
pre-determined objectives. As a teacher, you may be engaged in organizing many
activities which take place within and outside the classroom. Inside the class
you may be delivering lectures, giving demonstrations, explaining concepts,
conducting experiments, narrating stories, reciting poems, conducting role-plays,
etc. Similarly, outside the classroom, you may be taking students for fieldworks,
organizing sports activities, organizing exhibitions, etc. Do all these activities
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being performed by you constitute teaching? What does then teaching mean Understanding Teaching
and Learning
pedagogically? What is its nature? Answers to these questions are being discussed
in the coming sub-sections.

1.3.1 Concept of Teaching

As a teacher, you may teach, train or instruct others. All these refer to the processes
meant for bringing about changes in the cognitive structure (structure of
knowledge in one’s mind) in those who are being taught. However, they differ
significantly in their meanings. Training involves preparing someone to do a
job. It describes learning that takes many years to complete. Training involves a
relatively systematic attempt to transfer knowledge and skills from one who
knows to some one who does not know. Instruction, on the other hand, although
often used synonymously with teaching, it has more to do with the development
of skills rather than education in a broader sense. Unlike training and instruction,
teaching refers to the actions of someone who is trying to assist others to reach
their fullest potential in all aspects of development. It involves physical, mental,
emotional, social, moral, and spiritual development of learners. Teaching is a
process of attempting to promote changes in the learners. As noted, although
training, instruction and teaching differ in their meanings, the central process
that runs through all of them is learning.

As noted above, teaching refers to the actions of someone who is trying to assist
others to reach their fullest potential in all aspects of development. Teaching
would result when the teacher indulges in any activity with the intention that
pupils would learn something as a consequence of it. For example, when a teacher
explains to her/his pupils a scientific principle, a procedure for solving an
arithmetic problem or a technique to memorise a chemical formula, learning
occurs through the process of teaching. she/he anticipates that her/his pupils
would learn the principle, procedure or technique, and teaching would occur.
Teaching also would result when the teacher prescribes tasks such as reading a
passage, writing of a composition for pupils to engage in for the purpose of
learning. Thus, in either case, be it directly through the face – to – face interaction
or indirectly from the books, films or instructional programmes, teaching can
occur. However, when we think of teaching, we generally have in mind the teacher-
student interaction in the classroom.

As compared to teaching, instruction is a much broader concept. Instruction

subsumes both teaching and classroom management. They are so well integrated
that it is difficult to differentiate one from the other. A question that the teacher
puts across the class, for example, is an act of teaching, while restricting its
answer to a single student and avoiding confusion in the class is part of
management. Similarly, recognizing pupil attention behaviour, gaining maximum
pupil involvement, managing deviant behaviour, recognizing pupil needs,
displaying enthusiasm, etc that occur along with the teaching, are all part of
classroom management. Quality instruction involves efficient and effective use
of both management techniques and teaching methods. So teaching and classroom
management go so hand – in – hand, that it is difficult to separate one from the
other. By now, we have attempted to describe the concept of teaching. Now let
us look at the nature of teaching.

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Teaching and Learning at 1.3.2 Nature of Teaching
Elementary Level
As we have already seen, teaching is a process that involves a series of actions
leading to certain outcomes. Teaching, like any other concept, involves certain
characteristics. We highlight some of the important characteristics of teaching in
the forthcoming sub-sections:

i) Teaching is both Science and Art

Teaching, as a process, has characteristics of both art and science. It is a
practical art and not a fine art aimed at creating beauty for its own sake. It
requires improvisation, spontaneity, handling of hosts of considerations of
form, style, pace, rhythm, and appropriateness that even computers fall
behind. Effective teachers have natural instincts for teaching. It is these
instincts that make their teaching unique. Good teaching, apart from being a
creative art, is also a science that requires a good understanding of principles
of teaching and a deep knowledge of the subject matter. It also offers specific
methods and skills that are attainable. As a result, good teachers are able to
transform knowledge into learning activities that motivate students to learn.

ii) Teaching is Complex

Teaching uses all sorts of techniques, methods, and media. Teaching makes
use of various techniques or skills such as questioning, probing, exemplifying,
etc. It also makes use of various methods or models of teaching depending
upon the nature of the content being taught, objectives to be accomplished,
and readiness of the learners to learn. Teaching also makes use of such media
as audio-visual media, human interaction media, print media, realia, electronic
media, etc. Success in teaching, to a great extent, depends upon selection
and use of appropriate techniques, methods, and media.

iii) Teaching Visualizes Change in Behavior

As teachers when we teach, we have some expectations as to what changes
would happen in the behaviour of the learners. These changes can be in the
cognitive (knowledge) , psycho-motor (skills), and affective (attitudes) values
of the learners. The changes that take place in the behaviour of learners as a
result of learning should be tentatively permanent. The changes that occur
in learners need not be performative but be potential ability of the learners.

iv) Teaching can be Direct or Indirect

While teaching, teachers may resort to either direct or indirect ways of
teaching. As the teachers use such methods as lecture, demonstration, etc
and engages students in face – to – face interaction, they are teaching them
directly. Conversely, when they use active methods like role-play, project,
assignment, inquiry or other such activities, they are teaching them indirectly.
As teachers, we ought to know that teaching them indirectly is a better way
of teaching as compared to teaching them directly. In indirect ways of
teaching, students are at the centre. As a result, they are actively involved in
the process of learning. This gives them chances for better understanding
which leads to greater retention.

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v) Teaching can be Vertical or Horizontal Understanding Teaching
and Learning
Depending on the objectives of teaching, teachers may lead students deep
into the topic. They not only help students know and understand the topic
but teach them higher order thinking skills like analysis, synthesis, evaluation
and creating. This type of teaching is known as vertical teaching. Conversely,
if the teachers teach one topic and then move on to more and more topics,
they are resorting to horizontal teaching. In that case, their teaching covers
more areas spreading over several topics instead of going deeper into one
topic.

vi) Teaching may be Planned or Unplanned

Traditionally, teachers plan for instruction before they go to the classroom
for teaching. In the beginning of the academic year, they resort to yearly
planning in which different units in the textbook are distributed judiciously
throughout the year. Thereafter, they take up each unit, subject it to content
analysis, task analysis, decide the techniques and methods to be used for
teaching. Then they decide the ways of evaluation. However, with the coming
of active leaning methods, no strict planning is possible as one is not clear in
advance what could be the possible way of organizing teaching learning
activities.

By now, we have discussed what teaching is and what its main characteristics
are. This awareness about teaching and its nature would help us in a big way
in handling teaching in a better manner. Now you can assess yourself as to
what you have learned.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) Define each of the following concepts in a sentence
a) Teaching
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b) Training
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Teaching and Learning at
Elementary Level c) Instruction
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2) Explain how teacher centred teaching is different from learner centred
teaching?
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3) Differentiate between vertical and horizontal teaching.
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4) In which sense is teaching both art and science?
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1.3.3 Teaching as Facilitation of Learning

Teaching is traditionally seen as an attempt to bring about desirable changes in
the behaviour of the learners or their cognitive structure. To accomplish this,
teachers analyze and organize the content they are to teach, decide the objectives
for teaching it, select the appropriate methods and even the techniques for
evaluation. Everything pertaining to teaching is done by teachers and learners
have practically no role to play. They are simply to listen, understand and retain
knowledge and skills that teachers focus while teaching. In this type of direct
teaching using such methods as lecture or demonstration, students are mostly
passive, as there are less changes for students for focusing, understanding and
retention.
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Since 1980’s, with the advent of constructivist approach to learning, a new way Understanding Teaching
and Learning
of looking has come to prevail. The constructivists view learning as personal
and hold that every individual is responsible for his or her own learning. In this
perspective, individuals learn as a result of doing activities or undergoing
experiences. In this process, the incoming new knowledge and the prior
knowledge of the learner pertaining to the topic get integrated and as a result,
knowledge and skills are constructed. Teacher’s role is only to guide or facilitate
the act of learning of students.

In learner-centred method of teachings, be they role play, discussion, cooperative

learning, inquiry or discovery, teachers do not stand in front of the class unlike
teaching students through expository methods of lecture and demonstration. They
enable students to learn. As students at the elementary level are not that mature,
they need a lot of assistance in the progress of learning. They need assistance of
teachers, at every step of their learning. If students are to get best results, activities
and experiences should be accompanied by systematic analysis and reflection.
So, teachers’ assistance is inevitable at every step of their learning.

By way of facilitation, teachers are expected to perform a number of tasks at the

pre-instructional, during-instructional and post-instructional stages. As
experiential learning involves learners to learn on their own, teachers have to
gather in advance all the required resources such as materials, texts, worksheets,
etc so that students can learn on their own without any interruption. Teachers
also have to select appropriate contents, activities or issues in consultation with
students looking into the relevance and interests of students. In addition, they
have to decide in advance the objectives of doing the activities or undergoing the
experiences and the procedure to be followed, and the like. In case the method
chosen for the purpose is something like discussion or cooperative learning,
teachers have to think in advance about dividing the class into groups. They
have to decide whether the grouping should be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Teachers also have to provide, during pre-instructional tasks, instruction as to
what students are expected to do while working in learning teams. They also
have to fix the time limit for completion of particular activity, fix dates and time
for discussion or presentation. They also have to decide the evaluation procedures
to be followed after each activity.

During the process of teaching-learning, teachers have to guide them through

various steps in the method being used. If the method chosen is discussion, for
example, teachers have to convey the objectives of holding the discussion, get
the student ready to participate in the discussion and focus the discussion. As the
discussion progresses, teachers have to monitor, enforce the ground rules, keep
records of the points raised and even add their ideas at appropriate places. As the
discussion comes to an end, they have to end it and debrief it in which they have
to get the students look at the discussion analytically.

Teachers have also to do some post instructional tasks. Once the activity is over,
teachers have to encourage students to analytically go through it and reflect over
it. They have to help students find out what went right and what went wrong,
and what their strengths and limitations are, etc. and also have to give required
feedback for improvement.

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Teaching and Learning at In short, teaching is not seen as marking the empty slate or filling the vessels
Elementary Level
with knowledge and skills. Teachers’ main role is not to expose learners to
knowledge and skills through lectures or demonstrations, but to facilitate or guide
the learners in the process of learning.

1.3.4 Relationship of Teaching with Learning and Learner

If you closely examine, you will soon find that there is close relationship between
the way teachers teach and the extent to which learners learn. Teaching like any
other practical art, may be performed dexterously or awkwardly, professionally
or amateurishly, competently or ineffectively, intelligently or stupidly. Successful
teachers have a large number of techniques and methods in their repertoires and
they always select the most appropriate way of looking into the nature of content
to be taught, the objectives to be accomplished, and the readiness level of the
learners whom they are teaching. They have their unique style of teaching and
managing their classroom. Learning, however, does not totally depend on teaching
alone. A number of learner factors can also impact learning. Let us discuss the
relationship of teaching with learning and learners.

1.3.5 Relationship of Teaching with Learning

Student learning depends on the quality of teaching to a great extent. Successful
teachers know that students pay attention to what they teach. Students perceive
only when teaching is relevant and interesting. If students realize that what
teachers teach are irrelevant, they are unlikely to pay attention to it. Similarly, if
they perceive what is taught is dull and uninteresting, they are unlikely to pay
attention to. We know that what students learn now, are not for today only, but
also for the future. Their time in the classroom is not to be wasted on useless
pursuits. So teachers need to realize that what they teach in the classroom should
be something that is not only useful to them in the future but also it should be
taught in such a way that they are able to remember it for a long time to come.
This is possible only when teachers select contents and learning activities
judiciously. When students perceive that what the teacher teaches is both useful
and interesting, then they concentrate on it and as a result learning takes place.
Experienced teachers know that learner-centered methods of teaching provide
better scope for active participation of students. When students are actively
involved in the teaching-learning process, they are bound to concentrate on it.
Concentration leads to better understanding and what is understood is easily
retained by learners. Realizing this fact, if teachers give up the habit of teaching
them through lectures or demonstration and resort to learner-centred methods of
teaching, better learning is bound to happen. The more learner- centered methods
are used for teaching, the higher will be the learning outcomes. Realizing this,
instead of using expository methods like lecture or demonstration, teachers should
use student centered methods like discussion, cooperative learning, role playing,
assignments, projects, etc. The more is the student involvement, the higher will
be the learning outcomes.
Another important way to bring about higher learning is the practice of using
stimulus variation. If teachers go on using day-after-day the same method for
teaching, students are likely to get bored. When they are bored, they naturally
find it difficult to concentrate. To overcome this problem and to make learning
more pleasurable, teachers should master a number of techniques and methods.
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In case they do that, they can make their teaching interesting by resorting to a Understanding Teaching
and Learning
number of techniques as they teach. They may, for example, introduce a topic
through a discussion, which in turn, may be followed by a description and then
by question-answer, etc. They may also use a number of media like audio-visual
media, human interaction media, realia and the like. With the incorporation and
use of different media and techniques, learning will become more joyful. Learners
would find it easy to concentrate and with it, better learning would result.

Teaching and learning, as we have already seen, are indisputably interlinked. A

little extra care on the part of the teacher can bring in a better class room climate
which can generate greater learning outcome on the part of the learners.

1.3.6 Relationship of Learners with Learning

Just as certain aspects related to teaching can make differences in learning,
similarly certain traits and personal qualities of learner can also bring about
differences in his/her learning. Certain qualities and traits of learners such as
their level of intelligence, their attitudes, their motivation, their learning styles,
aptitudes, their readiness to take risks, etc. can impact the way they learn.

Intelligence of learners is one of the reasons for their differences in learning. As

for intelligence, there are no two persons who are the same. It differs from person
to person. Some are highly intelligent. Others are average or low in their
intelligence. Intelligence is linked with capacity to think, to reason logically, to
make decisions, to solve problems, etc. Those who are intelligent or gifted, as
compared with those who are average or low, can see through things, and learn
things easily. They can cope with learning much better than those who are average
or dull. Intelligence and learning, therefore, are closely linked.

Attitude of the learners is yet another trait that can make differences in the rate
of learning. Attitude towards learning here refers to tendency of the learners to
respond either positively or negatively to learning. If learners like the subject
and the way the teacher transacts learning experiences pertaining to it, they are
likely to have positive attitude towards the subject being taught. In case students
like a subject and the way the teacher teaches it, they are tended to pay more
attention to what is being taught. They are willing to spend the required time and
energy for learning it. They begin to actively participate in the learning process.
As a result, they are able to build up more knowledge and skills. Conversely,
those students, who have a dislike for the subjects, are not likely to pay attention
to teaching. As a result, they score poorly. This shows that the attitude of learners
towards learning makes difference in their learning.

Motivation of students is another factor that shows up in their learning. A need

or a motive is something that impels a person into action. This driving force can
also come out of a desire or even from an emotion. It is motivation that drives
things forward. If learners have a worthy goal in mind, and a burning desire to
accomplish it, motivation would automatically arise. Achievement motivation
is a powerful driving force for learning. The main characteristics of motivation
are energy, determination, willingness to work, dedication, and commitment.
When learners are motivated, nothing can stand in their way of accomplishments.
Such learners would be willing to spend hours to learn. On the other hand, those
learners, who are not motivated, would easily give up, when they are confronted
with setbacks.
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Teaching and Learning at Just like intelligence, attitude and motivation, there are other factors like the
Elementary Level
cognitive style of the learners (their preferred way learning), their reflectivity
(ability to reflect upon), readiness to take risks (courage to venture out into new
areas), divergent ways of thinking rather than convergent ways, their personality
dispositions such as introvertedness or extrovertedness, their self-esteem, etc.
can impact their learning. Similarly, the mental state of learners, can also impact
their learning. If they are emotionally disturbed, physically tired, they find it
difficult to learn.

In sum, the way teachers teach and the extent to which learners learn are closely
related. Similarly, if learners perceive teaching as good, relevant, and interesting,
they are made to actively participate in the teaching-learning process, and there
is sufficient level of stimulus variation in teaching, learners would find learning
joyful and they would learn. On the other hand, if they find teaching teacher
centered, and there is no scope for their active participation, learners may not be
motivated to learn. In the absence of concentration, learning will suffer.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
5) Give any three reasons that make us perceive teaching as facilitation of
learning.
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6) Write down any three factors that link teaching and learning.
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7) Note down any four learner related factors that impact learning.
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 Understanding Teaching
1.4 LEARNER CENTERED APPROACH TO and Learning

TEACHING-LEARNING
There has been a trend since the 1980s and 1990s towards individuals taking
more responsibility for their own development. The thinking that children’s brains
are blank slates to be written upon or empty vessels to be filled up was found to
be pedagogically not sound. Learners are active and need to use and test ideas,
skills through relevant activities. Instead of spending time memorizing materials,
filling in the blanks, repeating similar problems, students should solve novel
problems, integrate information and create knowledge for themselves. Teachers
should encourage them to use active techniques to create more knowledge and
then reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding
are changing. Teachers should also know their pre-existing knowledge and guide
the learners to build on the existing knowledge. They should help students assess
how learning activity helps them in gaining understanding.

1.4.1 Meaning and Characteristics of Learner Centered

Approach
Learner centered approach to teaching and learning, as noted above, is activity
based. It focuses on student needs, interests and activities. In its present form,
learner centered approach operates with students as the centre of learning.
Activities for learning are planned jointly by teacher and students. Teacher is
stimulator and facilitator of student activities. He/she employs such techniques
and methods as discussion, debate, role play, cooperative learning, inquiry, games
and other devices and activities for actively involving students in the classroom.
Teachers always strive to look for activities that can usher in greater student
involvement. As students are engaged in the whole process of learning, they
come out with their own findings. They are made to look for links among things
they discover. They make conscious effort to sense and find meaning in what
they learn.

Characteristics of Learner Centered Approach

As we have already noted, learner centered approach to teaching and learning is
carried out through the involvement of students into various activities. In the
process learners construct their own knowledge and skills. Students centered
approach to teaching-learning, as in the case of other approaches, is marked off
by a number of characteristics. Examples of learner centred approach are project
work, activity based learning, peer tutoring, field trip, group discussion, role
play, drama, etc. Learner centered approach to teaching-learning, as in the case
of other approaches, is marked off by a number of characteristics. Some of these
characteristics are as follows:
• Learner centered approach is centered on learner needs.
• It is centered on cooperative determination of subject matter.
• It lays emphasis on variability of exposure.
• It lays emphasis on skills.
• It lays emphasis on immediate meaning of learning.
• It lays emphasis on indirect strategies.
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Teaching and Learning at If we examine the above characteristics of the learner centered approach to
Elementary Level
teaching learning, we can soon find that its characteristics are just opposite to
those of teacher centered approach. While learner centered approach focuses on
learner needs, teacher centered approach focuses on subject matter. While learner
centered approach lays emphasis on variability of exposure, teacher centered
approach lays stress on uniformity of exposure. While learner centered approach
advocates learner controlled strategies for teaching, teacher centered advocates
teacher controlled strategies for teaching.

1.4.2 Integrating Children’s Voices and Experiences in

Teaching-Learning process
Children’s ideas and opinions contribute significantly to the teaching-learning
process. As all of us know that they come to class with a lot of prior experiences
pertaining to different subject areas. While teaching different contents, we must
utilize their prior experiences in the teaching-learning process. Moreover, their
voices in the transaction of learning experiences need to be respected. Research
shows that when students are involved in the goal setting, their commitment
increases. If they are included in deciding the goal of teaching, they tend to
engage themselves more in goal directed activities. On the contrary, if teachers
set goals for students, they are more likely to give up, as they perceive them as
teacher’s goals and not theirs. Involving students in all matters in which they are
concerned in the classroom is one of the crucial ways through which teachers
can generate commitment. If teachers wish to get full commitment and cooperation
of students, they should involve them in open communication and make them
participate in decision making and goal setting.

Teachers also need to realize that dependence breeds hostility. If teachers wish to
reduce hostility, they should provide children with opportunity to experience
independence. The more the autonomy, the less the enmity. The more the self
dependence, the less the resentment. One of the ways to diminish hostility is to
give student a voice and a choice in matters related to life in school, self-inferred
decisions decrease defiance, reduce resilience and invite collaboration. Experienced
teachers would give students opportunity to experience maximum possible
autonomy and participation. Wherever feasible, they also would use the ideas,
suggestions and opinions expressed by students so that they feel their input is
valued. By using modalities such as these, experienced teachers would lead them
to greater motivation and better accomplishments.

1.4.3 Children’s Active Participation in Classroom Activities

Learning requires active participation of students in the classroom. The more
they are involved, the greater would be the possibility of their concentration. As
they closely interact with teachers, they understand what is being learned. What
is understood is easily internalized and learned. So active participation on the
part of students is very crucial for learning. The more active learning techniques
teachers use, the more is the extent of knowledge and skills, they are likely to
build up.

When teachers provide students with opportunities to approach learning as acts

of discovery or inquiry, they engage themselves increasingly in learning with the
autonomy of self-reward. This serves as stimulation and helps students maintain
their own alertness. Providing opportunity for doing things that learners enjoy
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makes them motivated. So teachers should structure their teaching in such a way Understanding Teaching
and Learning
that students become totally involved and acquire learning experiences which
enable them excel both in academic as well as social learning.

Teachers can also make their lessons interesting for students by relating materials
to students’ lives, by making them vivid and novel, by using games, puzzles and
other activities which are inviting. Similarly, by organizing a variety of activities
such as field trips, stimulation, role playing, music, guest lectures and by switching
on and off to different instructional techniques, methods and media, teachers
can keep the interests of the students alive. Knowing one’s subject and one’s
students, an imaginative teacher can do much to make teaching appealing to
students’ interest. He/she begins from what students already know and taking
clues from their curiosity, their ambitions, their problems, he/she should show
them how he/she relates to what is studied in school. Slowly and steadily, he/she
would make students understand how such study can provide answers that lead
them to more satisfying lives in future.

Teachers can also actively involve students in the teaching-learning process

through the use of a number of active learning methods. Some of these activities
which teachers could use in the classroom are as follows:
• Asking questions especially those of the open ended type.
• Getting students summarize what is being learned.
• Putting the newly learned information into pupils’ own words.
• Relating the information to their prior knowledge.
• Getting them solve problems.
• Discussing with peers and others who are knowledgeable.
• Transforming the newly learned data into graphs, charts and tables.
• Notes taking and notes making.
• Applying the knowledge learned into novel situations, etc.
In this way, by resorting to learner centered methods like discovery, inquiry, etc,
selecting activities students like, relating materials to students’ lives, using active
learning methods, teachers can make students active participants in the teaching-
learning process.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
8) Write down any four characteristics of child centered ways of learning.
...............................................................................................................
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19
Teaching and Learning at
Elementary Level 9) Note down any three ways through which children’s voices and
experiences can be integrated into the teaching-learning process.
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10) List any five techniques that could be employed to ensure children’s
active participation in the classroom activities.
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1.5 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF LEARNING

As teachers, we need to have some basic understanding of what learning means.
We will be confused and uncertain in our role as teachers if we are not clear
about what learning is and what it involves. Learning can be best understood as
a word which describes a change in an individual’s range and repertoire of
behaviour. It is the process by which behaviour is modified either by the addition
of new and different abilities or by the extension and enhancement of those
abilities which an individual already possesses. For example, learners at primary
level know addition in mathematics. When they are taught subtraction, their
ability to add now gets enhanced with ability to subtract.

1.5.1 Concept of Learning

Most psychologists perceive learning as a relatively persistent change in an
individual’s potential behaviour due to experience. According to this definition,
learning mainly involves three aspects, namely (i) some relatively permanent
change in the learner’s behaviour, (ii) the change may be in the potential rather
than necessarily in the actual performance, and (iii) the change must come about
as a result of experience. The change that occurs in individuals owing to learning
may be felt in their existing cognitive structure indicative of intellectual growth,
development of newer life skills, methodological skills, attitudes, interests, etc.
Thus owing to learning, changes are experienced in an individual’s cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains.

If we look back, we can see that the concept of learning has not been the same
throughout for the last 100 years. Three schools of thought have been found
prevailing during these years. These schools are (i) behaviourist school of thought,
(ii) cognitive school of thought, and (iii) constructivist school of thought.

20
i) Behaviourist School of Thought Understanding Teaching
and Learning
The school of thought that remained dominant in the first half of the twentieth
century was that of the behaviourism. The behaviourists gave focus only to
those behaviours that can be observed and measured. They believed that
learning is nothing but a stimulus response reinforcement process. When
learners respond to the stimulus, if they are reinforced, their responses would
get strengthened. So the behaviourists believed that learning is a response
strengthening process. For example, when a teacher asks student a question
in Environmental Sciences and the student responds correctly, then he/she
rewards the student by saying ‘excellent’ or ‘very good’. This acts as
reinforcement to the student’s response, which gets strengthened.

ii) Cognitivist School of Thought

As the behaviourist did not pay any heed to the inner processes involving
learning and paid attention only on observable aspects, a new school of
thought known as cognitivist came up. The cognitivists believed that every
subject (discipline) has a structure and when information is presented in an
organized manner through lecture or demonstration, learners would acquire
knowledge and skills. The cognitivists believed that learning is nothing but
acquisition, assimilation and accommodation of knowledge and skills in the
cognitive structure.

iii) Constructivist School of Thought

The constructivists believe that learning is not that passive as the behaviourists
think. They began to consider learning as personal and that everyone
constructs his or her own knowledge and skills as a result of undergoing
experiences. The knowledge the learner gets from experience and the prior
knowledge he has related to it, gets integrated and as a result, new knowledge
and skills are constructed. So constructivists believe that learning is nothing
but construction of knowledge and skills as a result of undergoing new
experiences.

More details about the schools of thought on learning will be discussed

in Unit-2.
As our discussion above shows, the concept of learning has been steadily
undergoing a conceptual change over the years. It has never been static. Let
us now look at the nature or characteristics of learning.

1.5.2 Nature of Learning

As in the case of any other process, learning is also characterized by certain
features. As educators of prospective teachers, it is advantageous to know that
the nature and characteristics of learning. It is a complex process and so it has
several features that need to be known. Some of the important characteristics of
learning are as given below:
• Learning is complex and involves all sorts of things as knowledge, skills,
insights, values, attitudes, and habits.
• Learning may be planned or unplanned.
• Learning can be triggered by any experience, failure, success, and anything
in between.
21
Teaching and Learning at • Learning can be active as well as passive.
Elementary Level
• Learning is individual and can also be collectively generated in groups.
• Learning is both a process and an outcome.
• Learning may be incremental, adding cumulatively to what has previously
been learned or transformed.
• Learning outcomes can be undesirable as well as desirable.
• Learning has a moral dimension.
• Learning is life-long.
Learning is, as it can be noted from the above list, multifaceted. It is complex,
planned or unplanned, conscious or unconscious. It can be incremental, cumulative
or transformational. It can be guided or independent. Learning is also life-long.

1.6 LEARNING: DEVELOPMENT OF

KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ATTITUDES
Teaching is an attempt to bring about desirable changes in the behaviour of
learners. As a result of teaching, be it teacher-centred or learner-centred, learning
would occur. Learning is the never ending process of becoming different from
what we were. The main function of education is to equip learners with the
required knowledge, skills and attitudes that are essential for leading life in the
society effectively and efficiently. If left to themselves, people will not be in a
position to pick up all the knowledge and skills they require. So with a view to
facilitating the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, organizations
such as schools and colleges are set up throughout the country. Attempts are
made to study what individual and societal needs are. It is these needs that guide
us as to what the objectives and goals of education should be. Once the objectives
and goals are clear, we select and organize the content matter or learning
experiences accordingly. The total list of learning experiences, including those
of physical education, arts, painting, etc; are known as curriculum. The curriculum,
in turn, is broken down in terms of subject areas. The list of items in each subject
is called syllabus. Syllabus provides subject wise learning content or learning
experiences. Using syllabus as guidelines, textbooks are prepared.

Teaching-learning is mainly carried out in the classrooms with the help of

textbook. Each textbook has a number of units or chapters. Each unit has a number
of sub-units in the form of lessons containing the learning matter and connected
learning experiences and activities. During the transaction of the content matter
and organizing various activities students get the opportunity to acquire
knowledge, skills and attitudes. As a result, students are able to get information,
do activities and develop attitudes which they were not capable of earlier.

The task of educating the young is simply too important and complex to be
handled entirely by someone who lacks expertise in teaching. Modern societies
staff their schools with expert teachers to provide instruction. Teachers are
expected to use the best practices to help students learn essential knowledge,
skills and attitudes. It is no longer sufficient for teachers to employ teaching
practices based solely on intuition, personal preferences or conventional wisdom.
They need to use teaching practices that have been shown to be effective. Only
22
when teachers employ the most appropriate modalities for teaching-learning, Understanding Teaching
and Learning
students will be in a position to acquire the requisite knowledge skills and attitudes.

1.6.1 Development of Knowledge

Studies carried out by cognitive psychologists like Bruner and Ausubel found
that each discipline has a structure consisting of key concepts that define the
discipline. They argued that when knowledge is organized systematically and
presented to students using expository methods such as lecture or demonstration,
they will understand it easily. Expository methods are those methods through
which learning experiences are presented to learners by teacher in finite form.
Learners are to receive learning experiences from the teacher as presented by
him/her. If the content is organized logically, they easily fall into patterns. It is
these patterns that give meaning. What is meaningful is easily understood and as
a result, it is easily internalized and retained by learners.

Teachers involve students into various activities and experiences so that they
will be able to acquire the required knowledge. They need to know language,
mathematics, sciences, etc. They also need to know about physical education,
value education, etc. In fact, students need to be equipped with all sorts of
knowledge to bring about their all round development.

In helping students acquire knowledge, we should not be satisfied with just

introducing them to the level of knowledge, understanding and application. We
need to take them to the higher levels of cognitive abilities such as analysis,
synthesis, evaluation and creating. Only when they have picked up critical thinking
ability (analysis), creative thinking ability (synthesis), and evaluative thinking
ability, the learner will be able to make decisions, solve problems and handle
tasks with ease and efficiency. Knowledge has no meaning unless it is put to use.
So while teaching, focus needs to be laid on what students can do with what they
know.

1.6.2 Development of Skills

Through the process of teaching-learning, knowledge is not the only thing that
we expect learners to develop. We also expect them to develop skills and attitudes.
A skill is a learned activity that one develops through practice and reflection. To
be skilled is to be able to perform a learned activity well and at will. Each skill
may consist of a number of sub-skills. It is these component skills that make up
the overall skill. Lack of mastery in one of the sub-skills can affect what would
otherwise be a good performance. You may, for example, have the potential to
be an excellent essay writer; however, you may be very poor in structuring your
ideas or using paragraphs. This may put hindrances in your becoming an effective
writer.

Skill, as an ability to perform something, includes proficiency, competence, and

expertise in the activity. Skill refers to learning of psycho-motor behaviours
required in activities like riding a bicycle, driving a car, swinging a tennis racket
or even something like tying a shoe lace. As practice of such skill continues, they
become more efficient and can be performed with little conscious thought or
recall. There are three stages in the development of an automated skill. These
stages are as follows:
1) Cognitive Stage (following directions guided by declarative knowledge).
23
Teaching and Learning at 2) Associative Stage (combining individual steps into larger units)
Elementary Level
3) Automated Stage (where the whole procedure can be accomplished without
much attention).
In the last stage, the brain process shifts from reflective to reflexive. When driving
a car for the first time, for example, you get a lot of instructions from your trainer
which belong to cognitive stage, and you have to give a lot of conscious attention
to your speed, putting your foot on the correct pedal, observing the surrounding
traffic (reflective) which pertain to associative stage. As you drive, the skills are
procedural and they become more automatic as you get used to it (reflexive),
which is automated stage. Although learning a new skill involves conscious
attention, skill performance later become unconscious and relies on non-
declarative memory. Much of what we do during the course of a day such as
taking breakfast, reading newspaper, get to work, etc are automatic.

1.6.3 Development of Attitudes

As a result of learning, we develop not only knowledge and skills but also attitudes.
Attitude is a mental state held by an individual which affects the way that person
responds to events and organizes responses. Attitudes are commonly held to
have three essential components or dimensions: (i) a cognitive dimension
involving the beliefs and rationalizations which explains the holding of the
attitudes, (ii) an affective dimension involving the emotional aspects of attitude
such as likes, dislikes, feeling of distaste, and (iii) a conative or behavioural
dimension which involves the extent to which the individual are prepared to act
on the attitude that they hold.

Attitude refers to affective or emotional state of pleasantness or unpleasantness

of the mind. Emotions help learning in two ways, namely (i) the emotional climate
in which learning occurs, and (ii) the degree to which emotions are associated
with learning content.

i) Learning Climate
Attitude develops as a result of the perception of climate of the condition in
which learners function. When learners feel that the people with whom they
are interacting are genuine and that they are interested in their well being,
learners feel happy. They feel comfortable in the company of teachers and
others and as a result a good rapport come to prevail. This leads to effective
interaction which results in learning. Depending upon how learners perceive
about the condition in which they function, they turn out to be positive or
negative. When they are positive and happy, endomorphines are released in
the brain. This produces a feeling of euphoria which makes their learning
experiences pleasurable and successful. Conversely, if the learners are stressed
and negative, cortisol is released which activates defence behaviours such
as fight or flight.

ii) Content and Methods of Teaching and Attitude

Attitude is developed not only as a result of the perception of the climate
under which learners function but also as a result of the content they learn
and methodology being used. If the contents they learn are interesting, learners
will develop favourable attitude towards it. Similarly, if teachers use strategies
such as simulation, role playing, journal writing and the like, students would
24
 develop favourable attitude towards learning. If learners’ study experiences Understanding Teaching
and Learning
are pleasant, they are impelled towards continuing it. If unpleasant, they
tend to avoid learning. In short, learners develop their attitude not only
depending upon their perception of the condition under which they function
but also on the content being taught and the methodology being employed
for teaching by teachers.

1.7 DIFFERENT WAYS CHILDREN LEARN

As we have already noted, learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour
as a result of undergoing experiences. The experiences we resort to for learning
can take different forms. We learn as a result of experience, observation, exploration,
experiment, etc. We learn something or other all the time when we are awake
and alert. Our sensory organ keep on capturing and passing on information
pertaining to everything which we pay our attention to. It would be quite beneficial
to know what these different ways through which we learn. So an attempt is
made in what follows to give a brief description of some of the important ways
through which we learn.

1.7.1 Imitation
Imitation is one of several ways through which people learn. Children generally
imitate their parents. Small girls generally take their mothers and small boys
their fathers as role models. They try to imitate their parents in many things.
Even adults are seen imitating others in several matters. Those, who are not
confident or assertive, for example, are seen looking for people, who are confident
and assertive. Once they find such people, they watch their behaviour very closely
and try to act the way they do. In course of time, as a result, those who are not
confident or assertive, are found to have turned out to be assertive or confident.
They have learned to be assertive or confident as a result of imitating people
who are assertive or confident.

1.7.2 Observation
Observation is another way to learn. Suppose we want to learn about the social
behaviour of chimpanzees, we have to go to their natural habitat which happens
to be the forests. There we observe them closely. As a result of observation, we
would learn how chimpanzees behave when they are in groups. We take in details
of their habits. Thus, as a result of observation, we gather details of the objects
regarding the shape, size, colour, etc. As these details of the objects we observe
get organized, they fall into patterns giving meaning to the things observed. This
leads to learning.

1.7.3 Experience
Learning is based on and follows from experience. Most things we know are
learned through experiences. After having undergone an experience, if we reflect
over it, with the help of a few questions, we will learn a lot out of it. Questions
such as; what was the purpose of the experience? What did I learn out of it?
What went right? What went wrong? Why did it go wrong? etc. As we pose
questions such as these and seek answers to them, we learn a lot out of it.
Undergoing experiences and their reflection over them is one of the best ways to
learn. For example, while teaching cultural diversity, students may be taken to a
25
Teaching and Learning at local fair (mela) and exposed to experience various kinds of people, their dresses,
Elementary Level
food habits, etc.

1.7.4 Teaching
Apart from learning through imitation, observation and experiences, attending
classes where experts are invited to teach is yet another way to learn. Teachers
select a topic, subject it to content and task analysis, and expose students to the
topic through lectures. The students listen to the lecture and as a result, they
learn.

1.7.5 Instruction
Instruction is usually concerned with physical rather than cognitive skills. This
system, often involves demonstration with supporting explanation. The
demonstrator demonstrates how some task is performed. The learners listen to
the explanation and watch the performances. As a result, the learners acquire
knowledge and skills.

1.7.6 Trial and Error

When an individual is confronted with a problem, and is not sure of which option
is the most appropriate, he/she may opt for the one that he/she thinks is the right
one. If he/she finds that it does not work, he/she may go for another. This process
continues until he/she arrives at the right solution. In this process of trial and
error, he/she learns a lot. For example, learners at elementary level learn
mathematical puzzles through trial and error method.

1.7.7 Reflection
Reflection is an effective way to process information and learn. One who is reflective
has a tendency to consider and deliberate alternative solutions to problems.
Conversely, one who is impulsive, has the tendency to respond spontaneously
without deliberation especially in situations of uncertainty. On who is reflective,
uses cognitive powers such as reasoning and analyzing to make sense of things
that he or she is required to do. In the process of reflection, he/she learns a lot.
For example, while teaching the impact of deforestation, students may be asked
to reflect upon the advantages and disadvantages of deforestation.

1.7.8 Experimentation
Conducting experiments is yet another way to learn. When we are in doubt, it is
not always wise to rely on intuition and guessing. Our guessing may often go
wrong. To get to know the reality, we have to resort to experimentation. As a
teacher, for example, you may think that your students as a whole have positive
attitude towards your ways of teaching and so they will come out with good
academic achievement. Our thinking can be one thing and the reality may be
another. In case, we choose to conduct an experiment, we can certainly arrive at
the reality. In the course of the experimentation, we learn several things.

As we have seen, there are quite a number of ways through which we can learn.
However, as learning can neither be observed nor measured, it is difficult to
attribute specific instances of learning to particular methods. It is, therefore,
reasonable to assume that learning job related capabilities involves several
methods in combination or sequence, which have a complementary and cumulative
26
effect. Different methods and approaches have their distinctive characteristics Understanding Teaching
and Learning
and limitations. Our success in learning, to a great extent, depends on our ability
to select the most appropriate method, not the best one, looking into the nature
of matter to be learned and the objectives for which it is learned.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
11) What are the three stages of development of skills?
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12) What are the components or dimensions of attitudes?
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13) Illustrate how children learn through imitation and experience.
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1.8 LET US SUM UP

Teaching is an attempt to bring about the required changes in the cognitive,
affective and psycho-motor domains of learners. If teachers are to do their job
with efficiency and effectiveness, they should have sound knowledge base not
only in the content areas they teach but also in matters related to pedagogy. They
ought to know what teaching is, what its characteristics are, how teaching is
related to learners and their learning, what learner centered approach to teaching-
learning is, how to integrate learner voices and experiences in the teaching-
learning process, as well as how to bring in active participation of students in the
teaching-learning process.
27
Teaching and Learning at Apart from understanding the concept and nature of teaching and other pertinent
Elementary Level
aspects related to teaching, teacher ought to know about learning and its specific
nature. As a result of teaching, be it teacher-centred or learner-centred, learning
takes place. As a consequence of learning, tentatively permanent changes occur
in the cognitive structure of learners. They acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes.
If teachers are to make the most of their teaching, apart from knowing the concept
and nature of learning, they ought to know different ways through which children
learn as well as all the pertinent aspects related to their learning. Only then, they
will be able to carry out the act of teaching in the classroom at the optimum level
possible.

1.9 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1) List a few activities, which according to you, come under good examples of
teaching.

2) Analyse your functions as a teacher at the elementary level and list out various
activities you perform.

1.10 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1) State at least three advantages of learner centered approach to teaching-
learning.
2) Bring out the differences among teaching, instruction, and training.
3) Suggest any three ways to integrate children’s voices and experiences in the
process of teaching-learning.
4) Suggest some of the ways to ensure active participation of students in the
classroom activities.
5) Teaching is facilitation of learning. Discuss.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

• Contrell, S. (2003). The Study Skills Hand book, New York: Palgrave
Macmillan,
• Arends, R.I. (1994). Learning to Teach, Inc. New York: Mc Graw – Hill,
• Joseph, K.S. (2003). Learning to Educate, Vadodara: Gold Rock Publications,
• Moore, K.D. (2005). Effective Instructional Strategies, California: Sage
Publications, Inc.
• National Council for Teacher Education (1998). Policy Perspectives in
Teacher Education. Critique and Documentation, New Delhi; NCTE
• Venkateswaran, N.K. (2003). On Teaching, New Delhi: NCTE,
www.ncteindia.org.

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 Understanding Teaching
1.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS. and Learning

1) i) Teaching is a process of attempting to promote changes in the learners.

ii) Training is the act of transferring knowledge and skills from one who
knows to one who doesn’t know.
iii) Instruction is a process which involves demonstration with necessary
explanation mainly to develop skills.
2) Teacher centred teaching is exposing knowledge and skills to students through
lecture or demonstration while learner centred teaching is teaching students
through various activities.

3) In vertical teaching the focus is on teaching students a topic in detail while

in horizontal teaching the focus is on covering more areas or topics.

4) Teaching is a science as it requires a solid understanding of various principles

of teaching and a deep knowledge of the subject matter. It is an art as it
involves handling of a host of considerations of form, style, pace, rhythm
and appropriateness.

5) Teachers provide learners with all learning resources. They motivate students
to learn through various activities. They assist student at every step.

6) Teaching is interesting; if teachers teach what is relevant, and if they employ

methods that actively involve students.
7) Certain qualities and traits of learners can impact the way they learn are:
(i) intelligence, (ii) attitude, (iii) motivation, and (iv) style of learning.

8) Learner centered approach to teaching and learning focuses on: (i) learner
needs, (ii) subject matter determining by both teachers and students, (iii)
employment of indirect ways of teaching, (iv) focus is on development of
skills.

9) Integrating children’s voices and experiences in teaching-learning process

requires: (i) involvement in goal-setting, (ii) participation of students in all
matters they are concerned in the classroom, (iii) use of ideas, opinions
expressed by students.

10) Children’s active participation in classroom activities can be enhanced

through: (i) asking questions, (ii) getting students solve problems, (iii)
summary writing, (iv) discussion with peers and other knowledgeable people,
(v) transforming information into charts, graphs, etc.

11) There are three stages in the acquisition of skills. These are: (a) cognitive
stage, (b) associative stage and (c) automated stage.

12) The components or dimensions of attitude are:

i) Cognitive dimension involving the beliefs and rationalizations which
explains the holding of the attitudes.

ii) An affective dimension involving the emotional aspects of attitude such

as likes and dislikes.
29
Teaching and Learning at iii) A conative dimension which involves the extent to which the individual
Elementary Level
are prepared to act on the attitude that they hold.

13) Children learn a lot of things by imitations from the behaviours of parents,
peers and elders in the neighborhood. For example, elementary school
children learn the role of different characters in a drama by imitating the role
played by their elders and peers. They learn new things through experience
by engaging themselves in different activities. They learn the preparation of
clay model when they themselves prepare models from clay.

30