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Commercial Pasteurization and Sterilization
Processes: Overview, Uses, and Restrictions
Janwillem Rouweler - [email protected];
June 12, 2015
Which heat process value F should a particular food receive to make it safe and shelf stable?
10
* Section 1 lists reported sterilization values F0 = F 121.1 (= F zero) for commercial food
preservation processes of all types of food products, for several package sizes and types.
* Section2 contains reported pasteurization values F, or P, of a great variety of foods. The
required storage conditions of the pasteurized foods, either at ambient temperature, or
refrigerated (4-7 °C), are indicated.
* Section 3 shows a decision scheme: should a particular food be pasteurized or sterilized?
This depends on the intended storage temperature (refrigerated or ambient) after heating,
the required shelf life (7 days to 4 years), the food pH (high acid, acid, or low acid), the food
water activity aW, and on the presence of preservatives such as nitrite NO2- (E250) mixed
with salt NaCl, or nisin.
* In Section 4, two worked examples are presented on how to use an F value when
calculating the actual sterilization time Pt:
- C.R. Stumbo’s (1973) calculation method has been manually applied, verified by computer
program STUMBO.exe, to find the sterilization time and the thiamine retention of bottled
liquid milk in a rotating steam retort;
- O.T. Pham’s (1987; 1990) formula method, incorporated in Excel program “Heat Process
calculations according to Pham.xls”, has been used to find the sterilization time and the
nutrient retention of canned carrot purée in a still steam retort.
* The worked example in Section 5 illustrates the use of the pasteurization value F of apple
juice, in calculating the required (average) residence time in the holding tube of a heat
exchanger. The Excel program Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls next calculates the juice’s spoilage
rate by a mold, a yeast and an enzyme, and the nutrient retention of vitamins C and folic
acid in the pasteurized juice.
* Section 6 explains how F values can be calculated when a microbial analysis of the food is
available. The actual pasteurization or sterilization time calculations should be based on all
micro-organisms of concern present, and rather NOT on the highest F value only!
An example calculation shows that the required F value for a food, to be sold in a moderate
climate country, usually differs considerably from the F, required for the same food, to be
sold in tropical areas.
10 °c
1. STERILIZATION VALUES: F0 = F 121.1 °C
Fish products
Crab in brine 3.5 - 3.9 min. NCA in Reichert (1985)
Crab Crabs shall be Georgia Dept of Agricultture
cooked under
steam pressure
until such time
that the internal
temperature of
the centermost
crab reaches
235 degrees
F(112.8 degrees
C).
Fish in brine 5.6 - 8 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985)
5 - 6 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985)
Fish products 5 - 20 min. Frott & Lewis (1994)
Herrings in tomato sauce Ovals 6 - 8 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261
6 - 8 min. Smith (2011) p. 254
Langoustines 3.6 - 7.2 min. NCA in Reichert (1985)
3 - 4 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985)
Lobsters 3.6 - 7.2 min. NCA in Reichert (1985)
3 - 4 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985)
Mackerel in brine 301x411; 2.9 - 3.6 min. American Can Co. (1952)
78x118;
479 ml
301x411; 3 - 4 min. Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952)
78x118;
1. Sterilization values F10121.1 for commercial food processes -7-
Dairy products
Baby foods Baby food; 3 - 5 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261;
(in glass bottles) 52x72; Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176
140 ml
Chocolate Drinks Pre-heating De Wit (2001) p. 48
mixture at
F90 = 15 min.
Autoclave
sterilization of
bottled product
F120 = 30 min.
Cream 4 and 6 oz 3 - 4 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261;
114 and 170 ml Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176
130 - 200 ml 3 - 4 min. Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176
16 Z 6 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261
(approx 500 ml)
≥ 45 min. at Statutory Instruments 1509 (1983; UK).
T ≥ 104 °C
≥ 45 min. at Rees & Bettison (1991) p. 31
T ≥ 108 °C
140 ⁰C for 2 UK Statutory heat treatment
seconds. requirements for UHT products, quoted
by Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 95-
96); and by Lewis (2006) in Brennan
(2007) p. 62
Cream; sterilized coffee sterilization in 20 min. 115 °C; Walstra (2006) p. 449
cream 20% fat bottle 9 log reductions
of Bacillus
subtilus.
Cream; sterilized coffee UHT sterilization 10 sec at 140 Walstra (2006) p. 449
cream 20% fat; UHT °C.
Cream; UHT UHT sterilization ≥ 2 s at Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 271
T ≥ 140 °C.
Evaporated milk; coffee up to 16 oz; 5 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261
milk up to 73x118;
454 ml
Evaporated milk 5 min. Smith (2011) p. 254
Evaporated milk; coffee In bottle 10 - 40 min at HAS
milk sterilization 115 - 120 °C.
Evaporated whole milk In bottle Pre-heating in Walstra (2006) p. 499
sterilization heat exchanger
30 s 130 °C.
In past:
preheating in
tank 20 min at T
< 100 °C.
Sterilization in
bottle or can:
1. Sterilization values F10121.1 for commercial food processes -8-
Other products
2. PASTEURIZATION VALUES F or P
Fish
Crab; blue crab meat 9 For pasteurization processes that FDA (2011) p. 316-
F 85 = 31 min.
target C. botulinum type E and 317
non-proteolytic types B and F,
generally a reduction of six orders
of magnitude (six logarithms, e.g.,
3 -3
from 10 to 10 ) in the level of
contamination is suitable. This is
called a 6D process.
Crab; blue crab 8.9 The process provides a wide margin Gates et al (1993)
F 85 = 31 min.
of safety for the destruction of C.
botulinum type E spores.
After that: refrigeration to ≤ 2.2 ⁰C.
A refrigerated shelf life of about 9
months is possible.
8.9 Refrigerated shelf life (≤ 2.2 ⁰C) of
F 85 = 10-15 min.
about 1.5 months.
8.9 Refrigerated shelf life (≤ 2.2 ⁰C) of
F 85 = 15-20 min.
about 2 - 4 months.
8.9 Refrigerated shelf life (≤ 2.2 ⁰C) of
F 85 = 20-25 min.
about 4 - 6 months.
8.9 Refrigerated shelf life (≤ 2.2 ⁰C) of
F 85 = 25 - 30
min. about 6 - 9 months.
8.9 Refrigerated shelf life (≤ 2.2 ⁰C) of
F 85 = 30 - 40
min. about 9 - 18 months.
8.9 Refrigerated shelf life (≤ 2.2 ⁰C) of
F 85 ≤ 40 min.
about 12 - 36 months.
Blue crab; F85 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs
refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102
Crab meat; F >95 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs
refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102
Cod homogenate; F95 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs
refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102
Crab; dungenes 8.6 For pasteurization processes that FDA (2011) p. 316-
F 90 = 57 min.
crabmeat target C. botulinum type E and 317
non-proteolytic types B and F,
generally a reduction of six orders
of magnitude (six logarithms, e.g.,
from 103 to 10-3) in the level of
contamination is suitable. This is
called a 6D process.
2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -19-
Dairy products
Baby milk powder See at Infant Formula
Butter: skim milk and Skim milk fraction: Kill micro-organisms; inactivate Walstra (2006) p.
cream for butter F90 = 30 min. enzymes. Destruction of bacterial 468; p. 487
production inhibitors to make the skim milk a
Cream fraction: better substrate for the starter
bacteria.
F85 = 15 s.
Buttermilk, conventional 15-25 s at 85-95 Kill micro-organisms; inactivate HAS
and cultured buttermilk: °C. enzymes. Destruction of bacterial
skim milk for the inhibitors to make the cream a
production of buttermilk better substrate for the starter
bacteria.
Cheese: milk for F72 = 15 s Flowing low pasteurization in heat Walstra (2006) p.
production of Gouda and (Gouda); exchanger. Kills pathogenic and 585; p. 703-704
Edam type cheeses harmful organisms (inactivation of
F72 = 20 s
alkaline phosphatase), but serum
(Edam).
proteins remain soluble, Xantine
oxidase is not destructed; native
milk lipase is not destructed.
Limited loss of soluble calcium.
Cheese: 10 min. at 90 ⁰C. Ripened low fat quarg with low Walstra (2006) p.
Kochkäse; Cancaillotte Ca2+; next yeasts + coryneform 739
Recently: heating bacteria grow; mixing with 1-2% of
to 115 ⁰C. NaCl, butter, stirring and heating;
next hot fill in cups and cooling.
Cheese: Cottage cheese; F73 = 15 s. Flowing low pasteurization in heat Walstra (2006) p.
milk for production of exchanger. Kills pathogenic and 700
cottage cheese: harmful organisms (inactivation of
alkaline phosphatase), but serum
Cream for the production proteins remain soluble for better
of cottage cheese: F90 = 15 s. rennetability.
2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -23-
aW reduced foods
2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -43-
Step 3: Find value of g in Stumbo table fh/U versus g for z = 10 °C, at jc = 1.0
The Stumbo table “fh/U versus g for of z = 10 °C” can be found in Appendix C.
For a small part of that table: see below.
First calculate fh/U.
fh = 5 min. (given)
U = 3.59 min. (calculated at step 2)
So fh/U = 5/3.59 = 1.39.
Unfortunately, in Stumbo table fh/U versus g for z = 10 °C, no row fh/U = 1.39 is listed.
So an interpolation between row fh/U = 1.00 and fh/U = 2.00 is required.
.....
At jc = 1.00, and fh/U = 1.00 (see table above), the value of g = 0.291 °C;
At jc = 1.00, and fh/U = 2.00, the value of g = 1.07 °C.
Interpolation: at fh/U = 1.39, g = 0.291 + [(1.39 - 1)/(2-1)]·(1.07 - 0.291) =
= 0.291 + 0.304 = 0.595 °C = g.
So if fh/U = 1.39, then the value of g = 0.595 °C.
4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -52-
Example 4.2: Use of required F10121.1 = 7 min. to calculate the nutrient retention
Calculate which % of the originally 100% thiamine (with D28.8120 = 127.5 min.), present
in the raw unheated milk, is retained after the sterilization process of Example 4.1.
Step 1: In the fh/U versus g table of thiamine (z = 28.8 °C), find the heat dose
U which was received by thiamine during the sterilization process
C.R. Stumbo’s (1973) book does NOT have a fh/U versus g table of z = 28.8 °C. So let
us use the fh/U versus g table for z = 27.8 °C (see Appendix D; selection at next page).
The required g value has been calculated in Example 4.1: g = 0.595 °C.
The fh/U versus g table of z = 27.8 °C, at jc = 1.0, does NOT show a value of g = 0.595
°C; only g = 0.484 °C and g = 0.676 °C are listed. So interpolation is required:
4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -53-
As can be seen from the above selection of table fh/U versus g for z = 27.8 °C:
At jc = 1.00 and g = 0.484 °C (see small table above), fh/U = 0.80;
at jc = 1.00 and g = 0.676 °C, fh/U = 0.90.
Interpolation:
If g = 0.595 °C, then fh/U = 0.80 + [(0.595 - 0.484)/(0.676 - 0.484)]·(0.90 - 0.80)
or: fh/U = 0.80 + 0.0578 = 0.858.
As fh = 5 min., and fh/U = 0.858, the value of U = 5/0.858 = 5.83 min. = U = F28.8124.
28.8
N.B.: For nutrients, some authors use symbol C instead of F. They will write: C 124 = 5.83 min.
Computer program STUMBO 2.2.exe, including converted Stumbo tables, worked examples, validation, and
help files, can be obtained at a CD-ROM by sending your name and postal address to [email protected].
4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -54-
Example 4.3: Use of F to calculate the spoilage rate and the nutrient retention
A can, containing 315 grams of carrot purée of pH = 5.9, has to be sterilized in a still,
steam retort at retort temperature TR = 123 ⁰C.
Carrot purée behaves as a solid, conduction heating food
4.3.1) Find the required F value in the tables of section 1 and 2 above, and calculate:
4.3.2) the sterilization time Pt;
4.3.3) the spoilage rate of the sterilized cans by pathogenic Clostridium botulinum;
4.3.4) the % thiamine (vitamine B1) retained after sterilization of carrot purée.
Use the additional process and product information below, and apply computer program
Pham.xls, down-loadable from:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janwillem_Rouweler/contributions
or from https://hasdenbosch.academia.edu/JanwillemRouweler
Additional process and product information:
Carrot purée is heated in A1 cans; size Diameter x Height = 65 mm x 101 mm;
can volume = 315 ml.
Initial product temperature after filling of can, at “steam on” of retort: Tih = 4 ⁰C.
Retort temperature = sterilization temperature TR = 123 ⁰C.
Come up time CUT of the still retort L = 5 min.
Heat penetration factor of A1 cans with carrot purée: fh = fc = 37.0 min.
(see Holdsworth (1997), p. 188, cited in Rouweler (2014)).
Heating lag factors of carrot purée in still retort: jh = jc = 2.0 (estimation).
Cooling water temperature Tw = 23 ⁰C.
Clostridium botulinum spores: D10121.1 = 0.2 min.
Initial C. botulinum spore load = 1 spore per gram of carrot purée; so the can, containing
315 grams of carrot purée, will initially have 315 x 1 = 315 spores of C. botulinum.
Thiamine (vitamin B1) in carrot purée of pH = 5.9: D25121.1 = 158 min.; initially 100%.
(Source: Feliciotti, E.; Esselen, W.B. (1957): Thermal destruction rate of thiamine in puréed meat and
vegetables. Food Technol. 11 (1957), 77-84).
Step 2: Download the most recent version of the Excel file “HEAT PROCESS
CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO PHAM FOR CONDUCTION-HEATED CANNED FOODS -
Sterilization Time, Heat Process Value F, Microbial Spoilage Rate and Nutrient Retention
Calculations by Q.T. Pham and C.R. Stumbo's Formula Methods.xls”. See download links
above.
Step 3: In the red-outlined section of Excel file Pham.xls, fill in all pale yellow cells
(see the print screen of Pham.xls at the next page.) This results in a sterilization time
(see “CALCULATION RESULTS a-1)” of Pt = 56.47 min. This is answer 4.3.2).
If you want to calculate the heat process value F: type F in the yellow cell: p
o
Retort Initial product temperature at "Steam On" Tih = 4 C
properties Come up time of retort C.U.T. L= 5 min.
o
during Sterilization temperature of retort TR = 123 C
o
process Temperature of cooling water TW = 23 C
and adapt that WMλ value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0000 3.12880
3.12878
2nd ITERATION REQUIRED for microbial spoilage rate:
CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WM < 1) in this YELLOW WM cell: WM = 0.09596628 <-Use Goal Seek
and adapt that WM value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0004 6.25791
6.25755
and adapt that WNλ value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0002 3.12894
3.12878
and adapt that WN value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0000 6.25756
6.25755
Example 5: Calculate the holding time in the holding tube of a plate heat exchanger,
used to pasteurize freshly extracted apple juice of pH = 3.3.
After heat treatment, the juice is packed in laminated cartons of 1000 grams.
The packed juice should be shelf-stable at ambient storage temperatures.
Also calculate the spoilage rate by a mold (Byssochlamys fulva) and by a yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and calculate the % retention of 2 vitamins (folic acid and
vitamin C), and of an enzyme (pecterinase). For details of nutrients: see table 5.2.
Pasteurization temperature TR = 90 °C (see temperature in “holding tube” in table 5.1).
Use computer program Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls.
Table 5.2: Details about thermo-labile components in the fresh apple juice:
Component Comment Decimal Initial number in
reduction time D the raw juice
Byssochlamys fulva Pathogenic mold. D7.893 = 5 min. = 0.001 per gram
Produces mycotoxin 300 s
patulin
Saccharomyces Spoilage yeast D5.560 = 22.5 100 per gram
cerevisiae (ascospore) min. = 1350 s
Folic acid Important vitamin D35121.1 = 492 100%
min. = 29 520 s
Pecterinase Enzyme D16.596 = 0.58 100%
min. = 35 s
Vitamin C Important vitamin D11080 = 1200 100%
min. = 72 000 s
Worked answer 5:
Step1: Find the required F value for apple juice from the section 2 table
“Pasteurization values F“, at subsection “Fruit and Vegetables”.
PASTEURIZATION VALUES FOR SOME COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES
Product Approx. Additional information; Remarks Source
pasteurization value
F or P
Fruits and vegetables
Apples; stored at F8.993.3 = 0.2 - pH 3.3 Eisner (1988) in
ambient temperature 0.6 min. Tucker (2011: 68)
According to section 2, the F8.993.3 = 0.2 - 0.6 min. Choose F8.993.3 = 0.6 min. = 36 s.
5. Use of F to calculate the pasteurization holding time Pt; Example calculation -59-
BUILD-HEAT-EXCHANGER
Compose your own heat exchanger and make calculations
Initial
number D value Reference z value
in whole
pack [in SEC] temp [oC] o
[ C]
F value to be calculated: XXX XXX 93.3 8.9
Byssochlamys fulva 1 300 93 7.8
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 100000 1350 60 5.5
Folic acid 100% 29520 121.1 35
Pecterinase 100% 35 96 16.5
Vitamin C 100% 72000 80 110
Next, in the second input table, type the names of each of the sections (= “stages”) of
the heat exchanger in the correct order. Include the IN and OUT temperatures of the
apple juice in each stage; and insert the average residence time in each stage. Initially,
choose the residence time in the holding section to be = 0 s.
(See table 5.1 for information about the stages of the heat exchanger.)
Thus, the second input table will look as follows:
o
Temp [ C] Average
Name the stages residence
in the heat exchanger time
in the correct order In Out [s]
Regenerative (heating) 20 80 120
Heating section 80 90 20
Holding section 90 90 0
Regenerative (cooling) 90 30 120
Step 3: Stepwise change the average residence time of the holding section,
until the “(Corrected) Total F value for this and previous stages” of the apple juice after
leaving section “Regenerative (cooling)”, is equal to the required F value of 36 s.
After some trial and error, the “(corrected) total F” = 36 s will be obtained if the average
residence time of the juice = 90.3 s. This 90.3 s is the required average holding time.
(Instead of “trial and error”, you could use the Excel function “Goal Seek”).
For calculation results of Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls, and conclusions: see next page.
5. Use of F to calculate the pasteurization holding time Pt; Example calculation -60-
o
Temp [ C] Average Av. residence F F, per stage, (corrected) Total F
time,
Name the stages residence corrected per stage corrected for value for this and
in the heat exchanger time for flow residence time previous stages [s]
in the correct order In Out [s] [s] [s] distribution [s] 0
Regenerative (heating) 20 80 120 120 0.247919145 0.198335316 0.198335316
Heating section 80 90 20 20 3.047461932 2.437969546 2.636304861
Holding section 90 90 90.3 90.3 38.45043288 30.7603463 33.39665116
Regenerative (cooling) 90 30 120 120 3.295380524 2.636304419 36.03295558
Example 6: A solid food in 1 kg cans should be sufficiently heated. The food has to be
both safe and shelf-stable for some years when stored at ambient temperature (so no
refrigeration). Food-pH = 6.7. Food-aW = 0.995. No preservatives added.
Microbial and chemical analysis of the raw food shows:
Table 6.1: Microbial and chemical analysis of the raw solid food
Name organism Comments Decimal Initial load
or food reduction per gram of
component time and z raw material
Clostridium Pathogen. Produces exo-toxins inside the D10121.1 = 0.2 1 per gram
botulinum canned food, in absence of oxygen. min.
Spores germinate at T >10 °C.
Acceptable “spoilage” rate after heating:
≤1 can per 1012 cans.
Listeria Infectious pathogen (acts in intestines). D6.770 = 0.3 1 per gram
monocytogenes Grows at T > 0 °C. min.
Acceptable “spoilage” rate after heating:
< 1 organism per can at the last day of
the shelf life.
Clostridium Spoilage organism. Causes “putrid D12121.1 = 1.0 100 per
sporogenes swell”, being a putrefactive anaerobe min. gram
(PA 3679) (PA). Spores germinate at T >10 °C
(mesophilic). Acceptable spoilage rate
after heating: ≤1 can per 105 cans.
Clostridium Spoilage organism. D9.5121.1 = 0.01 per
nigrificans Spores germinate at T > 35 °C 3.3 min. gram
(thermophilic).
Acceptable spoilage rate after heating:
≤ 1 can per 102 cans in moderate
climate countries.
≤ 1 can per 105 cans in tropical climate
countries.
Pseudomonas Spoilage organism. D7.560 = 3.2 100 per
fluorescens Grows at T > 0 °C. min. gram
Acceptable “spoilage” rate after heating:
< 1000 organism per can at the last day
of the shelf life.
Vitamin B1 = Essential vitamin. D25121.1 = 100%
Thiamine 124 min.
Betanin Red food color (from beetroot). D36.5100 = 100%
21.3 min
Initial temperature of the solid food in the can prior to heating: Tih = 20 °C.
Heat penetration factors: fh = 83 min.; fc = 83 min.
Lag factors: jh = 2; jc = 2.
Come up time of steam retort: L = 5 min.
Cooling water temperature: Tw = 20 ⁰C.
6.1) Decide about the type of heating process: pasteurization or sterilization. Explain.
6.2a) Name all micro-organisms, listed in table 6.1 which may be the target organisms
(= “organisms of concern”) for the type of heating process of answer 6.1. Explain.
6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -62-
6-2b) Calculate the F90 (pasteurization) or F121.1 (sterilization) values for each of the
target organisms for sale (and storage) in moderate climate countries.
6.2c) Select the best of either the F90 (pasteurization) or the F121.1 (sterilization) values
for sale (and storage) in moderate climate countries. Explain.
6.3) The food company plans to export the solid food in 1 kg cans also to a country with
a tropical climate, to be stored without refrigeration, with a shelf life of about 1 year.
Frequently the storage temperature (in warehouses, shops, houses) is TSTORAGE > 35 ⁰C.
6.3a) Which of the F values, calculated for moderate climate countries in answer 6.2b),
is NOT valid for export to tropical countries? Explain.
6.3b) Calculate the required F121.1 value for export to tropical areas.
6.3c) Using the required F value for tropical countries of answer 6.3b), calculate the
resulting sterilization time Pt, the spoilage rate by C. nigrificans, and the vitamin B1
retention if the 1 kg food is sterilized in a retort at a retort temperature of TR = 127.1 ⁰C.
Use Excel program Pham.xls, down-loadable from:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janwillem_Rouweler/contributions
or from https://hasdenbosch.academia.edu/JanwillemRouweler
For help in using Excel sheet Pham: see Worked Answer 4.3.
6.4a) Calculate, for storage in a moderate climate country, so TSTORAGE < 35 ⁰C, the
sterilization time Pt at retort temperatures TR = 117.1 °C to 127.1 °C step 2 °C, based
on each of the target micro-organisms. At the same time calculate the vitamin B1
retention. Use computer program Stumbo.exe 1).
1
) Computer program STUMBO.exe, including converted Stumbo tables, worked examples, validation,
and help files can be obtained at a CD-ROM by sending your name and postal address to
[email protected]
6.4b) Consider the calculated sterilization times of answer 6.4a. Which is the most
appropriate sterilization time Pt at sterilization temperature TR = 117.1 °C? Explain.
6.4c) Consider the calculated sterilization times of answer 6.4a. Which is the most
appropriate sterilization time Pt at sterilization temperature TR = 127.1 °C? Explain.
Worked Answers 6:
Answer 6.1: Pasteurization or Sterilization?
Use “DECISION SCHEME: PASTEURIZATION OR STERILIZATION” of Chapter 3.
- Shelf life, at ambient temperature (= no refrigeration), should be long (“some years”).
- pH = 6.7; so NOT pH < 3.7.
- aW = 0.995; so NOT aW < 0.95.
- No preservatives added; so NOT 150 ppm Nitrite NO2- + NaCl.
Conclusion: Sterilization required; F10121.1 ≥ 3.0 min.
Note that Vitamin B1 and Betanin (table 6.1) too are more or less heat resistant,
but these food components are nutrients, not micro-organisms.
Answer 6.2b: Calculate F values of all target organisms for moderate climate countries:
Equation: F = D · [10log(total initial number in can) - 10log(spoilage rate after heating)].
* Clostridium botulinum (see table 6.1):
Initial number 1 per gram, so total number of 1000 spores per can of 1 kg.
“Spoilage” rate after heating should be 1 spore per 1012 cans, = 1/1012 = 10-12.
D10121.1 = 0.2 min.
(Why 1 pathogenic survivor per 1012 cans is acceptable: see Teixeira (2007), p. 419).
Substitution in F equation: F10121.1 = 0.2 · [10log1000 - 10log10-12] = 0.2 · [3 - (-12)] =
3.0 min. Such a process, with F10121.1 = F0 = 3.0 min., is called the “botulinum cook”.
So to sufficiently destruct Clostridium botulinum, F10121.1 ≥ 3.0 min. is required.
* Clostridium sporogenes (see table 6.1):
Initial number 100 per gram, so total number of 100 000 spores per can of 1 kg.
Spoilage rate after heating should be 1 spore per 105 cans, = 1/105 = 10-5
(Why 1 spoilage survivor per 105 cans is acceptable: see Teixeira (2007), p. 419).
D12121.1 = 1.0 min.
Substitution in F equation: F12121.1 = 1.0 · [10log100 000 - 10log10-5] =
= 1.0 · [5 - (-5)] = 10.0 min.
So to sufficiently destruct Clostridium sporogenes, F12121.1 ≥ 10.0 min. is required.
* Clostridium nigrificans (see table 6.1):
Initial number 0.01 per gram, so total number of 10 spores per can of 1 kg.
Spoilage rate after heating in moderate climate countries should be 1 spore per 102
cans, = 1/102 = 10-2.
(Why 1 thermophilic spoilage survivor per 102 cans is acceptable in moderate climate
countries: see Teixeira (2007), p. 419).
D9.5121.1 = 3.3 min.
Substitution in F equation: F9.5121.1 = 3.3 · [log10 - log10-2] = 3.3 · [1 - (-2)] = 9.9 min.
So to sufficiently destruct Clostridium nigrificans, F9.5121.1 ≥ 9.9 min. is required.
Answer 6.3a) Which of the F values, calculated in answer 6.2b) for moderate climate
countries, is NOT valid for export to tropical countries? Explain
The F value, in answer 6.2b) calculated for C. nigrificans, is valid for moderate
climate countries: countries where TSTORAGE < 35 ⁰C. Spores of this thermophilic spoilage
(= NOT pathogenic!!) organism will not germinate in such moderate climate countries.
Thus it is generally agreed upon that, for sale in moderate climate countries, the
acceptable number of thermophilic spoilage spores surviving sterilization, should be
≤ 0.01 per can (≤ 10-2 per can). So if such cans, unintentionally, will be stored at
temperatures of T > 35 ⁰C, then about 1 can per 100 cans will spoil.
However, if cans containing C. nigrificans spoilage spores are stored in tropical
countries (TSTORAGE > 35 ⁰C), these thermophilic spores can germinate. So it is generally
agreed upon that for use in tropical areas the acceptable number of thermophilic spoilage
spores surviving sterilization should be ≤ 10-5 per can. Thus only one can per 100 000
cans may be spoiled by a thermophilic organism during storage in a tropical region.
6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -64-
Answer 6.3b) Calculate the F121.1 value, required for export to tropical areas.
Equation: F = D · [10log(total initial number in can) - 10log(spoilage rate after heating)].
For C. nigrificans (see table 6.1):
Decimal reduction time D: D9.5121.1 = 3.3 min. (see table 6.1)
Total initial number in of C. nigrificans in 1000 g can: 0.01 spore per gram =
1000 g • 0.01 spores/g = 10 spores/can (see table 6.1).
Spoilage rate after heating ≤ 10-5 spores/gram in tropical climate countries (table
6.1).
(Why 1 thermophilic spoilage survivor per 105 cans is acceptable in tropical countries: see
Teixeira (2007), p. 419).
Substitution in the equation above results in:
9.5 9.5
F 121.1 = 3.3 • [10log10 - 10log10-5] = 3.3 • [1 - (-5)] = 3.3 • 6 = 19.8 min. = F 121.1.
The required F value of F = 19.8 min. for C. nigrificans in tropical countries is
considerably larger than the F values for sufficient destruction of the other spore species
in the can, e.g. F10121.1 = 3.0 min. for Clostridium botulinum, and F12121.1 = 10.0 min. for
Clostridium sporogenes; see answer 6.2b.
So for sale in tropical countries, F9.5121.1 = 19.8 min. is applicable.
(Compare the F9.5121.1 = 19.8 min. for tropics to the F9.5121.1 = 9.9 min., required to sufficiently
destruct Clostridium nigrificans for sale in moderate climate countries. Due to the high heat resistance
of thermophilic spores such as C. nigrificans, F values for products to be sold in tropical countries
usually are considerably larger than F values for products, sold in moderate climate countries).
Answer 6.3c) Using the required F value of answer 6.3b) for tropical countries, calculate
the resulting sterilization time Pt, the spoilage rate by C. nigrificans, and the vitamin B1
retention, if the 1 kg food cans are sterilized at a retort temperature of TR = 127.1 ⁰C.
Use Excel program Pham.xls.
For a print-screen of the calculation by the Pham Excel file: see the next pages.
Summary of the findings of the Pham calculation are in the middle column of table 6.2:
Table 6.2: Process and product properties of the 1 kg cans of solid food after sterilization
at retort temperature TR = 127.1 ⁰C, intended either for sale in tropical countries or for
sale in moderate climate countries:
Process parameters Tropical countries: Moderate climate countries:
storage temperature storage temperature
TSTORAGE > 35 ⁰C; TSTORAGE < 35 ⁰C;
(calculations by Pham.xls; (calculations by Stumbo.exe;
answer 6.3 ) answers 6.2 and 6.4)
Required F121.1 value F9.5121.1. = 19.8 min. F9.5121.1 = 10 min.
(answer 6.3b) (answer 6.2c and table 6.3)
Calculated sterilization Pt = 117.3 min. Pt = 95.3 min.
time Pt (Pham, Pt next pages) (Stumbo; answer 6.4c)
Calculated spoilage 1 can per 107 cans by 1 can per 105 cans by
rate after sterilization C. nigrificans 1) C. sporogenes
during storage; (Pham: number of surviving
spoilage organism mo at next pages) (Stumbo; fig. 6.2)
Calculated nutrient 18 % 35.9 %
Vitamin B1 retention (Pham, % nutrient next pages) (Stumbo; fig. 6.2)
1
) The required spoilage rate in the whole can should be 1 can per 105 cans.
The Pham calculation method assumes that the input F is the F in the coldest core;
thus the Pham Excel spreadsheet calculates the spoilage rate in the 1 cm3 coldest
core. The actual spoilage rate for the whole can (in this example: 1000 cm3) will be
considerably higher, and will be close to the required 1 spoiled can per 105 cans!
6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -65-
o
Retort Initial product temperature at "Steam On" Tih = 20 C
properties Come up time of retort C.U.T. L = 5 min.
o
during Sterilization temperature of retort TR = 127.1 C
o
process Temperature of cooling water TW = 20 C
o
to be killed z value of the microbial D is: zM = 9.5 C
is: Initial number of micro-organisms in whole can = 10
CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WMλ < 1) in this YELLOW WMλ cell: WMλ = 0.135556501 <-Use Goal Seek
and adapt that WMλ value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 -0.0001 3.90727
6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -67-
3.90736
2nd ITERATION REQUIRED for microbial spoilage rate:
CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WM < 1) in this YELLOW WM cell: WM = 0.055717456 <-Use Goal Seek
and adapt that WM value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0001 7.81487
7.81473
Mass average lethal heat value US for M, at TR, integrated over can, US = 6.15 127.1
Mass average lethal heat value FS for M, at TRef,F, integrated over can, FS 26.32 121.1
↑reference Temp
CALCULATION RESULTS c) % Nutrient retention of nutrient N:
1st ITERATION REQUIRED for % retention of nutrient N:
CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WNλ < 1) in this YELLOW WNλ cell: WNλ = 0.407581786 <-Use Goal Seek
and adapt that WNλ value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 -0.0006 3.90674
3.90736
and adapt that WN value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 -0.0001 7.81466
7.81473
Fig. 6.1: Calculation of operator’s process time (= sterilization time), final center
temperature, F value in center, integrated F value, and nutrient retention, if organism of
concern is Clostridium botulinum. Nutrient = vitamin B1.
Fig. 6.2: Calculation of operator’s process time (= sterilization time), final center
temperature, F value in center, integrated F value, and nutrient retention, if organism
of concern is Clostridium sporogenes. Nutrient = vitamin B1.
6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -70-
Fig. 6.3: Calculation of operator’s process time (= sterilization time), final center
temperature, F value in center, integrated F value, and nutrient retention, if organism of
concern is Clostridium nigrificans. Nutrient = vitamin B1.
Answer 6.4b: Consider the calculated sterilization times of answer 6.4a. Which is the
most appropriate sterilization time at retort temperature TR = 117.1 ⁰C?
At retort temperature TR = 117.1 °C, the appropriate sterilization time Pt is Pt = 138.8
min., which is the largest of the 3 Pt values (see table 6.3). This sterilization time is
needed to sufficiently destruct C. nigrificans. The 2 other organisms of concern, each
with lower required sterilization time Pt, then certainly will be sufficiently destructed.
Note 1: At retort temp. TR = 117.1 °C, the largest of the 3 sterilization times, Pt =
138.8 min. causes an integrated F value of F9.5121.1 = 9.9 min. This is NOT the
highest F value of the 3 organisms of concern!
Answer 6.4c: Consider the calculated sterilization times of answer 6.4a. Which is the
most appropriate sterilization time at retort temperature TR = 127.1 ⁰C?
At retort temperature TR = 127.1 °C, the appropriate sterilization time Pt is Pt = 95.3
min., the largest of the 3 Pt values (see table 6.2). This sterilization time is needed to
sufficiently destruct C. sporogenes. The 2 other organisms of concern, each with lower
required sterilization time Pt, then certainly will be sufficiently destructed.
Note 2: At retort temp. TR = 127.1 °C, the largest of the 3 sterilization times, so Pt
= 95.3 min., causes an integrated F value of F9.5121.1 = 10 min. This is also the
highest F value of the 3 organisms of concern!
Note 3:
1) The Pham Excel file uses the F in the coldest core, and thus calculates the
spoilage rate in the 1 cm3 coldest core. The actual spoilage rate for the whole can
(= 1000 cm3) will be considerably higher, and be close to the required 1 can per 105
cans!
2) Computer program Stumbo.exe, however, uses the integrated sterilization value
for its calculations, and thus calculates the spoilage rate of the whole can (= 1 per
105 cans).
Note 4: Computer program Stumbo calculates both the integrated F value, AND
the F value in the 1 cm3 coldest core (F value center). In case of solid products
these figures differ, as can be seen in fig. 6.1 to fig. 6.3.
If calculations are based on the F value in the (1 cm3) coldest center, then the
number of micro-organisms of concern in that 1 cm3 center will have been reduced
to the required number. However, in a can of 1000 cm3, there still will be the
possibility of some surviving micro-organisms in the 999 cm3 surrounding the centre.
Thus the actual spoilage rate of the can will be higher than expected!
APPENDIX A:
CALCULATION SCHEME STUMBO
for manual calculation of the heating time Pt of a liquid food
if microbial data (D, z, a, b) or F value are known
Follow the arrows from b at the bottom up to Pt at the top to calculate Pt of a liquid food:
LIQUID FOOD
APPENDIX B:
CALCULATION SCHEME STUMBO
for manual calculation of the % nutrient retention bN of a
liquid food,
if microbial data (D, zX, aX, bX) or F value are known,
and if nutrient data (DN, zN, initial % = 100) are known
Follow the arrows from bottom left (micro-organism: bX or F) via g to bottom right
(nutrient: bN), to calculate the % nutrient retention bN in a liquid food after heating:
LIQUID FOOD
N.B.: For nutrients, some authors use symbol C instead of F. Thus C ZNTA = FZNTA .
APPENDIX C: Stumbo Table fh/U versus g for z = 10 ⁰C -74
APPENDIX C:
Stumbo Table fh/U versus g for several jc values
if z = 10 ⁰C
Adapted from C.R. Stumbo (1973). Original g values [in ⁰F] converted to ⁰C.
How to use this table:
If fh/U = 5.00 (left hand column), and jc = 1.20 (top row), then value of g = 3.17 ⁰C.
[g in middle section of table, at intersection of row fh/U = 5.00 and column jc = 1.20].
If jc = 1.00 (top row) and g = 4.58 ⁰C (middle section of table), then fh/U = 9.00 (left
hand column).
[In column jc = 1.00, find g = 4.58 (in middle section of table); row of g leads to fh/U = 9.00 at left side].
APPENDIX D: Stumbo Table fh/U versus g for z = 27.8 ⁰C -75
APPENDIX D:
Stumbo Table fh/U versus g for several jc values
if z = 27.8 ⁰C
Adapted from C.R. Stumbo (1973). Original g values [in ⁰F] converted to ⁰C.
If jc = 1.40 (top row) and g = 8.54 ⁰C (middle field), then fh/U = 4.00 (left hand
column).
[In column jc = 1.40, find g = 8.54 (in middle section of table); row of g leads to fh/U = 4.00 at left side].
APPENDIX E: Decision Tree to determine the Minimum Hygienic Status for Chilled Products -76-
APPENDIX E:
DECISION TREE TO DETERMINE THE MINIMUM HYGIENIC STATUS FOR CHILLED PRODUCTS
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