Edu402 assignment 1(idea solution Q2)

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question 1 read article and do it by yourself

don’t copy paste the answer please it is just a ideas write in your own
words

It is just idea you can choose one answer and write in your own words
Q2 (A): Explain the importance of philosophical and historical foundation in curriculum
development in nation
ANS1(part A):

Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers, which affect the content
and structure of the curriculum. These forces are beliefs and orientations as well as conceptions of
learning and the needs of society. Foundation of curriculum is rooted with the foundation of education

THE IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY FOUNDATION IN CURRICULUM

Educators, curriculum makers and teachers must have espoused a philosophy or philosophies that are
deemed necessary for planning, implementing, and evaluating a school curriculum. The philosophy that
they have embraced will help them define the purpose of the school, the important subjects to be
taught, the kind of learning students must have and how they can acquire them, the instructional
materials, methods and strategies to be used, and how students will be evaluated.

Likewise, philosophy offers solutions to problems by helping the administrators, curriculum planners,
and teachers make sound decisions. A person’s philosophy reflects his/her life experiences, social and
economic background, common beliefs, and education.

When John Dewey proposed that “education is a way of life”, his philosophy is realized when put into
practice. Now, particularly in the Philippines, Dewey’s philosophy served as anchor to the country’s
educational system.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORICAL FOUNDATION IN CURRICULUMS

The history of one’s country can affect its educational system and the kind of curriculum it has. If we are
going to trace the formal beginning of curriculum, we get back in time to Franklin Bobbit’s book entitled,
“The Curriculum” which was published in 1918.
From the time of Bobbit to Tyler, many developments in the purposes, principles and contents of the
curriculum took place. Please read the Six Famous Curriculum Theorists and their Contributions to
Education for more information.

Or
ANS 2(question 2part a):
Curriculum can be defined in a variety of ways, one can approach the evaluation and creation of
curriculum through more than one foundational lens: philosophical, historical, psychological,
and sociological. All four of these hold importance in influencing curriculum and instruction.
However, it is the philosophical foundation which holds the greatest importance because it is
through one’s philosophical perspectives that the historical, sociological, and psychological
foundations are both perceived and applied.
Philosophical Foundation :
The philosophical foundation of curriculum helps determine the driving purpose of education,
as well as the roles of the various participants. While all foundations propose to set goals of
curriculum, philosophy presents the manner of thinking from which those goals are created.
One’s driving philosophy suggests if education should develop the individual or enforce group
norms (Ornstein & Hunkins, pp. 34-36); if it is to enforce group norms, it further defines if that
should be the norms of the current set or a move towards changing those norms. Philosophies
vary in perception of truth, ranging from absolute to relative, and from moralistic to scientific
(34-37). In all of this, one’s philosophy defines the role of the teacher, ranging from all-knowing
authoritarian to that of a mentor, and the role of the student, ranging from an obedient vacant
vessel to an individual worthy of actively engaging in one’s own educational process. As we look
through the lens of history, we see how philosophies have gained and waned in popularity in
society, and how even psychological research is embraced, ignored, or even rejected based on
philosophical standings of the time.
Historical Foundation :
Exploring the historical foundations of curriculum can promote a sense of freedom and
encourage educational reform. Reviewing the history of education allows us to step outside of
the here and now, gaining a bigger picture and seeing ourselves within it, realizing that the field
of education must remain dynamic in order to be effective. Throughout history, curricular
choices have been made out of necessity and to meet the specific needs of society at the time.
Also, it is through history that we see how predominant philosophies have defined a society’s
values, which in turn determined the current purposes of education. Through history, we learn
that programs are considered pioneering due to the different philosophies to which others
subscribe. In reviewing history, it becomes apparent that this has been the case throughout the
centuries. Ideas can change, and a group can break free of faulty suppositions; history shows
that what is now isn’t necessarily what needs to remain. In history, we see why and how things
came to be, how the demographics of a particular committee can have longreaching impact
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 82), and also that some traditions - such as grading (70) - are relatively
new concepts after all.
Q2(B): Describe in detail the role of physiological foundation in curriculum of Pakistan?
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS IN CURRICULUM OF PAKISTAN
By providing a basis for understanding the teaching/learning process, educational psychology
deals with how people learn. By implication, it emphasizes the need to recognize diversity
among learners. However, it is also true that people share certain common characteristics.
Among these are basic psychological needs which are necessary for individuals to lead a full and
happy life. In this section, we shall be talking about the major learning theories and their
contribution to curriculum development. Besides, we shall touch upon the basic psychological
needs of individuals and reflect on their translation into curriculum.
We shall at this juncture remind ourselves that our main thrust will be on the contributions
made by the theories of learning for curriculum development. Therefore make it clear that we
are not, right now, interested in studying the theories of learning in detail, which has classified
the major theories of learning into the following groups:
i) Behaviorist theories which deal with various aspects of stimulus- response and reinforcement
scheme;
ii) Cognitive theories which view the learner in relationship with the total environment; and
iii) Phenomenology which emphasizes the affective domain of learning.
Their contribution to curriculum development.
i) Behaviorism and curriculum
The behaviorist school, which represents traditional psychology, is rooted in a corresponding
philosophical speculation about the nature of learning. It has particularly dominated psychology
in the first half of the twentieth century. After a few decades of being in the wilderness lt has
recently gained currency once again with the advent of individualized education.
Without going into the details we shall touch upon the main, characteristic features of the
behaviorist school of thought.
Essentially, learning is considered a habit-formation and teaching is regarded as arranging
learning experiences in such a way as to promote desirable behavior. Further, behaviorism
maintains that what is learnt in one situation can be transferred to other situations as well.
Broadly, behaviorists advocate that: behavior is likely to be influenced by the conditions under
which learning takes place; attitudes to and abilities of learning can change or improve over
time through the application of proper stimuli; learning experiences can be designed and
controlled to create desired learning; selective reinforcement is essential; and rote learning and
memorization of knowledge are unnecessary. Because each individual has specific needs and
interests related to his or her self-fulfillment and self-realisations, there can't be a generally
prescribed humanistic curriculum. Humanistic learning may enhance the mental health of the
learners, harmonize personal feelings among students and teachers, and improve various
aspects of human awareness among students, teachers, and curriculum specialists, yet its
processes rely mainly on personal experiences and subjective interpretations that leave them
open to criticism. Therefore, there is a great need to examine and understand what is relevant
in humanistic curricula.
Please note that most textbook writers tend to be cognition-oriented. However, one should
propose that behaviourist components are needed for planning and developing a sound
curriculum. Further, humanistic components of teaching and learning must also be incorporated
into the curriculum. Let us say, therefore, that each theory of learning has something significant
to contribute towards explaining various aspects of human behavior and learning.
Basic human needs and curriculum
Physical well-being and health are generally recognized and frequently dealt with through
various programmes such as those on fitness, nutrition and health problems. Mental health
needs such as those pertaining to acceptance, belonging, security and status have been widely
studied but little emphasized in the area of curriculum.
In this sub-section, we shall touch upon just two points which concern the topic under
consideration:
i) Self-actualization; and
ii) Developmental tasks.
Here, we shall discuss these and draw inferences as to how each one contributes to the
enrichment of a curriculum.
i Self-actualization
The notion of self-actualization characterizes individuals’ need for self- fulfillment in life by
actualizing/achieving their own potential. A curriculum should therefore provide learning
activities that allow students to identify themselves with those things they can do well. It should
also assist them to succeed in other activities that are difficult for them. Learners are thus
helped to find personal meaning in the learning experience.
Those responsible for curriculum development must pay attention to the concept of self-
actualization. We all recognize the importance of school/college and community based goals for
learners. Self- actualization on the other hand includes satisfying the desire to know and
understand in relation to personal needs and interest. Moreover it has been noticed that when
personal purposes are ignored, learners seem to be less successful in meeting the set goals. If
curricular plans reflect a balance between institutional and personal needs, the impact on both
may be substantially enhanced.
ii) Developmental tasks
We can define a developmental task as a task which arises in relation to a certain period in the
life of an individual, success in which leads to his/her happiness and to success in later tasks,
while failure in it leads to unhappiness in the individual and difficulties in subsequent tasks. This
fact is regarded as one of the most specific considerations in organizing tasks. The needs of
individuals are governed by the stage of development and age they have reached, and also grow
out of their need to respond to societal expectations. The implication is that
educators/curriculum planners should understand behaviors manifested by a learner indicating
her/his readiness and need to deal with a particular developmental task.
As we facilitate the learners' success in these need tasks, their overall success can be ensured.
Further, in developing a curriculum, the development of an environment in which learners feel
genuinely secure should be ensured. When a curriculum develops such an environment,
learning takes place smoothly because the needs of students and what has been provided by
the curriculum are complementary to each other.
In our discussion of the psychological foundations, we dealt with the contribution made by
learning theories towards curriculum and also tried to see how much more effective a
curriculum may be framed if we consider the nature of basic human need while forming it.
TRENDS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
To understand contemporary curricular problems and proposals, it is ideal that we acquaint
ourselves with the history of curricular thought and practice that stretches back to antiquity.
However, let us start this section with the assumption that we rarely find histories that focus
exclusively on curriculum and, therefore, turn to an overview of general histories of education in
an effort to get a few glimpses of the history of curriculum.
The curriculum field may be viewed as a formal area of academic inquiry, but as a basic human
interest, its concerns are perennial. Parents and other members of society throughout history
have wondered how best to help their young ones grow and mature. Their response to this
problem constitutes an unwritten history of informal curricular thought and action. As societies
became more formal and as institutions developed within them to meet specialized needs,
schools/colleges evolved to help students grow more efficiently, to introduce them to the ways
of their society and to help them acquire an understanding of their cultural heritage.
If we recall the earlier sections, curriculum has always been and continues to be influenced by
educational philosophers, besides societal needs. In the ancient times, though a formal
curriculum (of the shape it has obtained today) did not exist; young people were oriented
towards meeting cultural and social demands. Depending on the influence of educational
philosophies, however, curriculum-content for such orientations varied from one period to the
other. Tracing the historical antecedents of curriculum may give us a framework of its gradual
growth. However, for our immediate purposes we shall restrict ourselves to an overview of the
twentieth century curriculum and a speculation of the possible future trends in curriculum
development.
Twentieth century curriculum
Early 20th century curriculum affirmed the shift in emphasis from sectarian education to liberal
education. Traditionally, curriculum was confined to religion-related orientations and classics.
Gradually, more and more subjects were added to the curriculum. As the focus was on mental
discipline, social needs, student interest or capabilities were given little emphasis. Further,
during this period, compartmentalization and not interdisciplinary subject matter was
considered the norm. There was an unwillingness to recognize the values of arts, music, physical
and vocational education. This was based on the theory that these subjects had little mental or
disciplinary value. If we pause for a moment here and think, we shall realize that even though
we offer vocational, industrial and/or technical programmes now, there is a tendency to
consider traditional academic programmes superior to them.
Gradually, demands were made for curricular changes. Industrial development led a growing
number of educators to question changes, as well as the authenticity of the traditional
curriculum and its emphasis on mental discipline. This shift was also influenced by the scientific
movement in child psychology (which focused on the whole child and learning theories in the
1900’s).
The argument that classics had no greater disciplinary or mental value than other subjects
eventually appeared and meant that mental discipline (which emphasized drill and
memorization) was no longer considered conducive for the overall growth and development of
children. In essence, societal changes and the emerging demands there from; the stress on
psychology and science; and the concern for social and educational reform made evident the
need for a new curriculum. Thus, the aims of education went hand in hand with the particular
type of society involved: conversely, the society that evolved influenced the aims of education.
Thus, the early twentieth century was a period of educational reform characterized by the
following:
i) Idea of mental discipline was replaced by utilitarian modes of thought and scientific inquiry.
ii) Curriculum tended not to be compartmentalized but to be interdisciplinary.
iii) Curriculum tended not to be static but dynamic-changing with the changes in society.
iv) Needs and interest of students came to be considered of primary importance. And now
curriculum is viewed as a science with principles and methodology not just as content or subject
matter.
Possible future trends
Keeping in view the prevalent political, economic and academic climate, it is not difficult for us
to visualize (of course, only to a certain extent) future trends and the influence they may have
on education, particularly on curriculum development. (However, we should also confess here
that such a speculation is fraught with risks that normally go with it.)
Although in this Unit we have been underlining the fact that social changes will have a vital role
in determining a curriculum. If the present day growth of information is any indication the
information flow will increase rapidly in the future. Clearly, the increasing flow of information
negates the traditional notion of content-mastery. Students, therefore, will need to acquire
critical thinking, and problem solving abilities rather than static and/or absolute knowledge and
skills of factual recall.
Further, in the 21st centuries, the need for change will accelerate. For example, it took us more
than one century to shift from an agricultural society to an industrial one. But it took hardly two
decades to shift from an industrial to an information society.
In the main, there will be radical changes in the socio-academic ecology of school/college
environment. Barring a few, if any, schools/colleges have so far been functioning as bastions of
autocracy with little importance given to students' needs and teachers' competence. Because of
the changing societal needs and greater awareness of the need for purpose-oriented education,
the needs of every individual in the school/college will have to be recognized. In other words,
there will be a change in the treatment of students as a homogeneous entity. Rapid growth in
information will result in the emergence, every now and then, of varied curricula for purposes
of re-education and retaining. The number of consumers will obviously be more than the
programmes available. In such a situation, the mode of the teaching/learning process cannot be
the one which is prevalent now, i.e., face-to-face. Obviously, a viable alternative mode is
distance education

Or
ANS 2 (B)
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS IN CURRICULUM OF PAKISTAN
Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the teaching
and learning process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be organized in order to
achieve students’ learning at the optimum level, and as to what amount of information they can
absorb in learning the various contents of the curriculum.
The following are some psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum
development:
1. BEHAVIORISM
Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject
matter is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of
drills and repetition are common.

For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and routine. Though many
are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the fact the influences it had in our educational
system.
2. COGNITIVISM
Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their
thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:
How do learners process and store information?
How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
How much information can they absorb?
With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and
popularize the use of reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning,
among others.

3. HUMANISM
Humanism is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl Rogers’
theory. This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential.
In this theory, curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not
on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental situations. In
short, curriculum views founded on humanism posits that learners are human beings who are
affected by their biology, culture, and environment. They are neither machines nor animals.
A more advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes human potential must be
crafted along this line. Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as well.

4. SOCIOLOGY AND CURRICULUM

There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the
school exists within the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that educate the
people, there are other units of society that educate or influence the way people think, such as
families and friends as well as communities.
Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are difficult to cope with and
to adjust to. But the schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one’s
country but in the world as well.
Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and
interdisciplinary. A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the explosion
of knowledge through the internet, and the educational reforms and policies recommended or
mandated by the United Nations.
However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a curriculum that reflects
and preserves its culture and aspirations for national identity. No matter how far people go, it is
the country’s responsibility to ensure that the school serves its purpose of educating the
citizenry.
In the main, there will be radical changes in the socio-academic ecology of school/college
environment. Barring a few, if any, schools/colleges have so far been functioning as bastions of
autocracy with little importance given to students' needs and teachers' competence. Because of
the changing societal needs and greater awareness of the need for purpose-oriented education,
the needs of every individual in the school/college will have to be recognized. In other words,
there will be a change in the treatment of students as a homogeneous entity. Rapid growth in
information will result in the emergence, every now and then, of varied curricula for purposes
of re-education and retaining. The number of consumers will obviously be more than the
programmes available. In such a situation, the mode of the teaching/learning process cannot be
the one which is prevalent now, i.e., face-to-face. Obviously, a viable alternative mode is
distance education

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