International Journal of Mathematical Education in

Science and Technology

ISSN: 0020-739X (Print) 1464-5211 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tmes20

A model of professional competences in

mathematics to update mathematical and didactic
knowledge of teachers

Verónica Díaz & Alvaro Poblete

To cite this article: Verónica Díaz & Alvaro Poblete (2016): A model of professional
competences in mathematics to update mathematical and didactic knowledge of
teachers, International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, DOI:
10.1080/0020739X.2016.1267808

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2016.1267808

Published online: 23 Dec 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 2

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tmes20

Download by: [Gazi Universitesi] Date: 27 December 2016, At: 23:44

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 
http://dx.doi.org/./X..

A model of professional competences in mathematics to

update mathematical and didactic knowledge of teachers
Verónica Díaz and Alvaro Poblete
Department of Exact Sciences, University of Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This paper describes part of a research and development project car- Received  April 
ried out in public elementary schools. Its objective was to update the
KEYWORDS
mathematical and didactic knowledge of teachers in two consecutive
Professional competences;
levels in urban and rural public schools of Region de Los Lagos and primary school teachers;
Region de Los Rios of southern Chile. To that effect, and by means of problem solving;
an advanced training project based on a professional competences mathematical competences;
model, didactic interventions based on types of problems and types didactic knowledge
of mathematical competences with analysis of contents and learning
assessment were designed. The teachers’ competence regarding the
didactic strategy used and its results, as well as the students’ learning
achievements are specified. The project made possible to validate a
strategy of lifelong improvement in mathematics, based on the pro-
fessional competences of teachers and their didactic transposition in
the classroom, as an alternative to consolidate learning in areas con-
sidered vulnerable in two regions of the country.

1. Introduction
It is clear that teachers are the key element of the educational system. They can guarantee
any reform process. According to [1], between school variables, the experience of teach-
ers has a continuous positive effect on student performance. Their influence is crucial in
the improvement of the educational system and in the accomplishment of the educational
objectives expected by the society. On the other hand, the role of teacher knowledge remains
central. According [2], what can be achieved depends mainly on what is known, and spe-
cialized content knowledge is key to the development of the connection between content
knowledge and teaching, and content and students [3]. This is why ensuring teacher com-
petence is essential.
There is an agreement in stating that a competent teacher should not only know their
subject but handle various teaching strategies that enable students to develop more com-
plex skills such as problem-solving, attitudes and motivation to participate in the society,
and becoming autonomous learners throughout their lives. All this has challenged the tra-
ditional institutions and practices of initial and lifelong training of teachers [4–6].
Our study is related to these aspects and shows the experience with teachers who teach
mathematics in vulnerable public primary schools in two regions of Chile.

CONTACT Verónica Díaz [email protected]

©  Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 V. DÍAZ AND A. POBLETE

The research question that led this study was: is it possible to validate a continuous train-
ing strategy in mathematics considering the professional competences of the teachers and
their didactic transposition into the classroom as an alternative for consolidating learning
in vulnerable school areas? From this research problem and to answer this question, we
designed a research and development project for two consecutive levels: seventh grade in
2013 and eighth grade in 2014.

1.1. Purpose of research

The general objectives for these projects were: (1) to improve mathematics and primary
teachers’ didactic competences and (2) to intervene the contents of the study programs
with a didactic analysis which considered the solution of different types of problems, exer-
cises and types of mathematics competences. The specific objectives included: (1) to elabo-
rate a didactic intervention strategy based on learning situations focused on solving differ-
ent types of problems and developing types of mathematics competences, (2) to elaborate
and validate assessment methods based on mathematics competences and types of context
problems, according to the fundamental and minimal contents of the current curricular
reform.

2. Theoretical background
Current educational reforms in Latin American point at the improvement of the peda-
gogical quality of education in general. Within the frame of primary schoolteaching many
efforts have been made to find ways of empowering educational institutions with the appro-
priate conditions to ensure the progress of feasible, efficient and long-term transformations
that enrich and update pedagogical practices. With the same purpose, measurement sys-
tems of quality of education have been implemented.
In recent years, many Latin American countries have participated in the Third Interna-
tional Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) [7] and in the Program for International
Student Assessment (PISA) [6,8,9]. However, the low results obtained in mathematics by
Chilean students place this country in the lowest positions of these international compar-
ative studies. As a consequence, and considering reforms in other countries, some ques-
tions to explain these results emerge: does this depend on students’ characteristics? On
the teachers’ competences regarding the didactics for teaching mathematics? Or on the
didactic management in the classroom? The centralized assessment systems in each coun-
try are not designed to answer these types of questions. They only show the achievement
in terms of percentages across subjects that result in difference rates within the rankings
themselves.
The theoretical framework that was used in this research was built on two pillars as
they are, on the one hand, the Anthropological Theory of Didactics of Chevallard [10],
that focuses on the subject doing mathematics and takes into account the different con-
texts, which lead to the manipulation of mathematical objects, places that Gascon [11] calls
institutions, and on the other hand, the Competence Approach as a scientific concept devel-
oped by a social science like such as Didactics of Mathematics aimed at the integral per-
sonal development oriented towards professional, social and civic skills, based on lifelong
learning [12].
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 3

Diaz and Poblete’s [33] type of training based on a mathematical model of professional
competences in mathematics (MCPM) that includes teaching with an emphasis on skill
development and problem-solving aimed at improving teaching practices was designed.
Nowadays, there are many definitions and typologies of competence, as well as compe-
tence assessing models. From Perrenoud’s [13] perspective, this concept is related to the
process of activation of knowledge, abilities and strategies in a wide variety of contexts, and
especially in problematic situations. This author considers 10 professional competences
from which other more specific ones are derived to be used for lifelong learning. These
include organizing and encouraging learning situations, administering the learning pro-
gression, elaborating and updating differentiation methods and including students in their
own learning and work [14].

2.1. Model of mathematics professional competences

The fundamental professional competences of this study are part of an MCPM that
was previously validated and assessed by means of the execution of the research project
(Fondecyt N° 1010980) [15]. In this model (Figure 1), the mathematics teacher’s compe-
tences are defined as the effective and efficient abilities acquired when teaching mathemat-
ics with quality, in order to ensure a good formative educational performance. According
to the model, general and specific competences, competence context frames and qualitative
dimensions related to the concept of quality arise.
Competence is related to competence context frames of the mathematics teacher,
constituted by mathematics, didactics, cross-curricular and evolving content objectives

Figure . Model of professional competences in mathematics (MCPM).

4 V. DÍAZ AND A. POBLETE

that teachers apply in the classroom. These frames are constituted by mathematics
content knowledge, didactics of the know-how to do of pedagogical practice, of the
teaching–learning process, and assessing, of cross-curricular value aspects, and the evolv-
ing and adaptive know-how to be, related with projective, cultural and contextual
aspects.
Consequently, frames are characterized by professional performance quality dimen-
sions, which are also related to relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, efficacy, processes and
resources. The link between context frames, general and specific competences regarding
quality and its dimensions, and the ways in which they are connected and represented allow
mathematics teachers to conduct educational practices in which their competences can be
demonstrated [16].

... General competences and specific competences

Examples of general competence and specific the following: the ability to develop an eth-
ical training in the student; the capacity collaborative team work and professional work;
the ability to apply disciplinary knowledge; the ability to achieve an adaptation, updating
and projection as professor of mathematics. Examples of specific competences: the ability
to plan teaching activities in mathematics; the capacity to use varied teaching strategies;
the ability to promote learning by problem-solving in mathematics; the ability to present
mathematical ideas and the ability to use updated assessment methods.
Significant competition, in this study, was the ability to promote learning problem-
solving in mathematics, with the understanding that this competence is also a methodology
that has implications on how to work with students.

2.2. Types of problems and types of mathematics competences

In Chile, problem-solving is considered both a means and an end for good mathematics
education [17]. References [18] and [19] recognize that attempts to teach students strategies
to solve general problems have not been successful. Besides, it is important to highlight the
lack of attention to learning heuristic problem solving strategies in textbooks [20,21]. The
need to solve problems in mathematical or real life contexts, as it is made explicit in the
TIMSS [22], is very unlikely for students to be faced with similar items [23].
Moreover, the results in PISA [24–26] have highlighted the importance of solving math-
ematical problems in compulsory education. The problems are frequently used in mathe-
matics to present and convey new concepts and skills. Therefore, teachers transform and
adapt their problems at school [27]. For Blanco, Guerrero and Caballero [28], elementary
teachers consider the resolution of problems in mathematics as a mnemonic, mechanical
process, with few resources to represent and analyse problems without seeking strategies or
alternative methods for their solution. They do not make use of various guidelines and tips
that can be given to help to reach a solution [29,30] which generates a vision of themselves
as incompetent problem solvers [31].
The implemented didactic strategy included both the didactic treatment of mathematics
contents and the assessment of learning based on the following classification of types of
problems and types of competences in mathematics.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 5

... Types of problems

Routine Problems are those for which students know a pre-established routine to solve them.

r A routine problem under its context is defined as Real Problem if it occurs in real life
and triggers the students’ action in that situation.
r A routine problem under its context is defined as Realist Problem if it is one that is
likely to occur. It is a simulation of reality or a part of reality.
r A routine problem under its context is defined as Fantasist Problem if it is one that
originates in imagination and has no relation with reality.
r A routine problem under its context is defined as Purely Mathematical if it is exclu-
sively referred to mathematical objectives: numbers, relationships and arithmetic
operations, geometric figures, etc.

Non-Routine Problems occur if a student does not know a pre-established answer, pro-
cedure or routine to find the answer [32].

... Types of mathematics competences

r Type 1 competence: Knowledge and development of mathematical procedures, which

include understanding and managing mathematical concepts extension and mathe-
matical argumentation. Basically, it is related to most common calculation problem
definitions that arise in typical mathematical assessments.
r Type 2 competence: Routine problem-solving that includes setting, formulating and
solving types of routine problems such as real context, realist, fantasist and purely
mathematical problems that require making links in order to solve them.
r Type 3 competence: Non-routine problem setting and solving, which considers decod-
ing of the different methodologies for presenting mathematical situations, translating
natural language into symbolic/formal language, i.e. it consists on the mathematical
thinking that entails a generalization capacity [33].

3. Methodology
This research is part of a larger project (Fondecyt N°1040035) funded by the National Com-
mission for Scientific and Technological Research CONICYT Chile, and was conducted in
the area of Mathematics Education at Universidad de Los Lagos.
Due to the nature of this project, in which the process and the product are important,
quantitative–descriptive and a qualitative–interpretative methodologies were used. For this
study, the population consisted on public (municipal) primary urban and rural schools of
Region de Los Lagos and Region de Los Rios, in the south of Chile. Regarding the eighth
grade, 71 schools, 121 teachers and 4500 students were part of this research during 2014.
Regarding the seventh grade, 46 schools, included 43 teachers and 2200 students who par-
ticipated in the project during 2013. All the teachers who taught mathematics in these lev-
els were not specialists in teaching mathematics. To develop this project, a yearly advanced
training course was designed in each province of Region de los Lagos and Region de los
Rios.
6 V. DÍAZ AND A. POBLETE

The didactic methodology used considered two specific situations. The first situation:
the didactic interaction in the classroom focused on the teachers’ performance in the
advanced training course. This was developed in a systematic way with a weekly four-hour
lesson, and considered the instruction contents of the national curriculum, delivered in the
form of exercises, problem situations based on types of problems and on types of mathe-
matic competences.
The second situation was the teachers’ didactic transposition [34] in the classroom and
the activities developed in the project. Counselling or school assistance was given once
a week by certified secondary mathematics teachers who hold a master in mathematics.
On the one hand, the final outcome of counselling was to have an approach to the teach-
ers inside the classroom, with a clear support for the teaching practice. Another outcome
included the monitoring of the transference through the didactic practice to the students
in the schools involved.
The training model, as a whole, considered a conception of mathematics teaching that
related teaching contents and solving exercises, types of problems and types of mathe-
matics competences, in order to gain contextualized access to the concepts proposed in
the new curriculum. Methods centred on the teachers were used, generating discussions
within groups and providing opportunities for interaction between them. The training
was implemented considering a constructivist learning perspective and was supported
by instructional materials created by teachers themselves as an effective means to these
ends.
Group activities that included handouts and their assessment were carried out, as well
as the development of handouts, didactic materials and formative assessment of the stu-
dents for the schools involved in the project. Different generic activities were randomly
distributed; each group designed their own activities and their assessment, and presented
them at the end of the lessons with the support of audio–visual resources. This work was
maintained and registered during the entire execution of the project. In addition, monitor-
ing of the study included classroom observation.

4. Results
A questionnaire with 11 items to measure the skills of the teachers who taught mathematics,
based on the MCPM, was created and validated by experts. This was administered as a pre-
test and post-test. The first item was related to the knowledge of mathematical meaning of
problem-solving.
The second one was about didactic knowledge of mathematical content, assessed
through its application in all the teaching units. Specifically, answers to the following ques-
tions are asked.
For each of the following curricular units: Unit I of Numbers, Unit II of Geometry, Unit
III of Data and Randomness and Unit III of Algebra
(1) ‘Indicate its mathematical meaning.’
(2) ‘Formulate and solve one problem situation.’

The third, fourth and fifth ones dealt with the know-how of didactics methodology,
through the following questions:
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7

(1) ‘Indicate how you adapted in your classroom these mathematical contents, which
are also in the national curriculum.’
(2) ‘In relation to the four units, explain how to contextualize these mathematical con-
tents.’
(3) ‘What model and way of teaching you know and use?’
(4) ‘As you incorporate the use of new technologies in teaching and learning of mathe-
matics.’

Items six, seven and eight are related to the assessment of learning. They were consulted
on the evaluation model they use in their lessons and knowledge of assessment models in
general. A list of propositions was also given for the purpose of recognition as principles of
assessment for learning in mathematics.
Item nine is related to being a teacher, by linking the cross-curricular objectives of the
educational reform with the teaching of mathematics.
Finally, items 10th and 11th were related to the know-how to be of teachers, regarding
their role in education and their future projection be of the teachers regarding their role in
education and their future projection.
A test of mathematical competence was also administered with 21 problems. This test
included all units in the official curriculum proposals: Numbers, Geometry, Data and Ran-
domness, Algebra. These four units were discussed in detail during training and according
to the project objectives. Problem-solving was included transversely through the project.
Examples of questions of greater difficulty in its resolution, the test applied mathematical
competences as pre-test and post-test:
r ‘An artificial lake has a capacity of 0.19 km3 . If it is now at 28% capacity, how many
liters of water contain?’
r ‘A man has lost the receipt of the urban contribution to his house, for the year 2012.
You need a receipt for your income tax return 2013. The Internal Revenue Service
it announced that taxes the houses only been updated, applying an increase of 4%.
Knowing that 2010 has paid $ 240.950 contribution, what is the appropriate amount
to the next year?’
r ‘Let a, b and c three real numbers such that a <b <c. If the median between them is
10, how much is b?’
r ‘In a bakery they are preparing to change the remuneration of sellers. Then the fol-
lowing two options that can be chosen by the vendors present’.

Option 1: A base compensation of $ 250,000, plus a 0.6% commission on sales, where

the price of a unit of bread is $ 84.
Option 2: The salary is calculated by the expression y = 0.7 x + 220.000, where x rep-
resents the total of breads sold in one month and y represents the salary received by the
seller.
According to the options presented above, answer the following questions:

(1) If, in any month selling bread is zero, determine how much money would earn a
seller to choose options 1 and 2.
8 V. DÍAZ AND A. POBLETE

(2) What is the option that best suits a seller if it sells 40,000 loaves on average? Justify.
(3) If two vendors took different options, how much bread would have to sell to earn
the same?

r ‘Mario and Sebastian participate in a game where each must draw two balls as follows:
take the first, without returning it to the ballot box, then pulls the second. In the urn
there are 4 blue balls, 2 white and 3 red. Is it true that the probability of drawing two
red 3 balls is less than the probability of drawing two white? Justify.’

At the end of each of the teaching units of the curriculum, summative assessments to the
teachers were carried out. These were always built including the previous units. Following
these assessments, teachers were given feedback, in order to ensure update and effective
teaching of mathematical knowledge to students. In this article, for reasons of space and
quantity of information, the results of the two participating regions of the project are briefly
presented.

4.1. The use of technology

Whereas the use of technology in teaching and learning gives the ability to dynamically
handle mathematical objects in multiple records of representation within interactive dia-
grams, difficult to achieve with traditional media such as pencil and paper to unit geometry,
workshops were implemented using the software GeoGebra.
They noticeably improved understanding of geometrical concepts and their understand-
ing of Euclidean geometry in motion was deeper, using context problem situations of daily
life about isometric transformations and tessellations. It was important for the results with
students using software as support geometry.

4.2. Of the instruments

Regarding the mathematical competence test, reliability based on homogeneity was esti-
mated with Cronbach Alpha, and were significant for teachers: pre and post-test reached
0.86 and 0.89, respectively. In statistical analyses using Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, the
results show a level of significance of 5%, the assumption of normality of the scores of pre-
test and post-test is verified for teachers (p > 0.05). At a level of 5%, the results of Student’s
t-test show that there are statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) between the average
of the pre-test and post-test scores.

4.3. Of the achievements level

Figure 2 accounts for the increase in the level of achievement in mathematics competences,
achieved by teachers in both measurements at the beginning and end of the training in the
region of Los Lagos in the math competences.
On average, the increased achievement on mathematical competence of all teachers eval-
uated in the four provinces in the region Los Lagos is 37%.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 9

Figure . Results pre-test and post-test in math competence.

In an overall analysis and considering the results in the four provinces of one region
of the country, teachers showed strength in the unit of numbers and arithmetic opera-
tions except the operations of percentages. They expressed serious difficulties in problem-
solving in general, and in the units of data and randomness, and in the unit of algebra in
particular.
Regarding the professional competences of teachers, after the training, results between
the pre-test and post-test were compared, classroom observations were analysed, and
according to the types of preferred competences, a quantitative and qualitative improve-
ment of the competences of teachers was verified. The differences mainly show the improve-
ment of three specific competences: ability to use different teaching strategies, ability to
promote learning in mathematics problem-solving and ability to use updated assessment
methods.
Regarding general competences, a significant increase was found in the ability to apply
disciplinary knowledge concerning the pedagogical and didactic know-how to do, and the
teaching–learning know-how. This helped to increase the relevance of learning the disci-
pline through the contents, allowing making the unpacking of prior and alternative beliefs
observed in the first test easier. The ability of collaborative and team work in their profes-
sional practice was observed. This allowed them to reflect together, discuss, identify prob-
lems, experiment different solutions and assess these solutions.
During the implementation of the project the teachers showed an increasing interest on
the contents discussed. They also demonstrated an increased ability to recognize relation-
ships and to transform data from a given context problem from one way into another. Thus,
teachers could understand the meaning and significance of algebra and geometry concepts.
10 V. DÍAZ AND A. POBLETE

Gradually, teachers improved their mathematical processing using quick and exact calcu-
lations, and demonstrated their ability to follow certain reasoning, setting and solving rou-
tine problems, mainly of a purely real and realistic context; they also showed competences
of knowledge and development of mathematics procedures (Type 1) and routine problem-
solving (Type 2) exclusively.

5. Conclusions and pedagogical implications

Through the development, implementation, and application of this research and develop-
ment project, it is possible to come to the conclusion that it is possible to train primary
school on-service teachers who do not have a specialization on mathematics. It is also pos-
sible to improve the competences of mathematics teachers by changing their pedagogical
practices, intervening with didactic analysis of the whole curriculum, considering a model
of teachers’ professional competences [33,35,36] including the use of technology.
For its development, a training model that acknowledges achievements, focuses on prac-
tice and has allowed the implementation of theory in the classroom has been used. The
results include several methods and strategies that were used and successful in previous
projects, but at a different level of analysis. These methods include feedback, improving the
problem-solving skill, pedagogical support domains and lesson planning.
As a result of this training teachers showed a pedagogical change that could be
observed in their lesson planning and their didactic approaches they used. All partici-
pants met the requirements of attendance and performance. The dropout rate was lower
than 8%.
The intensive and face-to-face training allowed to meet the expectations focused on
facilitating team work and constructivist learning. Based on the Anthropological Theory
of Didactics, the teaching intention was displayed using a methodology that allowed the
comprehension of mathematical knowledge. This is why it is necessary to formulate the
teaching proposal from the curriculum. Moreover, the proposed activities were useful to
clarify what had already been learned and to promote the use and integration of knowl-
edge, which was consequently transferred to the classroom. It is important to observe that,
according to this theory, mathematical sets are composed by a practical section or know-
how, composed by the types of activities (tasks) and the techniques, and a theoretical section
or knowledge, composed by the theoretical and technological foundations that underpin
practice.
On the other hand, the implementation of a methodology based on solving problems,
exercises and types of mathematical competences, guaranteed an important increase in the
professional competence of teachers that work in schools with a high percentage of vul-
nerable population. Thus, in general, the project was successful due to the organization of
mathematical operations, the selection of the most efficient method to analyse, understand
the core of the problem and control the operations. However, knowing what to do is not
enough. It is necessary to know when to use similar strategies.
This line of research, focusing on improving the competences of teachers, solving prob-
lems of learning and teaching in mathematics education in fourth, seventh and eighth year
of primary school, has proven to be in the right path regarding the validation of didac-
tic strategies, development of teaching and assessment materials, and a training model for
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 11

teachers. However, some language problems that influence the development of mathemat-
ical abilities, specifically problem-solving, remain.
Progressing from specific and relatively complete mathematical curricular organiza-
tions, in the sense that they included more integrated types of tasks, the use of differ-
ent techniques enhancing the ability to solve problems, certainly helped to update the
mathematic and didactic knowledge and consequently improve the mathematics teachers’
competences, through the use of a Model of Professional Competences in Mathematics.
Considering the results obtained by teachers in the project, we can indicate that it is pos-
sible to update mathematical and didactic knowledge of teachers who teach mathematics
in primary education in public schools through training using an MCPM.
Finally, one of the political implications of the results of this research and develop-
ment project probably is that the mathematic training should be intensive, face-to-face and
include classroom counselling. We must admit that this type of training is more expensive,
but we dare to guarantee that the results will be much better in terms of student learning
and development of teaching competences.

ORCID
Verónica Díaz http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6428-2711
Alvaro Poblete http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0907-5095

References
[1] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Regional report on edu-
cation for all in Latin American and the Caribbean: challenges in education beyond. Paris:
UNESCO; 2015.
[2] Schoenfeld A. Reflections on problem solving theory and practice. The Mathematics Enthusi-
ast. 2013;10(1–2):9–34.
[3] Climent N, Romero-Cortés JM, Carrillo J, et al. [What mobilize knowledge and future teach-
ers conceptions analyzing classroom video?]. Revista Latinoamericana de Investigación en
Matemática Educativa. 2013;16(1):13–36. Spanish.
[4] Darling-Hammond L. Constructing twenty-first century teacher education. J Teach Educ.
2006;57(3):300–314.
[5] Darling-Hammond L, Ching R, Johnson CM. Teacher preparation and teacher learning: a
changing policy landscape. In: Sykes G, Schneider B, Plank D, editors. Handbook of educa-
tion policy research. New York (NY): American Educational ResearchAssociation, Routledge;
2007, p. 613–636.
[6] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. PISA 2009 assessment frame-
work – key competencies in reading, mathematics and science. Paris: OECD; 2009.
[7] Beaton A, Mullis IVS, Martin MO, et al. TIMSS assessment frameworks and specifications
2003. Chestnut Hill (MA): Boston College: International Study Center; 2003.
[8] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Assessing scientific, reading and
mathematical literacy: a framework for PISA 2006. Paris: OECD; 2006.
[9] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development: PISA 2012 results in focus what
15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they know. Paris: OECD; 2012.
[10] Chevallard Y. [Analysis of teaching practices in anthropological theory of didactics].
Recherches en Didactique des Mathématiques.1999;19(2):221–266. French.
[11] Gascón J. [Evolution of mathematics education as a scientific discipline]. Recherches en Didac-
tique des Mathématiques. 1998;18(1):7–34. Spanish.
12 V. DÍAZ AND A. POBLETE

[12] Gascón J. [What problem arises approach by competences? an analysis from the anthropo-
logical theory of didactics]. Recherches en Didactique des Mathématiques. 2011;31(1):9–50.
Spanish.
[13] Perrenoud P. Construire des compétentes des l´école [Build school competences].Ginebra:
Education Sans Frontieres; 1998.
[14] Perrenoud P. Diez Nuevas Competencias para enseñar. Invitación al viaje [Ten new compe-
tences to teach. Invitation to travel].Barcelona: Graó; 2004.
[15] Poblete A, Díaz V. Evaluation of professional competences math teacher in the context of edu-
cational reform, Santiago: University of Los Lagos, National Commission for Scientific and
Technological Research; 2007.
[16] Díaz V. The Evaluation of the professor of mathematics and quality of education. Paper
presented at: 11th International Congress in Mathematics Education; 2008 July 6–13;
Monterrey.
[17] Ministerio de Educación. Fundamentos bases curriculares 2014: Matemática [Fundamentals
curricular bases 2014: mathematics]. Santiago: Universitaria; 2015.
[18] Castro E. [Solving problem, ideas, trends and influences in Spain]. Paper presented at: XII
Simposio de la Sociedad Española de Investigación en Educación Matemática; 2008 Sept 4–6;
Badajoz. Spanish.
[19] Santos M. La resolución de problemas matemáticos. Fundamentos cognitivos [Solving math-
ematical problems. cognitive foundations]. México: Trillas; 2007.
[20] Schoenfeld A. How we think: a theory of human decision-making with educational applica-
tions. New York (NY): Routledge; 2010.
[21] Pino J, Blanco LJ. [Analysis of the problems of mathematics textbooks for students 12 to
14 years old from Spain and Chile in relation to the contents of proportionality]. Publicaciones.
2008;38:63–88. Spanish.
[22] Martin MO, Mullis IVS, González EJ, et al. TIMSS 2003 technical report. Chestnut Hill (MA):
Boston College: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center; 2004.
[23] Díaz V, Poblete A. Training in mathematics based on competences: successful experiences in
Chilean schools. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of Education, Research and
Innovation; 2015 Nov 16–18; Seville: University of Seville (IATED Academy); 2015.
[24] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. PISA 2006: science competencies
for tomorrow’s world. Vol. 1. Paris: OECD; 2007.
[25] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. PISA 2009 results: learning
trends: changes in student performance since 2000. Vol. 5. Paris: OECD; 2010.
[26] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. PISA 2012 results: creative
problem solving: students’ skills in tackling real-life problems. Vol. 5. Paris: OECD;
2014.
[27] Kuzniak A, Parzysz B, Vivier L. Trajectory of a problem: a study in teacher training. The Math-
ematics Enthusiast. 2013;10(1–2):407–440.
[28] Blanco LJ, Guerrero E, Caballero A. Cognition and affect in mathematics problem solving with
prospective teachers. The Mathematics Enthusiast. 2013;10(1–2):335–364.
[29] Blanco LJ. [Problem solving and the initial practical and theoretical education of teachers in
Spain]. Math Teach Educ Develop. 2004;6:37–48. Spanish.
[30] Córcoles AC, Valls J. [Virtual debates and conceptions of students to master troubleshooting].
Zetetiké. 2006;14(25):7–28. Spanish.
[31] National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Standards secondary mathematics teachers.
Reston (VA): The Council; 2003.
[32] Díaz V, Poblete A. [Contextualizing types of mathematical problems in the classroom].
Números: RDidácticaMat. 2001;45:33–41. Spain.
[33] Díaz V, Poblete A. [Competences and didactic transposition: binomial for effective improve-
ment in mathematics]. Rev Invest Postgrad. 2009;24(2):77–107. Spanish.
[34] Chevallard Y.[The didactic transposition: knowledge to knowledge taught savant]. Revue
FrancaisePédagogie. 1991;76(1):89–91.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 13

[35] Diaz V, Poblete A. [Competences in mathematics teachers and teaching strategy in the
context of educational reform]. Rev Numeros. 2007. Available from: http://www.sinewton.org/
numeros/numeros/68/investigacion_01.pdf. Spain.
[36] Diaz V, Poblete A. [Mathematical improvement based on competences for public elementary
schoolteachers from Region de Los Lagos and Los Ríos]. Rev Educ Stud. 2009;35(2):13–34.
Spain.