CIVICS AND CIT]ZENSHIP EDUCATIOI,:

HISTORICAL AND COMPARATME REFLEC r toir$ 1

Barbara Leigh
University of Technology, Sydney

Abstact

Dalan sejanh panjang dunia rni civics dan pendidikan kewarganegaraan di

sekolah merupakan fenomena yang relatif baru. Ada dua faktor yang mengaahkan hat
ini. Peiama adalah pertumbuhan negara-barysa dan kedua adalah diperkenakunya
pendidikan unfuk nasa.
Negan bangn nuncul di seluruh dunia dalan jumlah yang besar setelah a*hir
perang dunia kedua pada peftetgahan abad ke duapuluh. lbkuasaan kolonial tetah
ditentang dan pergerakan kemerdekaan dilakukan atau menupai kenerdekaan. Di
Afrika, Anedka Latin, dan Asia ada peningkatan di sejunlah negara ned*a.
Sebagian terbesar menjalankan bentuk penerintahan demokratis. Mere*a
melaksanakan pemilu dan menifik badan pemakiln. Semuanya mempe*enalkan
beberapa benfuk persekolahan bagi kebaryakan penduduk.
Adikel ini nenhahas vjarah pndidikan yang didukung oteh negara di tuopa.
Didalan konteks ifu, dibahas civics dan pendlrlikan kewarganegaraan di Sekotah abed
ke dua puluh satu derryan kemungkinan inplikasinya bagt pedidikat
kewag anegaran di I ndonesia.

Keyrrcds: clviu, citizerchip e&crrtiut, Aurnafinschoob

lntrcduction
The policy of using citizenship education as a means of unifying he counby and
of inslilling wihin its population an orientation trat lies beyond ib own geognphic
region and/or ib own ehnic group of orfuin is one trat has been used by counfies
round the vrlorld for generalions. Somelimes tre policy has been benevolenl;
sometimes massive rewriling of history ho taken place and largescale crucial evenb
have been ignored or discredited. Usually, here has been some combination of frese
praclices as govemmenb seek to use tre educalion sector to legitimate tre nation and
ib system of govemment, but which at times has been used to legitimate parlicular
leaders. ln ofter rivords, fte history of citizenship education has many permutations.

1 TIis paper ws initially presented to Unilre6itas Negeri Yogyakarta, May 5, 2001 at lhe kind invitation d
Pofessor Cholisin and Drs Samsuri.
2 Jumalqvic, Vd. 1 Juni 2004

The 'need' for ciyics and citizenship educatlon

ln he long history of he uodd, civics and citizenship educalion in sdrools is a
relatively recent phenomenon. That is because schools are also rehtively recent.
When, in Europe, he Middle East and China, socieiies did intoduce schools, hese
places of leaming were initially associated wi& religion and only wih a very small
proportion of the population.
Most people had a subsistence lifestyle, working in he fields or forests or fishing
in the rivers and oceans, whilst others haded and barbrcd fom coastal porb or sold
theh wares up and down tre rivers. Wih tre industrial revolution many people worked
in he factories, or were employed on largescale consfuc&n projecb or as artisans or
as domestic labour for he wealhy.
When there was a war, hey rrere he fint to be sent to tre ftont line. When there
was an athck by an enemy, hey werc in some sense protected because of allegiance
to heir ruler. These people did not have b be taught to be obedient, for hey grew up
knowing that the option was obedience, deah or exile. The relationship was what we
know as patondient. lt existed in lndonesia as much as it existed in feudal England.
The pafon protected, he client gave his or her obedience and loyalty in retum. Civic
education was unnecessary.
Two factors changed t'is sifualion. The first was he growtr of he democratic
naton-sbte and he second was he inboduclion of educalion br he masses.
The world ha not always been organized into nalion€tates. Empires such as
Majapahit and Srivijaya, the Roman Empire, he Ottoman Empire, tre Moghul Empire
and etc all claimed allegiance from portions of he rrrorld's population. ln addition trere
were small egalihrian societies who lived close to he land- ofien in highland seftings -
away from he bade hat was taking place on coasbl sefremenb. Finally here were
gypsies - wanderers who shoued no allegiance except b heir hmily and group.
Nation-states emerged in he greatest number after he end of world war ll in tre
mid tvrtenlieh century. Colonial pou,ers r/vere challenged and he new independence
movements fought hr, or lrcre accoded $eir independerrce. ln both Atica and Asia
here was a marked increase in fte overall number of independent counties. Most of
these operated wih sorne form of democratic govanment They had elections and a
representalive body. All infoduced some form of schooling br a large proportion of tre
ppulation.

The history of statesponsorcd systems d education - tlre Eurcpean rnodel.

When tey first achieved, or rverc granbd independence, tre new post rivorH war
ll states tended to produce education sysbms whbh lrele of he top{own type. The
systers lvere sble-sporsored, and centally confolled. ln fte first insbnce, tp aim of
te educalion sysbm was to prwftJe legifimatron br he rew sbb. As many of tre new
states consisted of diverse ehnic and langu4e grcups, and as many of Urem were
 Barbara Leigh, Orrc IN Cnizenslrip Ethdiw 3

intent on lhrowing off the yoke of colonialism, the education system (often itself a
colonial legacy) was an important means of instilling a notion of nalional unity by way of
a nalional language and a nationally shared history amongst the new generation. The
second major aim cf lhe educalion system w6 to supply bureaucrats for all he
services fiat lhe state needed b provide, but tom he statemakers' perspective, this
aim was usually of ancillary significance; national unity being of prime concem. The way
in which hese goals were achieved was by he infusion of an ideology trat would
provide he energy for growfi and commitrnenl.
The historical roots of tris legilimating link between the state and the
development of an educational system br he masses can be seen in Europe in tre
nineteenth century. lt was then copied or absorbed in many new states in the twentieth
century. The heoretical interpretation bat Ramirez and Boli (19 give is that education
was part of he process of he nation-buiHing efiorb of states competing witr one
anoher wihin he intentate system.2

[P]olitbal, economic and culfural developmenb in Europe led to a model of tre

legitimate national sociely hat became highly instifutionalized in tre European
(and later, world) culfural tame. This model made tre construction of a mass
educalional system a major and indispensabb component of every modem
shb's activity.3

Ramirez and Boli ask: "Why wre he social innovalion of mass slate-sponsored
educalion adopted in virtually evay Wetem European cornby... from Prussia (1763) to

2 ln his andysis of intemalional politi6, Ralph Petman (1990. htendiotal Dd/tlics: Balane of pw*/
8€iaiffi d Ndtniviby' Bdane d id€fia1rts. ldboumq Longrnars Cheshfie) has examined the
dl.rent o{Fgdng globd intectate mmpetlim. Ihe groffi of a $ale's educatim sedor is immanent in
he overall gms. Tle dynamic he has metiobusly teas€d apart consisb d fi6 sane hree broad
Fcesses, namdy $e balance of poier, he bd ce d Foductivity atd t\e bdance d ideotogies. He
sees these processes occuning within the respeclive dcrnains d datsmakng, \,tr€alth-making and
ideology+naking. State{aking is a potiticd proc€ss and has to do wih he way $e $odd's peoples and
t€rdtodes har/e been and are being divided. Wedh{aking is an economic process which refers to $e
movement d globd resources and he proc€ss d dasemaking. As v€ move into $e sfudy, we are made
aiEre that he political and econdnic dim€ndo0s are in fac,t ",fused'. The bdanced-pofler and the
bdanced{rodudivity ate linked. lf po,\,e, is ho{ht of in terms of its functionat dimensons (pditicat,
economic, military and ideological) and $/e take produdion (rat\ei then .iust e(dlang€) to be the core of
€conomics, then productivity is a dimension of po,ver, and the balanceof+roductvity is a dimension of
tie balanced+o$,€t' (p.108). lt !€s precisety tlis dtudion wttici occlned in the early stdes. Finay,
fie. pre and @ dtemativ€s is exsnin€d ritlin Sre contod of idedogy-
FedgSy of modemity and its
making. Running as integrd hemes hrulghqit he study are fiose d gender and militariEn. patmads
ftameilork provides us with a mmprehensi\re story d he way in vfiidl states make, and continue to
make fiemsehcs on the world stage.
3 Francisco O. Ramirez and John
Boli. (1984. The Pditical Constuction of Mass Sdrooling: European
Odgins and Worldwide ln$itulionalization.' in@y d Edudiur. Vd 60. (Jan):2J 7, p. 3.
4 Jumalgvic, Vd. 1 Juni2004

Belgium (1914), despite great variation in socielal characterislics and histories?"r Their
contention is hat he European states became engaged in funding, managing and
accoding legitimacy to mass schooling as part of an endeavour to construct a unified
national polity. Wihin he shte, individuals nrere expected to give beir prime
identification to he national unit. From lime to lime extemal challenges to he shte's
ranking on he world stage stimulated state action in education in hat efforb and funds
would be devoted to internal obstacles such as $e power of tre clergy, state or class-
based privileges or regional autonomy.
The earliest example ue have of a nalional education system is that of Prussia.
ln writing of Prussia, lGrl Schleunes states hat:

Prussia's experience is uniquely important to an understanding of European

schooling...The Prussian schooling process was only part of a larger
educational revolution hat spanned he late eighteenh and early nineteentr
centuries. The main impact of his revolulion's early phase was upon higher
education for he elib... &hooling for the non-elite, hough fre subject of
increasingly intense discussion and even of some legislation was not made
efective until after he military disaster at Jena-Auerbldt in 1806. Then, during
a decade of feverbh activity, schooling became esbblished as one of he
reform generation's most lasling contibutions to he remaking of Prussia.s

The legacy of tris Prussian mass schooling venfure was fiat tre 'bwer orders' were
seen to be made up of educable beings and secondly hat he state, rather han the
church, was seen as he auhority in matters of educalion.
Ramirez and Boli drew attention to what hey saw as two important aspects of
tre union of he making of he Prussian sbte and he groudr of ib education system,
namely a unificalion of ib populace and a means of increasing ib stafure on he world
stage.
Finst, he stateattempted lo use mass schooling 'lo create a more unified
national citizeruy and hereby coraolidate sbte pourer boh wihin he nation
and relative to oher national sbtes, as enunciated explicity by Fichte.
Second, the union was sparked by a clear challenge to Prussia's posilion in tre
European state system - ib defeat at he hands of tre French after a period
during which Prussia had managed gnadually to increase ib intemational
shture and poucr. Prussia saw ib rise in tre European system blocked. lb
response was statecontrolled educalion, and he system it constructed !rcuH

t lbid.,p.2.
sKarl A. Schl€unes. (1979). Enlight€nment, Rtrrm, Readion:"lhe Sdrcding Revoluton in Prussia.'
Cetud Euryan Hidwy. Vol.Xll. No4. Decsnber., p. 317
 Barbara Leigh, Oivic hrt &izen$ip Edlf,,lion 5

larer be widery cited as an important erement of prussian (Germa.r)

success rn
fhe sfale syslem (my emphasis).0

As urell as $e issue of tre poriticar regenerarion of what had been

a divided
Germany (within tre context of a competitivi system of states)
in tre nineteentr
cenfury' Dewey drew aftention to.treneed for a psychorogicar or ideorogicarlusffi;ation
for his dramatic move of educational expansion from thielite to he missei. He
saw
such a juslification as being give-n by rhe German phirosophers, ficnte
lnc feger.
They saw a need to bansform tre 'privbte indivijuar" who is .in
egoistic inafonat Grynf
enslaved io his appetites and to circumstances" into one who .vduntarily
suomitteo ti
he educative discipline of slate instltutions and laws' (Dewey,1966:g6). Th;i is;G
education system was seen to be important in the makini of o#dient ,citizen.'
raw matedal of wiltful private individuals.
to, t.
ln many trird uorrd srates, tre extemar rationare br educalionar
expansion to he
IlTtrl.Ir Sntig{.9e1lu.1wag
phrased in tanguage rrar connored a change from
me 0n b he new. rn he 1960s education w.Ni seen as a means
of crearing
,riodem,
citizens fom he stock of tre 'faditional' peasanfy.T Hunter,s position,
ihicn was
adhercd to by tre westem ?everoped'counfies of ihe rime reffected
he Eurocenfic
perspective' However, if rra bke tre view of indigenous govemmenb,
hen tre major
rationale br eilher the crealion or localization o:t a cotiniai
education
exacty ftat of fte European sbhs a cenfury earlier i.e. tre creation
,vrt* *i,
consolidation of a new nalion-sbb.
- .no'conrinuing

The polilical dynamlc of educdional expanrion

.shte-making is a proces wtrich invorves tre producrion of 'good, cfiizens.

order b aciieve tris goal, tre state must reach every'nremuer
rn
of he-ppulalion.e in his
analysb. of he history of he term, 'shte', can shows how
rre term, itate, ctranged
from, being one which sorery refened to fie rurer to
one which cunenfly incrudes the
whole population. n is what can has termed "fte sociarizarion
of narionarism.s
Anderson has termed trese bounded groups of p.oprr;i*s-inrd
communities." He
gogiF t*
major histori:ar movemenb nrtr'tris cnange in peipret
orientarions. The
creote tunctionaries hco represenLtues
I5l5"l.-Jgy9,tg^pitsrim
o.nat.ns" I hese creore communities "h"-b&;.l;J
developed early conceptions of nation-ness well

6Frdncisco o. Ranllez and John Bdi r1g84 The political construclion

of Mass sc-iloding...,, p. 5,
*l ljjT:lLT?
I r ne neeo
ua*,irw eriunr so.;e^. i*o*]ir*ji;ir*itv p"...
" mass recognition of politicd
T0{ regitimacy
was not dways a requk6ment wtridr rurers visited
upon their popuratdrs. see Ben Anderson's ieseardr
;p,*1sh
ffi;ililnasties where boundaries
*ere n.t necessadry dsnarcated and readership did nc depend'upor*Eor-iJt
people (Andason 19tXl: 2$20).
irg'r.gd,;;il ffi;ii;
e Edward can (19t8). 'states and Ndio.arism: The nation in Eurqean History.'in
o. Herd. (ed). srdes
ard Socrd,bs. Ot'ord, Basil Blad0rcll.
6 Jumal Civic, Vd. 1 Juni2004

before most of Europe. Secondly he sees tre development of $e pdnt media as critical
in providing $re means for disseminating information to large numbers of people.

What I am proposing is that neither economic interest, Liberalism, nor

Enlightenment could, or did, create in themselves he kind, or shape of'
imagined community to be defended from hese regimes' deprcdations; to put it
another way, none provided tre framework of a new consciousness - he
scarcely-seen periphery of its vision ' as opposed to cenbe-field objects of its
admiration or disgust. ln accomplishing fris specific task, pilgrim Creole
functionaries and provincial Creole printsmen played tre decisive historic role.to

More recenlly, radio and television have leapfrogged print media as global means of
1
information dissemination.l
Universal compulsory education wihin individual nalion-states made the
extension of tre franchise to he masses easier. lt was initiated and organized by the
sbte as a means of creating loyal citizens, citizens br whom their shte would be as
'natural' as tre hmily into which ftey were bom,
A major function of education herebre, even in consumer-sponsored systems
such as in the United Shtes was to provide legilimacy and loyalty to he state.

While political conflict propelled tre process of educational state formation,

educational strucfures and practices in tum aimed at he reconstruction of
political conflicb. For tre goveming classes, lhe educalional state was 'the
social', a domain organized spalially, temporally and discursively, where
political conflicb were to be remade. ln his Educational State, social peace
and hamony were to prevail. Here membes of different social classes,
genders, religious sects, and (to a much lesser extent) ehnic group were to
encounter one anotrer on conditions of a specific 'social equality'. At he same
time, participanb in tre educational state - sfudents, teachers, trustees,
electors and parenb - uere to intemalize and embody principles of social
tolerance, respect fur legifmate aufrority, and br shndads of a 'collective'
morality. Political conflicb were to be remade in he educalional state through
tre remaking of political subiectivities. What is at work lwe is he making of
(nnden) srcial ide nt' li es (my emphasb).t z

10
B.R.OG. An&lsoo (1 98il). ,magrned Cdnmuriaari lffiisrs ut tlr o&in a1d Wd d ndionelisfli.
Lmdon, Veso.
lndonesia h6received sub6tanlial aid frdn Ausfdia in he settng up of sophisticated
Ebcdrxiunicatioo satellite nduorks.
12
Eoce Cudis.(1988\. Buildi| lhe Educationd Safei Canada w&, 18381871. London, ontatio, The
Altrore Pcss. , p. 1 3.
 Barbara Leigh, Aft A N C izenship Educatidt 7

Educational aims were cetrched in terminology such as ,equality of opporlunity,, a

phrase. wtrich conveyed equar acc€ss, but wtrich masked stucfural inequalities;
inequalities which existed because of tre polilical+conomic nature of competin! saei
on he global arena.
As a crucial component of tre polilical arena, il is imporbnt b examine the issue
of force or violence. Militarism has not usually been csociated witr tre education
system. Houiever, when one examines $e practices of trose involved in war-making
policy, fte element of social confolilegilimation/ consent is a cnrial goal
of he statel
Barkin sbtes:

Cunent scholarship on Prussian education sbesses ompulsory schooling as a

mechanism of sociar contol to indoctinate children in rerigibn and p6titcat
submissiveness. Ofrer themes adumbrated include schmfin{as a p$aration
for tedious industiar rabor and ib utility to a sbte seeking 6 nationaiize and
in$r.!. an incremingly urbanized and dbparate ppulation. Social mobility
and education for democracy have been found quite albn to tre trought of
early nineteenh+enfu ry edrcaba.tl

.Among the poorer classes, compulsory education hao historically been

associated wift making tre populace piots and patriolic in order trat it will consist
of
{
more obedient and subservbnt lvorkers and soldiers. Barkin cites Hartnut riEeb
description of tre Prussian schooling system as 'tre finst modem dbtatonhip of
tre
mind'. Branson and Miiler describe sctnoring in Bari, rndonesia as "eiistemic
violence'.15.
Whilst it would be facile to view all states, education systems as large
bureaucralic control mechanisms, trere is a sense in whidr a stab's education systfi
can. be seen (to a greater or lesser degree) as implementing psychological pr.s.i.,r. in
l{ng_tg socially institute a hegemonic pervaoh of ail tri'varues ehuoiieo in ,te
state'' The point is trat educalion can be a bounded act, not in a physical
sense, bui in
he sense of limiting horizons, foreclosing options and resticling a vision of he
Possible.16

. .The treorist who expresse tris most potenfly is pouranEas. He recognizes fre
gradalion or mntinuum of violence inherent in he monopoly
of sfucfures of p6wer. This
monopoly "underlies fre techniques of pwer and mechanisms of consent: it is woven

]:.Ienn9t' Barkin. (1983). "Sodd Confd and Vdksscfrule in Voma.z prussia.'in &nlnl Eunpean
Hrgoy. VolIUt, Nol. March., 0.32.
lrlbrd. p. 35
,,]an Branson, and Don Mifler. (r99i]. 'sdooring and he hp€rid rransfocnarion of Gender A post
:Aqp'll Ap.rd'.t9 n9 qtudy of Sdroding in Bdi, tndqEda.' in R.J. Bums and Wetch, A.R.
vmlenwary perlr€{'ives in Oqnwathe
Edu@tjon Narr yoR, Garland..
DD. S.7.
J.B€rban Leigh (1999),
Leaming and r$ofling Borndarks: sdroding in New'0rder rndoflesia,
sqbum.
Vd 14, No 1.
8 Jumal Ovic, Vd. 1 Juni 20(N

intohe disciplinary and ideological appara$, and fashions tlre materials of be social
body on which domination depends, even if his violence doesn't get exercised direcfly".
17

' For PoulanEas, lhe capihlist State neiher separates law from violence nor
substifu tes mechanisms of manipulalion-persuaion (ideology) br repression.
To the contrary, lhe capitalist State develops a monopoly on legitimate physical
violence: be capitalist State's accumulation of he means of corporal control
goes hand in hand witr ib character as tre State of law and order. He argue
hat... disciplinary instifutions and tre emer{ence of ideological institutions like
he parliament and he school assume he monopoly of violence by fie State,
and his violence, in fum, is obscured by tre displacement of legitimacy toward
-legality"
and the law. Not only trat, but the maior insfument of legal violence -
he army - sewes as he model for he oqanizalion of schools and bureaucralic
hierarchies bofr wihin he State and in he private corporations.ls

The violence hat is often embodied in stab educalion systems is most ftequenty
a non-physhal manifestation which can present he hce of ,naturalness,
wihin tfre
intemationally legilimated phenomenon of compulsory attendance or UpE (univasal
primary education). Once in school, studenb are ofien subjected to military history trat
presenb a glodfied picture of war and ib heroes and heroines. Sometimes militarism
wiftin fte educalion system takes a more overt form in trat school sfudenb are enlisted
for proto-military aclivilies such as cadeb or tre equivalent. Wifiin he cuniculum, war-
galing is usually glon'fiedte because of ib integral link witr tre project of statemaking.
As Tilly (states so succinfy and graphically, "States make war and wars make states,.i
As is often he case, it is he story, rafpr fran tre social science text, which
qroyldes ys wih fie most graphic pbture of he porver of tre educalion system. ln
C.H.lGne's short story "Ambiguous Advenfure , a fictional new school in a new nation,
Diallobe, is described:
The new school shares at he same lime fre characteristics of cannon and of
magnet. From he cannon it drarira effcacy aF an arm of combat. Better than
he cannon, it makes conquest permanent. The cannon compels lhe body, tre

17 Nicos P&lanEas. (1975).

Pofrriar Pow$ and sood crasses., London, Hunanities press. p. gg. As
quoted in Martin camoy (!984). llB &de aN fuliticd rrreory. N.J., princdon
unive$ity pre$. p. 13.
h cqltrast, Foucaurt and Gnmsci see a didlotcny b€fireen vidence and iaeoiosy. ftei see o;s€nt
based on the intemalizatiofl ol nqmalization as non-Mdent as opposetl to physicl repreision wtri*r
is
patendy vident
1a
Martin (19841. The gate and pditicat Eo.y. N.J., princeton University press, p.13.
_Camoy
le Robin Bums
{1986:147) has shown this phenom€non in rdation to the us. ';qhe war'riraoe xience a
national policy issug and his in tum, assisted by he Russian laundring of sp'utiik in 1957,d; f,anA
SE rtrelo.ic and bmed he rationale br subsequent US $vemment spendng on science."
,o charles ]i[y . (1985). w-ar Making
and state Making as organized cdme- in p. Evans et ar (eds).
ilitgiry the &ate Back ln. Canbddge, Univecity press.
 Barbara Leigh, Avic AN diizd:,*ip Edudiong

school bewitches lhe soul. Where the cannon has made a pit of rshes and of
deah, in he slicky mould of which men would not have rebounded from lhe
ruins, he new school establishes peace. The morning of rebirfr will be a
moming of benediclion trrough tre appeasing virlue of tre new school.

From he magnet, he school bkes ib radialing force. lt is bound up with a new

order, as a magnetic stone is bound up witr a field. The upheaval of tre life of
man wihin his new order is similar to the overfum of certain physical larrra in a
magnelic field. Men are.seen lo be compsing tremsefue, conquered, along
he lines of invisible and impedous forces. Disorder is organized, rebellion ii
gpfaseq, the momings of resentnente sound witr songs of universal
ftanksgiving.

Only such an upheaval in tre natural order can explain how, witrout eitrer of
hem wanting it, he new man and he new school come bgetrer just he same.
For neither of hem wanb tre other. The man does not waht he school
because in order hat he may live - trat is, be free, feed and clohe himself - it
imposes upn him he necessity of sitting hencefortr, for tre required period,
upon ib benches. No more does tre school want fte man because in order to
survive - that is, extend ibelf and take roob where ib necessity has landed it _
it is obliged b take account of him.zt

It is not he aim of tris section to paint a bleak picfure of schoob, but ratrer to allow
some ventilalion br he complexity of fie issues involved in an examination of tre state
and ib relationship to tre education syslem,

Civics and Gitizenshlp in Aurttalian Schools

&hools in Austalia are faced witr exacty he same sorb of questions trat frose
in lndonesia face. To what e(ent should tre cuniculum be used br purposes of cilizen-
making? To what extent should plitics be inboduced into tre cuniculum? As a civil
society, how do u,e besl inculcate lhose values $at u/e consider important to lhe next
generation?z (Print et al, 2@1).

. within schools in NSW, tre aim is to integrate he civics and citizenship terms
and concepb hroughout the syllabus content. At secondary level, civics educarion is
taught hrough an elective unil witrin tre history syllabus foi years 7-10. The syllabus
was last revised in 2001. while sfudents may have dilierent experiences and
understanding of citizenship to which bachers need to be sensitive, civics and
citizenship education in the History syllabus is underpinned by fie bllowing values:

21 As quoted in
[g!9' c H. "Anbiguois Adventure" in Geo{ge Lamming (ed), cannon srrol and Grass
Baads, Pic€dor, 1974.
2 Munay Print and wdry Mo'oz and pat Reyndds (edJ). (2001)
Dis@venng den.'racy in c,,cs and
citiz9nship educaton, Katmmba, NSW: Social Science press. 2001.
l0 Jumal Ovic, Vd. 1 Juni 2004

r A sense of he studenh' own worfi as parlicipanb in Ausbalian society

r A respectforthe righb and dignityof all people
o Respect for heir own culture and he culfure of o$ers
r Appreciation of he value of sfudenb' own heritage and he heritage of others
r Commitment to democratic processes, including fteedom of speech,
association and religion
o Commitment to social justice
o Commitment to ecological sustainability
o Commitrnent to active and respnsible participation in community and public
afiain
r Commitnent to critical evaluation of ideas, norms and values.a
Civic and citizenship allows studenb to develop understanding about civic life as
distinct from private and pensonal lib, and to this end, he content embedded in the
syllabus is focused on hree broad areas:
r Aushalian identig
r Righb and responsibilities
r Decbion-making and democralic proc€sses.2a
ln terms of what students leam about, civics and citizenship includes the study
of:
o Govemment, constihrtions, institutions, he rule of law and he rights and
responsibilities of citizens, and
r Polilical heritage and he democratic process values.2s
ln terms of what students leam to do, he syllabus provides opportunities to
develop he skills needed for active and inbrmed cilizenship, such as critical reflection
and inquiry, how to make and suspend judgement in an inhrmed way, solving problems
and negotiating conflict, communicating inbrmation, ideas and viewpoinls and ce
operating wih ohers. Underpinning he knowledge and skills is a set of values
associated wih democratic citizenship and civil society, including values in social
justice and equality, democratic processes, social cohesion, ethical behaviour,
interculfural understanding and toleranee of difierence. The syllabus suggestions have
emphasized the place of Aborigines wifiin Austalian society.
At he pdmary level, schools in NSW, Ausfalia have inhoduced a topic 'Teaching
Civics'into the primary school key leaming area of Human Society and lts Envkonment.
The activilies cover a range of topics and include a variety of teaching and learning
approaches. The topics look at tre Constifutional Convention, he history of Federation,

a Board of Studies, NSW, History Syl,abus, yarues. <w*v.boaddstudies.nsuedu.au> accessed at April

10,2003.
2. Board of Studies,
Sy/abus, Values. <www.boadofstudies.nswedu.au> accessed at April
NSW, Hrslory
10, 2003.
rsBoatd of Studies, NSW, H/$ory
Syt/abus, yalues. <u r {r.boardofstudies.n$4/.edu.zu> accessed at April
10,2003.
 Barbara Leigh, Or4c AN c,ilizarstip Edudion ll

how young people influence govemment, local govemment, lhe flag, human rights and
voting in elections. Pedagogical suggestions for tre teachen are the use of debates,
rol+play, writing of petilions, engagement in online discussions with oher sfudenb,
and fre overall fostering of awareness witrin fie individual sfudent as an aclive citizen.
These cunicula, are evidence of he sorls of material trat is being hught witrin
Australia. During he New Order in lndonesia, Pancasila educalion was tre subject trat
encouraged sfudents to be aware of their 'lndonesian-ness'.26 lt was compulsory at
every level of schooling from kindergarten through to terliary educalion, as well as
pancasila courses being compulsory for all civil servan6. The need for civics and
citizenship education remains potent when govemmenb wish to instil he values of
active engagement within he community, wtrilst at the same time wishing to control hat
engagement. The dialectic of trat govemance is botr dynamic and contexfual.
The history and sociology of civics education involves he examinalion of
o he ways in which ib education system (as a system) has developed - tre mix
between public and private, religious and secular, ceeducation and single sex
schools
r he system of govemance and he practices of democracy in conhxt
. he degree of cenfalizalbn; conbol of cunicula conbnt
r control of examinations; means of entry into the counby's universities
r budgetary allocalion as a proporlion of GDP
. wEFs
r infrastucture
. system of teacher faining
. career strucfure for hose employed in tre education s€ctor
Solutions hat may be suibble in one context are not alu,ays appropriate in anoher
context.
lf a counhy is committed to democralization, tren tris will be evident in fie
pedaSosy available to he sfudenb. There will be opporlunities br discussion; grqrp
!'rork will be parl of lhe school day, as leaming to respect he vieua of others, to iisten
and to be able to engage in dialogue is essenlial leaming witrin a democracy. Most
importanty, assessment hsls will examine fie students capacity for oitical reisoning,
active parlicipalion and an ability to view problems from a range of perspeclives.
These are tre values hat urere emphasized in the conference on civic education
held in Bandung, lndonesia. As Professor Dr Endang Sumanfi stated, .frre ultimate
goal of... citizenship education is h provide people wih tre capacity to ... ttrink and
make intelligent and socially responsible decisions".zz

26tsabara Leigh. (1991). "Making

the lndonesian State: The Rde d Schod Torts' in Ravr.ew of
ln&nesian aN Mdayis'ian A,Iails, Vd 25, Winter 1 991 .
z Endang sumanti. (1999) 'community ciric Education'in cenls for lndoneoian civic Education
ptrr€f{iius ftun a,nfe'ry/,e on Civic
(CICED) and USIS, Jakarta, Bdihang Dikbud, and tKlp Bandung ,
12 Jumal Civic, Vol. 1 Juni 2m4

None of hese processes take place qubkly. The leaders of a county can show
heir commitment to he development of a civil society hrough providing every sfudent
wih he opportunity for leaming heir rights and rcsponsibilities tluough relevant and
appropriate school-bmed activilies. Educationally, sfudenb witr a strong sense of civic
responsibility show that hey have somehing to contibute to heir own leaming, tre
leaming of heh peers and as aclive citizens, to he groudr of a civic society.

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