Flight Control Actuation Technology...

Flight Control Actuation Technology for Next-

Generation All-Electric Aircraft
Stephen L. Botten, Chris R. Whitley, and Andrew D. King
TRW Aeronautical Systems

The “All-Electric” aircraft is a concept that emerged in the 1970s and has
engendered a large amount of research activity. An all-electric engine, which could
replace current aero gas turbines, would drive all accessories electrically, via a
distribution network, from motor/generators embedded in the engine spools.
Extending the function of the motor/generators to include service as active mag-
netic bearings would facilitate deletion of the oil system. The all-electric concept
thus offers a huge scope for both engine and airframe reconfiguration and
operational improvements, with studies indicating benefits of overall weight
reduction, increased reliability, easier maintainability, reduced operating costs
(including reduced fuel burn), and enhanced safety.

As a stepping stone to the all-electric aircraft, an interim solution has emerged,

namely, the More-Electric Aircraft (MEA). Such an aircraft contains some, but not
all, of the key features of the all-electric. This incremental approach is attractive
because it incurs significantly less risk than a wholesale change to the aircraft
electrical system otherwise required.

TRW Aeronautical Systems, being a system supplier whose expertise and products
include electrical machine design, power management, and engine and flight
controls, is particularly well-placed to support progress on the MEA. Furthermore,
electric actuation technologies developed by TRW for use in controlling flight
surfaces, are currently migrating from the phases of research and development and
flight trials, to entering service circa 2006.

Introduction

When describing the MEA, flight control actuation systems can be considered to involve two
main technological areas: fly-by-wire (FBW) and power-by-wire (PBW).

FBW technology comprises the design, development, and implementation of electronics for
flight control systems. Electronic control provides flight control and actuator control
functionality implemented using either centralized or distributed architectures. Distributed
control systems reduce the processing load on centralized flight control computers, and offer
more flexibility during system architecture development. A further benefit is the reduction
in weight achieved by reducing harness size and component quantity.

In recent years, technological advancement has centered on the FBW field, to the extent that
FBW control systems are now the standard in today’s commercial and military aircraft.
Indeed, technological maturity has reached a level where the principles of control and system
safety are well understood and have been applied to the flight control systems of aircraft such
as the Airbus A320, Boeing 777, and Eurofighter Typhoon.

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PBW technology explores novel approaches to the design and development of electrically
powered actuators used to operate flight control surfaces. This includes the application and
adaptation of electric motor drive technologies (that address the design and development of
electric motors and their associated electronic drives) to suit the specific performance,
reliability, environmental, and safety objectives of various flight control applications.

Currently, the maturity of PBW technology is lagging behind that of FBW. The development
of actuator configurations, efficient electric motors, and high-power electronic drives,
although demonstrated in test flights, has yet to be implemented and certified as a production
standard application.

In this paper, we examine current and potential applications of electric actuation technology,
highlighting the challenges that future implementations will face in order to ensure electric
actuation technology becomes a realistic alternative to hydraulic technologies.

The Benefits of Electric Actuation

The potential benefits of electric actuation at a system level have been well publicized.
Electric actuation can offer:
• Improved aircraft maintainability:
- Fewer hydraulic components are required,
- Faster aircraft turnaround,
- Fewer spares and tools are needed,
- Improved fault-diagnosis through built-in test (BIT).

• Improved system availability and reliability:

- Electrical distribution is more practical and offers system flexibility with respect to
reconfiguration — a capability previously difficult to achieve using hydraulics,
- Improved mean-time-between-failures (MTBFs) through removal (electromechani-
cal actuation or EMA) or “on-demand usage” (electrohydrostatic actuation or EHA)
of hydraulic components.
• Improved flight safety — in the MEA configuration, improved system safety is achieved
through dissimilar actuator power supplies and subsequent avoidance of common mode
failures.
• Reduced system weight — weight saving, achieved through the replacement of entire
hydraulic systems, including pumps, distribution networks (pipes and fluid), and valve
blocks, by electric systems.

The main benefit is the reduction of aircraft operating costs, for example, reduced fuel cost
(as a result of reduced weight), and lower maintenance costs (quicker turnaround). However,
before such benefits can be realized, additional work is required to improve the technology
and provide the appropriate application platforms to introduce the technology into service.
Furthermore, the aircraft maintenance industry must realign its infrastructure so that it can
reap the benefits of electric technologies.

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Electric Actuation Technologies

Beginning in 1989, TRW Aeronautical Systems embarked on a series of research projects

specifically directed toward developing electric actuation systems for the MEA. During the
product development phase, our team faced significant engineering challenges and is
continuing to overcome the physical and technical challenges posed by power source
constraints, thermodynamic factors, and increased electrical loads. Some of the more
significant challenges to harnessing electric actuation technologies are:
• Electric power sources have lower specific power density compared to equivalent
hydraulic power sources. This is less significant below 2 kW because of inefficiency
(leakage) in hydraulic devices; however, above 2 kW, the size of electric power sources
can double compared to hydraulic equivalents, incurring associated weight penalties.
• Electric actuation produces a more demanding thermodynamic environment as a result
of increased, localized heating effects and reduced thermal dissipation.
• With an increase in electrical load, it becomes more difficult to maintain power quality
at a satisfactory level. High-power motor controllers, in particular, produce distortions
in the supply as a result of the nonlinear characteristics of diode rectification.

In meeting these challenges, TRW has produced, and is continuing to develop, more efficient
electric power sources, as well as novel optimized actuator designs. These solutions will
effectively meet power quality requirements and survive the thermodynamic environments
in aircraft engines.

To achieve optimized solutions, system requirements for each application must be consid-
ered on their own merits in order to satisfy safety, performance, reliability, and cost
requirements. To help provide a suitable solution, a choice exists between several types of
electric actuation technology that can be applied to various flight control applications. In the
following sections, we describe three types of electric actuator technology and their
advantages and disadvantages relative to the specific operational, safety, and performance
requirements associated with different flight control applications.

Electromechanical Actuation (EMA). An EMA uses mechanical gearing to couple an

electric motor to a flight control surface. This is achieved using a rotary gearbox, and
depending on the actuation method required, can include some form of rotary-to-linear
conversion, such as a ballscrew. Electric motors requiring a DC electrical supply are typically
used, although the addition of a diode rectification stage will also allow them to operate from
an AC electrical supply. Motor speed, direction, and torque translate directly to speed,
direction, and load in the actuator. Figure 1 shows an EMA currently being developed by
TRW for a high-power flight control application.

In its basic form, the EMA is susceptible to certain single-point failures that can lead to a
mechanical jam, and consequently presents complications for flight certification on certain
surfaces. Additional devices can be used to mitigate against this failure mode, but in doing
so, complexity, cost, and weight are increased. For these reasons, the basic EMA is not suited
for primary flight control applications. However, spoiler systems and secondary actuation
systems could accommodate EMA technology. TRW has been actively developing EMA

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Motor Gearbox

Input
Motion

Ballscrew
Actuator
Motion

Figure 1. Large EMA for High-Power Flight Controls

technology through the concept demonstration stages, and an EMA flight trial demonstration
is planned for 2000–01.

Electrohydrostatic Actuation (EHA). In contrast to EMA, EHA (Figure 2) uses fluidic

gearing between the electric motor and the surface actuator. Hydraulic fluid provides an
intermediate means of transmitting power to the surface. Here, a variable-speed electric
motor (typically DC) is used to drive a fixed-displacement hydraulic pump, which in turn,
powers a conventional hydraulic piston jack. Change in direction is achieved by the use of
a bidirectional motor.

A major advantage to this approach is that the EHA operating mode can be managed like a
conventional hydraulic actuator. This approach is achieved using standard hydraulic bypass
or damping valves (Figure 3); thus traditional active-standby, or active-active, actuator
configurations can be readily adopted. This capability makes the EHA more suitable for
primary flight control applications than the EMA.

Although EHA technology reintroduces hydraulic components and fluid, it is totally self-
contained within the actuator assembly. Compared to traditional hydraulic actuator systems,
the inconvenience of hydraulic disconnection from aircraft supplies and the complications
of bleeding the system during reinstallation are not encountered during maintenance. Flight
testing of EHA technology has already been performed using technology developed in
conjunction with other TRW efforts.

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Valve Hydraulic Hydraulic

Block Piston Jack Pump

Electric
Motor

Hydraulic
Accumulator
Power
Electronics
Enclosure

Figure 2. Large EHA

Motor Control
Electronics Fixed Displacement
Variable Speed Hydraulic Pump
Electric Motor

Electrical
Supply

Command
Flight Signals
Control Hydraulic Supply
Computer

Bypass Signal Bypass

Valve

Position Feedback

Figure 3. EHA Control Schematic

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Some additional benefits of both EMA and EHA actuators are:

• Low quiescent power consumption during standby operation,
• Rapid start-up response,
• Can be easily adapted for use with AC or DC electric supplies,
• Insensitive to supply frequency variation of AC electric supplies.

Integrated Actuator Package (IAPTM). The IAP is an alternative implementation of the

EHA design principle. Figure 4 shows a dual-channel IAP developed by TRW. Essentially
containing similar elements of motor, pump, bypass valve, and piston jack, the IAP differs
in the type of motor and pump applied. In contrast to the EHA, the IAP uses a unidirectional,
fixed-speed electric motor (usually AC) to drive a variable displacement pump that controls
fluid flow to the hydraulic actuator. Figure 5 illustrates the basic control layout for the IAP.

With the pump rotating at constant speed, a separate control mechanism varies the swash
plate angle within the pump, and is therefore able to continuously vary the hydraulic fluid
flow to the actuator. When the swash plate passes through the over-center position, hydraulic
fluid flow is reversed, thus changing actuator direction.

In contrast to the EHA, IAP actuators do not need high-power electronic controllers for motor
control. AC induction motors that are connected directly to the aircraft AC supply and run
synchronously with the AC supply frequency are typically used. Some additional benefits of
IAP actuators are:

Motor Variable
Displacement
Pump

Bypass Actuator
Valve Ram

Figure 4. Advanced Dual-Channel Integrated Actuator Package

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Variable Displacement
Fixed-Speed Hydraulic Pump
Electric Motor

Electrical
Supply Isolator

Flight
Control
Computer Swash Plate
Command Actuator
Signals
EHSV Hydraulic Supply
Bypass Signal Bypass
Valve

Position Feedback

Aircraft Surface Actuator

Figure 5. IAP Control Schematic

• IAP thermal characteristics are less sensitive to load and high-frequency demands.
• If necessary, continuous forced cooling can be easily introduced because the motor is
continuously running.
• IAP actuators do not require high-power electronic devices.

TRW has already designed, manufactured, and proved IAP actuator technology in flight
applications. A flight demonstration program, designed to examine reliability and maintain-
ability, proved the technology capable of providing full roll-control authority (both wings,
all channels) over a two-year period, accruing more than 1,000 flight hours on a military
transport aircraft.

Common Issues Across Electric Actuation. From a control point of view, electric actuator
control interfaces can be designed to mirror traditional FBW actuator configurations. Closed-
loop position control of electric actuators can be accomplished using existing analog
command and feedback signals as shown in Figure 3. Introducing actuator transparency at
the aircraft interface allows these actuator technologies to be considered as possible retrofit
alternatives, provided the necessary electrical power supply is made available.

The thermal environment is also an important factor. The limited heat generated in traditional
hydraulic actuators is dissipated into the local environment and throughout the hydraulic
fluid. The heat sink thus formed is sufficient to keep the system at a satisfactory temperature.
Thermal considerations are therefore not a design driver for conventional hydraulic actua-
tion. All-electric actuator configurations generate considerably more localized heat than
equivalent hydraulic systems, particularly when maintaining static loads at the flight control
surface. Airframe manufacturers are understandably reluctant to allow heat dissipation
through aircraft structures, particularly in light of the trend toward using composite structures
as opposed to metal. Providing bleed air (forced cooling) is also not desired because of the

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associated aerodynamic penalty and installation complexity. As a result, electric actuators

have to rely on natural convection within the local environment for cooling. At high altitudes,
although ambient temperatures are lower, the reduced air density with its resultant lower heat
capacity, increases the problems of heat dissipation.

Under such constraints, very high temperatures can rapidly develop, particularly where high-
power electric motors are employed. Tests conducted at TRW Aeronautical Systems have
shown that motor temperatures approaching 120° C can easily develop in a matter of seconds.
Consequently, the thermal behavior of electric actuators is much more severe and is a major
design consideration. Thermal behavior analysis must be performed for a complete flight
cycle and particularly during worst-case emergency operating conditions. Such thermal
behavior has to be accommodated by design. In response, TRW engineers have developed
methods to improve thermal behavior through the application of thermal analysis tools. Such
tools have subsequently influenced novel actuator design.

Electric Motors and Drives. Two fundamental components of electric actuator technolo-
gies, with regard to EHA and EMA, are the electric motor and associated electronic
controllers. There are several types of motor which may be employed — two of the more
common are Brushless DC (BLDC) and Switched Reluctance (SR) machines. Both are suited
to electric actuation, as their brushless construction provides reliability advantages. AC
induction motors can be used in conjunction with more complex motor control electronics
to provide speed and directional control, but are usually employed without the controllers for
discrete, on-off applications such as a Slat Power Drive Unit.

For EHA and EMA actuators, SR and BLDC motors require electronic motor controllers to
control speed and direction. The motor windings are electrically switched through power
electronic devices in a power bridge network. With high-power applications, the semicon-
ductor devices used in the power bridge experience severe electrical and thermal stress during
operation, as currents up to 400 A are switched at frequencies approaching 20 kHz.
Consequently, the main emissions from the power bridge are heat and electromagnetic
radiation. In the following sections, we consider these and other effects that are applicable
to electric actuation.

Heat Generation and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). All semiconductor devices

generate heat when flowing and switching current. Because of the potentially high current
flow and high switching frequencies in the power bridge, temperature rise at the semiconduc-
tor junction can easily reach levels in excess of 125° C, which can permanently damage power
devices. This would disable the motor and result in loss of actuator control. Therefore, in a
similar case to that of the motor itself, the thermal behavior of the electronic motor controller
also has to be managed using effective heat-sinking methods. However, the use of passive
heat sinks has the adverse effect of adding considerable weight; therefore, it is important to
accurately determine the heat sink requirement from the actuator duty cycle.

Low-temperature performance is also an issue, particularly for an active/standby configura-

tion where actuators periodically become active upon demand. While dormant, they are
soaked at low temperatures. Once activated, load demands at the surface and the subsequent
current flow will produce rapid temperature rises in the power semiconductor devices. These
devices are vulnerable to mechanical stress resulting from rapid thermal expansion, which

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can seriously affect long-term reliability. This problem is less significant for occasional
instances, but fatigue associated with repetitive thermal shock will reduce the operational life
expectancy of the electronic control unit. To mitigate against these conditions, motor
controllers can be designed to employ strategies that control the thermal environment of the
power bridge. For example, switching methods can be used to warm devices during low-
temperature exposure, even while the actuator is dormant.

With respect to EMC, both conducted and radiated electromagnetic effects must be kept
within strictly controlled limits if the electric actuator is to satisfy flight certification
requirements. This is particularly challenging for high-power motor drives, where rapid
switching of large currents produce high levels of electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Motor drives also require small signal-level electronics for control, which when located in
a “dirty” electromagnetic environment, require careful design to ensure that actuator
operation and performance is not compromised. In this case, it is particularly important that
good design practice ensures adequate component separation, input/output signal filtering,
and electromagnetic screening of enclosures, to prevent EMI provoking any uncommanded
operation.

Power Factor and Power Quality. Apart from recent military fighter aircraft, most civil and
military aircraft supply electrical power from a primary onboard AC distribution system,
typically three-phase, 115 V, 400 Hz. An effect influencing AC distribution systems
concerns power factor, while power quality affects both AC and DC distribution systems.

Power factor is the relationship between “apparent power” (VA) produced by the generating
system and the “true power” (W) used at the load. This results from the electrical character-
istics of inductive loads (for example, induction motors) and capacitive loads (distribution
cables) which create “reactive power” (VAr) in AC systems. The transmission of reactive
power incurs power loss in the distribution system and causes voltage magnitudes to change
from the nominal value. To compensate for this loss, an electrical power generation system
will have to provide much more “apparent” power than necessary to produce the “true” power
requirement for the load(s). Increasing the generator capacity adds weight, thus managing the
power factor to improve efficiency is beneficial.

Power factor control methods are becoming a more important aspect of electric actuation, as
the integration of multiple actuators to form complete flight control systems draws closer to
reality. Actuation systems implementing IAP actuator technology present the greatest
concern in this respect, where multiple AC induction motor loads become evident. TRW is
currently developing electronic methods for providing power factor control for such
aerospace applications.

Power supply quality is also important to the flight control system. Motor controllers
superimpose secondary distortion effects on the aircraft power supply, due to diode
rectification on the input stage. In AC systems, the distortions appear as derivatives of the
fundamental supply frequency, known as harmonics. Work carried out by TRW into the
modeling and analysis of harmonic distortion and, in particular, its variation under different
loads for complete electric flight control systems, has resulted in a good understanding of this
complicated field. Harmonic distortion leads to power loss in the distribution system and
loads, but more significantly, voltage distortions become evident on the power supply bus,

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which affects other loads using the same bus. While this may not affect the performance of
neighboring actuators, it may seriously affect small-signal electronic units connected to the
same bus. Such interdependence among loads makes the specification of actuators and
systems much more critical, especially where conventional equipment is used.

Aerospace standards such as MIL STD 704E, and the more recently emerging ISO1540, set
specific requirements for aircraft power supply characteristics. ISO1540 sets particularly
challenging limits for harmonic distortion at 8% of fundamental supply voltage (at full load),
across a 395-Hz to 25-kHz frequency range. High-power applications in large aircraft could
easily exceed these limits, and indeed ISO1540 recognizes that other compensatory mecha-
nisms may be required to mitigate these effects. TRW is currently developing electronic
methods for providing compensation specifically designed to reduce harmonic distortion
relative to electrical supplies.

Reliability and Safety. In order to achieve the reliability required for flight certification, the
complex nature of the electric motor drive and control must be taken into consideration. TRW
has developed fault-tolerant and redundancy strategies to enable the production of units
capable of exceeding the reliability levels required. Although, as stated, the electronic control
and drive introduce a level of complexity that does not exist in current hydraulic controls, the
use of complex electronics in flight-critical applications is well understood by TRW’s
Aeronautical Systems, which has been producing flight-certifiable units for more than 20
years.

Electric motors and associated drives can be designed with redundant features. Both BLDC
and SR motors can be configured to operate with additional windings. However, BLDC
motor phases are typically connected together in a star configuration; consequently, the
failure of a single phase winding will also affect adjacent phases, seriously degrading motor
performance. SR motor designs employ phase-isolated windings that are independently
controlled, so a single winding failure has a more limited effect on motor performance. BLDC
phase windings can be connected and controlled independently; however, a full H-bridge
(four-switch) configuration is required for each phase, which consequently doubles the
number of switching devices required in the motor drive unit. For example, an independently
controlled, three-phase machine would require six switches as an SR machine, and 12
switches as a BLDC machine, as illustrated in Figure 6.

The introduction of redundant motor windings obviously increases the weight of the motor,
but the main impact lies within the motor drive unit. This is because the use of additional
phase windings, isolated phase configurations, or parallel switching methods all significantly
affect the number of switching devices required in the power bridge. Redundant functionality
therefore adds considerably to the size, weight, and cost of the motor drive package.

Power device reliability is adversely affected by repeated thermal shock cycling, as described
earlier. Using redundant switching (by connecting devices in parallel) can provide some
protection from a single-device failure. However, this introduces potential dormant failure
modes that must be checked periodically. The additional monitoring complexity required for
this purpose can further reduce the availability of the drive unit.

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+V

f A f B f C Phase-Isolated
SR Machine

-V

+V

f A f B f C
Phase-Isolated
BLDC Machine

-V

Figure 6. Phase-Isolated Drive Configurations

From a systems point of view, the use of electronic control also provides the opportunity to
include additional diagnostic and prognostic health monitoring functions. BIT functions
already exist in electronic controllers used for aerospace applications. Extending this test
functionality to identify gradual performance degradations can provide proactive mainte-
nance information and enable a more efficient application of spares, repairs, and aircraft
downtime, and consequently lead to reductions in aircraft operating costs.

An additional benefit of an electrical power source is the potential for reconfiguring the
supply distribution in the event of a single generator failure. Conventionally, with the loss of
a single hydraulic supply, all utilization equipment functioning on that supply is also lost. If
a single electrical supply fails, reconfiguration of the remaining supplies allows utilization
equipment to continue to function. This is subject to the maximum load capacity of the
remaining supplies, but provides a means of managing equipment availability. Increasing the
availability of flight control actuators provides an improvement in safety margins that is not
possible when using hydraulic supplies.

High-Power Electrical Distribution. To date, EMAs/EHAs, which deliver a power of

approximately 3 kW to the flight control surface, have been successfully flown during flight
trial demonstrations. Actuators having an approximately 30-kW capacity are currently being
developed for the next generation of large civil aircraft. Such actuators require a motor phase
current of around 400 A during peak demands.

As individual actuators, EMAs and EHAs present particular design challenges, but when
considering the integration of multiple actuators as a complete flight control system,
additional system-level issues are raised. For systems using IAP actuator technology, in-rush
currents during the start-up of multiple AC induction motors can prove very demanding for
the generating system unless controlled or sequenced correctly. Also, the ability of the
aircraft power supply to provide sufficient current during the combined peak load demand
across all-electric actuators is critical. Therefore, the flight control system duty cycle and
start-up considerations are key elements in providing an accurate specification for the power
supply requirement.

The ability of electrical distribution networks to efficiently deliver the power from generators
located on the engine to the actuators, located some distance away in the wings, also becomes

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important. With potentially hundreds of amperes flowing through cables and bus bars,
distribution losses may impinge on actuator performance, as the effective voltage is reduced
between the generator and the high-power electric actuators.

One of the main goals of power distribution is to reduce unnecessary power loss. Today,
aircraft power supplies typically develop 28-V DC, 270-V DC, or 115-V AC. For the next
generation of large aircraft, sufficiently large electrical demands will require significant
current flow even at 270-V DC. This can produce significant power loss due to resistance in
the transmission cables, the resistive power loss being proportional to the square of the
current flow.

Increasing the generated voltage and distributing at that voltage would reduce the current,
hence the resistive power losses, for a specific power demand. Increasing the voltage to
540-V DC, 230-V AC or higher, would reduce power losses in the distribution network by
75% or more. Increasing voltages would also require the use of cable insulation materials able
to withstand higher voltages without introducing any unnecessary weight penalties.

Technically, these issues are not new and have already been experienced and overcome in the
power generation industry, thus providing a good source of reference for the aerospace
industry.

Electric Flight Control Actuation System Architecture

Present-day FBW flight control systems are employed on aircraft where hydraulic and
electric power generation and distribution architectures have been designed to accommodate
specific aircraft safety requirements. Redundant power supplies are used throughout the
aircraft to satisfy reliability and safety requirements. Flight control architecture design is, in
turn, influenced by such redundancy to ensure that aircraft safety is not compromised.
Consequently flight control system architectures will be influenced by any changes sur-
rounding the electrical power generation architecture and distribution specifically designed
for the MEA.

Current civil aircraft configurations typically involve three hydraulic supplies, an electrical
system comprising two engine-driven generators supported by auxiliary power unit- (APU)
and ram air turbine- (RAT) driven generators and batteries, as necessary. To maintain system
availability/reliability while embracing the new electric actuator technology, current think-
ing revolves around the migration toward the exchange of a single hydraulic system for a
single electric system, producing a two-hydraulic, three-electric system configuration.

Primary flight control surfaces will still require either duplex or triplex actuator configura-
tions, yet different control configurations may be used to reflect the dissimilarity of the power
supplies. In combination with hydraulic actuators, the electric actuator may be used as part
of a hydraulic/electric active-active system sharing loads between the hydraulic and electric
systems. Also, an active hydraulic, standby electric actuator configuration can be used,
avoiding active-active force fight complications while still providing dissimilar actuation.
Power distribution architectures may also be developed to meet both aircraft safety require-
ments and overcome the practical constraints of high-power electrical distribution, respec-
tively.

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Once three-electrical systems materialize, alternative distribution architectures can be used

to mitigate against actuator or system failures. Reconfiguration or re-routing of electrical
power transmission is much more practical than for hydraulic power. Switching networks
could be used to provide alternative paths for power distribution, allowing fault isolation to
an individual line replaceable unit (LRU). Also, intelligent power controllers are currently
being developed at TRW to act as “smart” fuses. These allow loads to be disconnected and
reconnected automatically, reducing the impact of intermittent trips or short-term overloads.
They are also capable of isolating load faults that might otherwise result in global shutdown,
thus improving the availability of any single electrical supply.

Introducing Electric Actuation to the Aerospace Market

Many of today’s electric actuator technologies are now migrating from the research and
development stage to flight standard, with examples already being demonstrated in flight.
With respect to individual actuator development, TRW has successfully proven IAP and
EHA actuators in flight demonstrations. Research activity has indicated some technical
challenges that are now being addressed in more detail. Additional research programs have
also covered a wide power spectrum, to the point where power electronic semiconductor
performance is being pushed close to the limit of today’s available technology.

So where does electric actuation technology go now? Further advances in semiconductor

development will bring incremental performance benefits, but the really important advance-
ments must be derived from system-level studies. Performance analysis and power optimi-
zation studies for electric actuation have been performed to establish the technical priorities
for the next stage of systems development.

Summary

Beginning with the scenario of a single hydraulic power supply replaced by an electric one,
it is possible to establish the relativity and scale for the changes required in the migration
toward the “All-Electric” aircraft concept. On a small civil airliner, typically a minimum of
five electric actuators would be needed to provide one lane of electrical control for the
primary flight control surfaces. If all hydraulic systems were converted to electric, in excess
of 20 electric actuators would be needed to provide complete control of all primary and
secondary flight control surfaces. The consequential increase in electrical power demand has
major implications for electrical power generation and distribution systems. Thus, a signifi-
cant amount of work is still needed to address the consequences of distributing many
electrical actuators around an aircraft, and the consequential start-up, steady-state, and peak
demands required of aircraft electrical power supplies.

It is clear that the migration to electric actuation systems is affecting both civil and military
markets. As described previously, the replacement of a single hydraulic system by an electric
substitute is a major step in the transition to all-electric technologies. It is quite evident that
the demands being made on aircraft generators and distribution architectures will increase
considerably to meet the needs of this migration. TRW has already developed products to
meet the current demands envisioned by PBW and has programs to ensure that it will meet
any future demands required by the all-electric aircraft.

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Finally, it is envisioned that once in service, electric actuator technology and electrical system
architectures will improve the commercial viability and in-service reliability of the airframes
to which they are fitted. These improvements will undoubtedly drive the adoption of greater
levels of electric actuation on future aircraft.

Stephen L. Botten is currently a Project Team Leader with the

TRW Aeronautical Systems Airbus team at Wolverhampton,
England. Previously, he was a Senior Electronic Systems Engi-
neer with the Military Project team, responsible for the concept
development of an ECU required for the JSF Weapon Bay Door
Drive System. In addition, he was part of a Research and
Development project team developing a large EHA (ELISA)
targeted toward the More Electric Aircraft platform. He holds an
Honors degree in Electronic Engineering from the University of
Central England in Birmingham, and a Master of Science degree
in Engineering Business Management, from Warwick Univer-
sity.

E-mail: [email protected]

Chris R. Whitley is a Principal Electronic Systems Engineer

with TRW Aeronautical Systems, Wolverhampton, England. He
currently specializes in Electric Power Actuation within the New
Technology arena, and is Lead Engineer for the LEMAS spoiler
system, a large EMA, as part of MEA development work and is
involved with power quality investigation work currently being
undertaken with Boeing. Previously, he was involved with weapon
systems and cryogenic cooling. He holds a Bachelor of Science
degree in Electronic Engineering from the University College of
North Wales, Bangor.

E-mail: [email protected]

Andrew D. King is a Lead Engineer with the Technology

Department of TRW Aeronautical Systems, Shaftmoor Lane,
England. In this position he is responsible for coordinating and
leading engineering activities in the evaluation and application of
novel technologies. His expertise is in automotive antilock brak-
ing system and gas turbine engine control, particularly fuel
systems. He holds a Bachelor of Science honors degree in
Mechanical Engineering, from the University of Manchester
Institute of Science and Technology.

E-mail: [email protected]

68 Technology Review Journal — Millennium Issue • Fall/Winter 2000