Control-Systems - FINAL -محاضرات 2019-2020

‫ زياد سعيد دمحم السليم‬.
‫ د‬: ‫ مدرش المادة‬-‫ المرحلت الثالثت –قسم هندست تقنياث الحاسوب‬Control Engineering Fundamentals
-0202-0202 ‫ قسم هندست تقنياث االجهسة الطبيت‬-‫ المرحلت الرابعت‬Control Systems ‫الموصل‬/‫الكليت التقنيت الهندسيت‬
No. of week hours
Department: Medical 30 Weeks Th. App. Unit

Instrumentation
Engineering Technology 2 2
Fourth Year Subject: Control System (Theoretical)
‫ التعرف على انظمة الديطرة الطوعية وطرق‬. ‫ يعتبر التعرف على مكونات دوائر الديطرة و أنواع المديطرات و استخداماتها و دوائرها التطبيقية‬:‫أهداف المادة‬
‫تحليلها وتمثيلها وتطبيقاتها العملية في المجاالت الهندسية‬
Week Syllabus
1st Introduction to control system, open and closed loop system.
Mathematical modeling of physical systems and transfer functions,

2nd , 3rd, 4th, 5th
Mathematical modeling of D.C. Servo Motor.
6th, 7th , 8th Transfer function, block diagram representation and reduction diagram.
9th ,10th , 11th Time domain analysis, steady–state transient analysis.
12th , 13th, 14th Stability analysis and Routh stability criteria.
15th, 16th Root Locus Technique.
17th , 18th Frequency domain analysis, phase margin and bode plot.
19th , 20th Frequency domain synthesis, phase lead.
21st, 22nd, Compensation, phase–lag compensation lag–lead compensation.
P, PI, PD, and PID Modes of Feedback Control, Realization of PID Controller
23rd, 24th
Using Active and Passive Elements.
25th, 26th , 27th Control system design using root locus method.
28th , 29th Control system design using root locus method.
30th Definitions of Nonlinear System.
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‫ زياد سعيد دمحم السليم‬.‫ د‬: ‫ مدرش المادة‬-‫ المرحلت الثالثت –قسم هندست تقنياث الحاسوب‬Control Engineering Fundamentals
References:
Northern Technical University:
1.Feedback control system and synthesis: By J J .Dazzo
2. Modern control engineering: By OGATA. Engineering Technical College:
3. Automatic control engineering By: Francis Raven.
4. Linear control system By: B.S.Manke. Dept.: Medical Instruments Eng. Technology
5.Feedback and control system .SCHAUM’S OUTLINE
Stage: Fourth class
Instructor name: Dr. Ziad Saeed.Mohammed
Course Instructor Dr. Ziad Saeed Mohammed
E-mail [email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Title Control System
Course Coordinator
Course Objective
Course Description
Text Book
References
Term Test Laboratory Quizzes Project Final Exam

Course Assessments
As ( %) As ( %) As ( %) As ( %) As ( %)
General Notes Type here general notes regarding the course
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Control Systems – Introduction:

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output.
The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.
Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal.
This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant
produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which we discussed
earlier is an example of an open loop control system.
In closed loop control systems, output is feedback to the input. So, the control action is
dependent on the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control system.
The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and
the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by
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considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input,
the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination, the
output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response. Hence,
the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic lights
control system having sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop control system.
The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in the
following table.
Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems
Control action is independent of the desired Control action is dependent of the desired
output. output.
Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.
These are also called as non-feedback control These are also called as feedback control
systems. systems.
Easy to design. Difficult to design.
These are economical. These are costlier.
Inaccurate. Accurate.
Control Systems – Feedback:

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as
part of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role in order
to improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the types of
feedback & effects of feedback.
Types of Feedback: There are two types of feedback:
Positive feedback
Negative feedback
Positive Feedback:
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output. The following figure
shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.
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The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being, consider
the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,
T=G/1−GH (Equation 1)
Where,
T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.
G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system output. The
following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.
Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

T=G/1+GH (Equation 2)
Where,
T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
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The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.
Effects of Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain:
From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control
system is the ratio of ‘G’ and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending
on the value of (1+GH).
If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, ‘GH’ value is
negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case, ‘GH’ value
is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.
In general, ‘G’ and ‘H’ are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall
gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.
Effect of Feedback on Stability

A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control
system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system stable.
Effect of Feedback on Noise:

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with and
without feedback due to noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

C(s)/N(s)=Gb (Equation 3)
It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.
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Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

C(s)/N(s)=Gb/1+GaGbH (Equation 4)
It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.
Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor
of (1+GaGbH) provided that the term (1+GaGbH) is greater than one.
Control Systems - Mathematical Models:

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and mathematical
model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when we know the
input and the output.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
Differential equation model
Transfer function model
State space model
Let us discuss the first two models in this chapter.
Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow
these steps for differential equation model.
Apply basic laws to the given control system.Get the differential equation in terms of input and
output by eliminating the intermediate variable(s).
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Example
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The
input voltage applied to this circuit is Vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output
voltage Vo.
Mesh equation for this circuit is

Vi =Ri +L di/dt + Vo
Substitute, the current passing through capacitor i =C dVo /dt in the above equation.
⇒Vi =RC dVo /dt +LCd2Vo /dt2+ Vo
⇒d2Vo/dt2+(RL)dVo /dt +(1/LC)Vo = (1/LC)Vi
The above equation is a second order differential equation.
Transfer Function Model
Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The Transfer
function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of
output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X(s) and Y(s).
Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s) and X(s).
i.e., Transfer Function =Y(s)/X(s)
The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.
Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this
block has an input X(s) & output Y(s).
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Example
Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as
d2Vo/dt2+(RL)dVo /dt +(1/LC)Vo = (1/LC)Vi
Apply Laplace transform on both sides.
S2 Vo(s)+(SRL)Vo(s)+(1/LC)Vo(s)=(1/LC)Vi(s)
⇒{S2 +(RL)S+1/LC}Vo(s)=(1/LC)Vi(s)
⇒Vo(s)/Vi(s)=1/[LCS2 +(RL)S+1/LC]
Where,
Vi(s) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage Vi
Vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage Vo
The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer
function model of this system is shown below.
Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function inside
it. And this block has an input Vi(s) & an output Vo(s).
Modeling of Mechanical Systems:

In this chapter, let us discuss the differential equation modeling of mechanical systems. There
are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.
Translational mechanical systems.
Rotational mechanical systems.
Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems:

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of
three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.
If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing forces
due to mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the opposing
forces are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero.
Let us now see the force opposed by these three elements individually.
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Mass
Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a body
having mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is
proportional to the acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
Fm∝a
⇒Fm=Ma=Md2x/dt2
F=Fm=Md2x/dt2
Where,
F is the applied force
Fm is the opposing force due to mass
M is mass
a is acceleration
x is displacement
Spring
Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it is
opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional to
the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are negligible.
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F∝x
⇒Fk=Kx
F=Fk=Kx
Where,
F is the applied force
Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
K is spring constant
x is displacement
Dashpot
If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of the
dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass and
elasticity are negligible.
Fb∝ν
⇒Fb=Bν=Bdx/dt
F=Fb=Bdx/dt
Where,
Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot
B is the frictional coefficient
v is velocity
x is displacement
Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three
basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.
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If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing torques
due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied torque and the
opposing torques are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is
zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements individually.
Moment of Inertia
In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.
If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing
torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to angular
acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
Tj∝α
⇒Tj=Jα=Jd2θdt2
T=Tj=Jd2θdt2
Where,
T is the applied torque
Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of inertia
J is moment of inertia
α is angular acceleration
θ is angular displacement
Torsional Spring
In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.
If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacement
of the torsional spring. Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are negligible.
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Tk∝θ
⇒Tk=Kθ
T=Tk=Kθ
Where,
T is the applied torque
Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional spring
K is the torsional spring constant
θ is angular displacement
Dashpot
If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to
the rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
velocity of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.
Tb∝ω
⇒Tb=Bω=Bdθdt
T=Tb=Bdθdt
Where,
Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot
B is the rotational friction coefficient
ω is the angular velocity
θ is the angular displacement
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Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions are satisfied.
The two systems are physically different
Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There are two
types of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force voltage
analogy and force current analogy.
Force Voltage Analogy
In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical system are
compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in the following figure.
The force balanced equation for this system is

F=Fm+Fb+Fk
⇒F=M d2x/dt2 +B dx/dt +Kx (Equation 1)
of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in a series.
The input voltage applied to this circuit is V volts and the current flowing through the circuit
is i Amps.
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Mesh equation for this circuit is
V=Ri+Ldi/dt+1/c∫idt (Equation 2)
Substitute, i =dq/dt in Equation 2.
V=Rdq/dt+Ld2q/dt2+q/C
⇒V=Ld2q/dt2+Rdq/dt+(1/c)q (Equation 3)
By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.
Translational Mechanical System Electrical System
Force(F) Voltage(V)
Mass(M) Inductance(L)
Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)
Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)
Displacement(x) Charge(q)
Velocity(v) Current(i)
of current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in
parallel.
The nodal equation is

i=VR+1L∫Vdt+CdV/dt (Equation 4)
Substitute, V=dΨ/dt in Equation 4.
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i=1RdΨdt+(1L)Ψ+Cd2Ψ/dt2
⇒i=Cd2Ψ/dt2+(1R)dΨ/dt+(1L)Ψ (Equation 5)
Control Systems - Block Diagrams

Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to
represent the control systems in pictorial form.
Basic Elements of Block Diagram
The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off point.
Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the following
figure to identify these elements.
The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is
also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the flow
of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.
Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and
single output.
The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function
G(s).
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Transfer Function, G(s)=Y(s)/X(s)
⇒Y(s)=G(s)X(s)
Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.
Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more
inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based on
the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y
as sum of A and B.
i.e., Y = A + B.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is
having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of A and
B.
Y = A + (-B) = A - B.
The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the
summing point produces the output Y as
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Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
Take-off Point
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more than
one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to one or
more blocks, summing points.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two more
blocks.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the inputs
to the summing point.
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Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems

In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram. Electrical systems
contain mainly three basic elements — resistor, inductor and capacitor.
Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in the following figure. Where, Vi(t) and Vo(t) are the
input and output voltages. Let i(t) be the current passing through the circuit. This circuit is in
time domain.
By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The circuit is
as shown in the following figure.
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From the above circuit, we can write

I(s)=Vi(s)−Vo(s)R+sL
⇒I(s)={1R+sL}{Vi(s)−Vo(s)} (Equation 1)
Vo(s)=(1sC)I(s) (Equation 2)
Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And then combine
those block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of series of RLC Circuit
(s-domain).
Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, 1R+sL. The input and
output of this block are {Vi(s)−Vo(s)} and I(s). We require a summing point to
get {Vi(s)−Vo(s)}. The block diagram of Equation 1 is shown in the following figure.
Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, 1sC. The input and
output of this block are I(s) and Vo(s). The block diagram of Equation 2 is shown in the
following figure.
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The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in the following
figure.
Similarly, you can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system just by following
this simple procedure.
Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical circuit by applying
Laplace transform.
Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch elements and voltage
across all shunt branches.
Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.
Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of the
electrical circuit (s-domain).
Control Systems - Block Diagram Algebra

Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of the block
diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.
Basic Connections for Blocks
There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.
Series Connection
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two blocks having
transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in series.
For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

Y(s)=G2(s)Z(s)
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Where, Z(s)=G1(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s)=G2(s)[G1(s)X(s)]=G1(s)G2(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s)={G1(s)G2(s)}X(s)
Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, Y(s)=G(s)X(s).
Where, G(s)=G1(s)G2(s).
That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two blocks.
The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’ blocks.
Parallel Connection
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following figure,
two blocks having transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in parallel. The outputs of
these two blocks are connected to the summing point.
For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

Y(s)=Y1(s)+Y2(s)
Where, Y1(s)=G1(s)X(s) and Y2(s)=G2(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s)=G1(s)X(s)+G2(s)X(s)={G1(s)+G2(s)}X(s)
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Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, Y(s)=G(s)X(s).
Where, G(s)=G1(s)+G2(s).
That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two blocks.
The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’ blocks.
Feedback Connection
As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive feedback and
negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here, two
blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s) form a closed loop.
The output of the summing point is -

E(s)=X(s)−H(s)Y(s)
The output Y(s) is -
Y(s)=E(s)G(s)
Substitute E(s) value in the above equation.
Y(s)={X(s)−H(s)Y(s)}G(s)}
Y(s){1+G(s)H(s)}=X(s)G(s)}
⇒Y(s)/X(s)=G(s)/1+G(s)H(s)
Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is G(s)/1+G(s)H(s)
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This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the positive
feedback, i.e., G(s)/1−G(s)H(s)
Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points
There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks −
Shifting summing point after the block
Shifting summing point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases one by one.
Shifting Summing Point After the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is present
before the block.
Summing point has two inputs R(s) and X(s). The output of it is {R(s)+X(s)}.
So, the input to the block G(s) is {R(s)+X(s)} and the output of it is –
Y(s)=G(s){R(s)+X(s)}
⇒Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s) (Equation 1)
Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.
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Output of the block G(s) is G(s)R(s).

The output of the summing point is
Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s) (Equation 2)
Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the second
term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block G(s). It is having the
input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of X(s). This
block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is present
after the block.
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Output of this block diagram is -

Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s) (Equation 3)
Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.
Output of this block diagram is -

Y(S)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s) (Equation 4)
Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the second term.
In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block 1G(s). It is having the
input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of X(s). This
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Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks −
Shifting take-off point after the block
Shifting take-off point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements are to be done in the above two cases, one by one.
Shifting Take-off Point After the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off point is
present before the block.
Here, X(s)=R(s) and Y(s)=G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there is
difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s) value, we require one more
block 1/G(s). It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown in
the following figure.
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Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is present
after the block.
Here, X(s)=Y(s)=G(s)R(s)
When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there is
difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require one more block G(s). It
is having the input R(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.
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Control Systems - Block Diagram Reduction

The concepts discussed in the previous chapter are helpful for reducing (simplifying) the block
diagrams.
Block Diagram Reduction Rules:
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many blocks,
summing points and take-off points.
Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.
Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.
Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the overall
block diagram.
Example: Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce)
this block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.
Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4. The modified
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Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the
block G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.
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Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.
Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.
Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.
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Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

Y(s)/R(s)=G1G2G25(G3+G4)(1+G1G2H1)/{1+(G3+G4)G5H3}G5−G1G2G5(G3+G4)H2
Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram having
multiple inputs.
Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a time and
make the remaining inputs as zero.
Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because, we
have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome this
drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).
In the next two chapters, we will discuss about the concepts related to signal flow graphs, i.e.,
how to represent signal flow graph from a given block diagram and calculation of transfer
function just by using a gain formula without doing any reduction process.
Control Systems - Signal Flow Graphs

Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter, let us
discuss the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw signal flow
graphs.
Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph
Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.
Node
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of nodes —
input node, output node and mixed node.
Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.

Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
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Example: Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.
The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.
y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.
y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.
Branch
Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For example,
there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches have gains of a, b,
c and -d.
Construction of Signal Flow Graph
Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations −
y2=a12y1+a42y4
y3=a23y2+a53y5
y4=a34y3
y5=a45y4+a35y3
y6=a56y5
There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches in this signal flow graph.
The gains of the branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.
To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each equation, then
combine all these signal flow graphs and then follow the steps given below −
Step 1 − Signal flow graph for y2=a13y1+a42y4 is shown in the following figure.
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Step 3 − Signal flow graph for y4=a34y3 is shown in the following figure.
Step 5 − Signal flow graph for y6=a56y5 is shown in the following figure.
Step 6 − Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the following figure.
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Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block diagram
as nodes in signal flow graph.
Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.
Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the branches in
signal flow graph.
Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two nodes (but there
is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as one. For example, between
summing points, between summing point and takeoff point, between input and summing point,
between take-off point and output.
Example: Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
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Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block diagram as input node R(s) and
output node C(s) of signal flow graph.
Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labelled in the block diagram. There are
nine nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four summing points, four
nodes for four take-off points and one node for the variable between blocks G1 and G2.
The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.
With the help of Mason’s gain formula (discussed in the next chapter), you can calculate the
transfer function of this signal flow graph. This is the advantage of signal flow graphs. Here, we
no need to simplify (reduce) the signal flow graphs for calculating the transfer function.
Mason's Gain Formula
Let us now discuss the Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a signal
flow graph. The gain between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph is nothing
but the transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by using Mason’s gain formula.
Mason’s gain formula is
T=C(s)R(s)=ΣNi=1PiΔiΔ
Where,
C(s) is the output node
R(s) is the input node
T is the transfer function or gain between R(s) and C(s)
Pi is the ith forward path gain
Δ=1−(sum of all individual loop gains)
+(sum of gain products of all possible two non touching loops)
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−(sum of gain products of all possible three non touching loops)+...
Δi is obtained from Δ by removing the loops which are touching the ith forward path.
Consider the following signal flow graph in order to understand the basic terminology involved
here.
Path
It is a traversal of branches from one node to any other node in the direction of branch arrows. It
should not traverse any node more than once.
Examples − y2→y3→y4→y5 and y5→y3→y2
Forward Path
The path that exists from the input node to the output node is known as forward path.
Examples − y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6 and y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Forward Path Gain
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of the forward path.
Examples − abcde is the forward path gain of y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6 and abge is the
forward path gain of y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Loop
The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known as loop. Hence, it is a
closed path.
Examples − y2→y3→y2 and y3→y5→y3.
Loop Gain
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of a loop.
Examples − bj is the loop gain of y2→y3→y2 and gh is the loop gain of y3→y5→y3.
Non-touching Loops
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These are the loops, which should not have any common node.
Examples − The loops, y2→y3→y2 and y4→y5→y4 are non-touching.
Calculation of Transfer Function using Mason’s Gain Formula
Let us consider the same signal flow graph for finding transfer function.
Number of forward paths, N = 2.

First forward path is - y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6.
First forward path gain, p1=abcde.
Second forward path is - y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Second forward path gain, p2=abge.
Number of individual loops, L = 5.
Loops are - y2→y3→y2, y3→y5→y3, y3→y4→y5→y3, y4→y5→y4and y5→y5.
Loop gains are - l1=bj, l2=gh, l3=cdh, l4=di and l5=f.
Number of two non-touching loops = 2.
First non-touching loops pair is - y2→y3→y2, y4→y5→y4.
Gain product of first non-touching loops pair, l1l4=bjdi
Second non-touching loops pair is - y2→y3→y2, y5→y5.
Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is - l1l5=bjf
Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in this signal flow graph.
We know,
Δ=1−(sum of all individual loop gains)
+(sum of gain products of all possible two non touching loops)
−(sum of gain products of all possible three non touchingloops)+...
Substitute the values in the above equation,
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Δ=1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+(bjdi+bjf)−(0)
⇒Δ=1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf
There is no loop which is non-touching to the first forward path.
So, Δ1=1.
Similarly, Δ2=1. Since, no loop which is non-touching to the second forward path.
Substitute, N = 2 in Mason’s gain formula
T=C(s)R(s)=Σ2i=1PiΔiΔ
T=C(s)R(s)=P1Δ1+P2Δ2Δ
Substitute all the necessary values in the above equation.
T=C(s)R(s)=(abcde)1+(abge)11−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf
⇒T=C(s)R(s)=(abcde)+(abge)1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf
Therefore, the transfer function is -
T=C(s)R(s)=(abcde)+(abge)1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf
Control Systems - Time Response Analysis

We can analyze the response of the control systems in both the time domain and the frequency
domain. We will discuss frequency response analysis of control systems in later chapters. Let us
now discuss about the time response analysis of control systems.
What is Time Response?
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called the time
response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.
Transient response
Steady state response
The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.
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Here, both the transient and the steady states are indicated in the figure. The responses
corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state responses.
Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as
c(t)=ctr(t)+css(t)
Where,
ctr(t) is the transient response
css(t) is the steady state response
Transient Response
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady state. So,
the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response of the
control system during the transient state is known as transient response.
The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is infinity and
practically, it is five times constant.
Mathematically, we can write it as
limt→∞ctr(t)=0
Steady state Response
The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero value for
large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the transient response will be
zero even during the steady state.
Example
Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control
system c(t)=10+5e−t
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Here, the second term 5e−t will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the transient term. And
the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is the steady state term.
Standard Test Signals
The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used to know
the performance of the control systems using time response of the output.
Unit Impulse Signal
A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as
δ(t)=0 for t≠0
and ∫0+0−δ(t)dt=1
The following figure shows unit impulse signal.
So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under small
interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is zero for all
other values of ‘t’.
Unit Step Signal
A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as
u(t)=1;t≥0
=0;t<0
Following figure shows unit step signal.
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So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value is one
during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.
Unit Ramp Signal
A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as
r(t)=t;t≥0
=0;t<0
We can write unit ramp signal, r(t) in terms of unit step signal, u(t) as
r(t)=tu(t)
Following figure shows unit ramp signal.
So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal is zero
for all negative values of ‘t’.
Unit Parabolic Signal
A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,
p(t)=t22;t≥0
=0;t<0
We can write unit parabolic signal, p(t) in terms of the unit step signal, u(t) as,
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p(t)=t22u(t)
The following figure shows the unit parabolic signal.
So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit parabolic
signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.
Response of the First Order System
In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of the first order system. Consider the following
block diagram of the closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer function, 1sT is
connected with a unity negative feedback.
We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system has unity negative
feedback as,
C(s)R(s)=G(s)1+G(s)
Substitute, G(s)=1sT in the above equation.
C(s)R(s)=1sT1+1sT=1sT+1
The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of the first
order and the system is said to be the first order system.
We can re-write the above equation as:
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C(s)=(1sT+1)R(s)
Where,
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t),
R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t), and
T is the time constant.
Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the first order system in the time domain.
Take the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t).
Consider the equation, C(s)=(1sT+1)R(s)
Substitute R(s) value in the above equation.
Do partial fractions of C(s) if required.
Apply inverse Laplace transform to C(s).
In the previous chapter, we have seen the standard test signals like impulse, step, ramp and
parabolic. Let us now find out the responses of the first order system for each input, one by one.
The name of the response is given as per the name of the input signal. For example, the
response of the system for an impulse input is called as impulse response.
Impulse Response of First Order System
Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.
So, r(t)=δ(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.
R(s)=1
Substitute, R(s)=1 in the above equation.
C(s)=(1sT+1)(1)=1sT+1
Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace transforms.
C(s)=1T( s+1T)⇒C(s)=1T(1s+1T)
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.
c(t)=1Te(−tT)u(t)
The unit impulse response is shown in the following figure.
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The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’ and it
is zero for negative values of ‘t’.
Step Response of First Order System
Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.
So, r(t)=u(t)
R(s)=1s
Substitute, R(s)=1s in the above equation.
C(s)=(1sT+1)(1s)=1s(sT+1)
Do partial fractions of C(s).
C(s)=1s(sT+1)=As+BsT+1
⇒1s(sT+1)=A(sT+1)+Bss(sT+1)
On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by each other.
Hence, equate the numerator terms.
1=A(sT+1)+Bs
By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get A = 1.
Substitute, A = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides.
0=T+B⇒B=−T
Substitute, A = 1 and B = −T in partial fraction expansion of C(s).
C(s)=1s−TsT+1=1s−TT(s+1T)
⇒C(s)=1s−1s+1T
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.
c(t)=(1−e−(tT))u(t)
The unit step response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.
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The transient term in the unit step response is -
ctr(t)=−e−(tT)u(t)
The steady state term in the unit step response is -
css(t)=u(t)
The following figure shows the unit step response.
The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all negative values of t. It is
gradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady state. So, the steady
state value depends on the magnitude of the input.
Ramp Response of First Order System
Consider the unit ramp signal as an input to the first order system.
So, r(t)=tu(t)
R(s)=1s2
Substitute, R(s)=1s2 in the above equation.
C(s)=(1sT+1)(1s2)=1s2(sT+1)
C(s)=1s2(sT+1)=As2+Bs+CsT+1
⇒1s2(sT+1)=A(sT+1)+Bs(sT+1)+Cs2s2(sT+1)
On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by each other.
Hence, equate the numerator terms.
1=A(sT+1)+Bs(sT+1)+Cs2
By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get A = 1.
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Substitute, A = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides.
0=T+B⇒B=−T
Similarly, substitute B = −T and equate the coefficient of s2 terms on both the sides. You will
get C=T2.
Substitute A = 1, B = −T and C=T2 in the partial fraction expansion of C(s).
C(s)=1s2−Ts+T2sT+1=1s2−Ts+T2T(s+1T)
⇒C(s)=1s2−Ts+Ts+1T
c(t)=(t−T+Te−(tT))u(t)
The unit ramp response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.
The transient term in the unit ramp response is -
ctr(t)=Te−(tT)u(t)
The steady state term in the unit ramp response is -
css(t)=(t−T)u(t)
The following figure shows the unit ramp response.
The unit ramp response, c(t) follows the unit ramp input signal for all positive values of t. But,
there is a deviation of T units from the input signal.
Parabolic Response of First Order System
Consider the unit parabolic signal as an input to the first order system.
So, r(t)=t22u(t)
R(s)=1s3
Substitute R(s)=1s3 in the above equation.
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C(s)=(1sT+1)(1s3)=1s3(sT+1)
C(s)=1s3(sT+1)=As3+Bs2+Cs+DsT+1
After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B, C and D as 1, −T,T2and−T3respectively.
Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of C(s).
C(s)=1s3−Ts2+T2s−T3sT+1⇒C(s)=1s3−Ts2+T2s−T2s+1T
c(t)=(t22−Tt+T2−T2e−(tT))u(t)
The unit parabolic response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.
The transient term in the unit parabolic response is
Ctr(t)=−T2e−(tT)u(t)
The steady state term in the unit parabolic response is
Css(t)=(t22−Tt+T2)u(t)
From these responses, we can conclude that the first order control systems are not stable with
the ramp and parabolic inputs because these responses go on increasing even at infinite amount
of time. The first order control systems are stable with impulse and step inputs because these
responses have bounded output. But, the impulse response doesn’t have steady state term. So,
the step signal is widely used in the time domain for analyzing the control systems from their
responses.
Response of Second Order System

In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of second order system. Consider the following
block diagram of closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer
function, ω2ns(s+2δωn) is connected with a unity negative feedback.
We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system having unity negative
feedback as
C(s)/R(s)=G(s)1+G(s)
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Substitute, G(s)=ω2ns(s+2δωn) in the above equation.
C(s)/R(s)=(ω2ns(s+2δωn))1+(ω2ns(s+2δωn))=ω2ns2+2δωns+ω2n
The power of ‘s’ is two in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of the
second order and the system is said to be the second order system.
The characteristic equation is -
s2+2δωns+ω2n=0
The roots of characteristic equation are -
s=−2ωδn±√(2δωn)2−4ω2n2=−2(δωn±ωn√δ2−1)2
⇒s=−δωn±ωn√δ2−1
The two roots are imaginary when δ = 0.
The two roots are real and equal when δ = 1.
The two roots are real but not equal when δ > 1.
The two roots are complex conjugate when 0 < δ < 1.
We can write C(s) equation as,
C(s)=(ω2ns2+2δωns+ω2n)R(s)
Where,
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal, c(t)
R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal, r(t)
ωn is the natural frequency
δ is the damping ratio.
Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the second order system in the time domain.
Take Laplace transform of the input signal, r(t).
Consider the equation, C(s)=(ω2ns2+2δωns+ω2n)R(s)
Substitute R(s) value in the above equation.
Do partial fractions of C(s) if required.
Apply inverse Laplace transform to C(s).
Step Response of Second Order System
Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system.
Laplace transform of the unit step signal is,
R(s)=1/s
We know the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system is,
C(s)R(s)=ω2ns2+2δωns+ω2n
Case 1: δ = 0
Substitute, δ=0 in the transfer function.
C(s)R(s)=ω2ns2+ω2n
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⇒C(s)=(ω2ns2+ω2n)R(s)
C(s)=(ω2ns2+ω2n)(1s)=ω2ns(s2+ω2n)
c(t)=(1−cos(ωnt))u(t)
So, the unit step response of the second order system when /delta=0 will be a continuous time
signal with constant amplitude and frequency.
Case 2: δ = 1
Substitute, /delta=1 in the transfer function.
C(s)R(s)=ω2ns2+2ωns+ω2n
⇒C(s)=(ω2n(s+ωn)2)R(s)
C(s)=(ω2n(s+ωn)2)(1s)=ω2ns(s+ωn)2
C(s)=ω2ns(s+ωn)2=As+Bs+ωn+C(s+ωn)2
After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B and C as 1,−1and−ωnrespectively. Substitute
these values in the above partial fraction expansion of C(s).
C(s)=1s−1s+ωn−ωn(s+ωn)2
c(t)=(1−e−ωnt−ωnte−ωnt)u(t)
So, the unit step response of the second order system will try to reach the step input in steady
state.
Case 3: 0 < δ < 1
We can modify the denominator term of the transfer function as follows −
s2+2δωns+ω2n={s2+2(s)(δωn)+(δωn)2}+ω2n−(δωn)2
=(s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2)
The transfer function becomes,
C(s)R(s)=ω2n(s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2)
⇒C(s)=(ω2n(s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2))R(s)
C(s)=(ω2n(s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2))(1s)=ω2ns((s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2))
C(s)=ω2ns((s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2))=As+Bs+C(s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2)
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After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B and C as 1,−1and−2δωnrespectively.
Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of C(s).
C(s)=1s−s+2δωn(s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2)
C(s)=1s−s+δωn(s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2)−δωn(s+δωn)2+ω2n(1−δ2)
C(s)=1s−(s+δωn)(s+δωn)2+(ωn√1−δ2)2−δ√1−δ2(ωn√1−δ2(s+δωn)2+(ωn√1−δ2)2)
Substitute, ωn√1−δ2 as ωd in the above equation.
C(s)=1s−(s+δωn)(s+δωn)2+ω2d−δ√1−δ2(ωd(s+δωn)2+ω2d)
c(t)=(1−e−δωntcos(ωdt)−δ√1−δ2e−δωntsin(ωdt))u(t)
c(t)=(1−e−δωnt√1−δ2((√1−δ2)cos(ωdt)+δsin(ωdt)))u(t)
If √1−δ2=sin(θ), then ‘δ’ will be cos(θ). Substitute these values in the above equation.
c(t)=(1−e−δωnt√1−δ2(sin(θ)cos(ωdt)+cos(θ)sin(ωdt)))u(t)
⇒c(t)=(1−(e−δωnt√1−δ2)sin(ωdt+θ))u(t)
So, the unit step response of the second order system is having damped oscillations (decreasing
amplitude) when ‘δ’ lies between zero and one.
Case 4: δ > 1
We can modify the denominator term of the transfer function as follows −
s2+2δωns+ω2n={s2+2(s)(δωn)+(δωn)2}+ω2n−(δωn)2
=(s+δωn)2−ω2n(δ2−1)
The transfer function becomes,
C(s)R(s)=ω2n(s+δωn)2−ω2n(δ2−1)
⇒C(s)=(ω2n(s+δωn)2−ω2n(δ2−1))R(s)
C(s)=(ω2n(s+δωn)2−(ωn√δ2−1)2)(1s)=ω2ns(s+δωn+ωn√δ2−1)(s+δωn−ωn√δ2−1)
C(s)=ω2ns(s+δωn+ωn√δ2−1)(s+δωn−ωn√δ2−1)
=As+Bs+δωn+ωn√δ2−1+Cs+δωn−ωn√δ2−1
After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B and C as
1, 12(δ+√δ2−1)(√δ2−1)and −12(δ−√δ2−1)(√δ2−1) respectively. Substitute these values in
above partial fraction expansion of C(s).
C(s)=1s+12(δ+√δ2−1)(√δ2−1)(1s+δωn+ωn√δ2−1)−(12(δ−√δ2−1)(√δ2−1))(1s+δωn−ωn√δ2−1)
c(t)=(1+(12(δ+√δ2−1)(√δ2−1))e−(δωn+ωn√δ2−1)t−(12(δ−√δ2−1)(√δ2−1))e−(δωn−ωn√δ2−1)t)
u(t)
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Since it is over damped, the unit step response of the second order system when δ > 1 will never
reach step input in the steady state.
Impulse Response of Second Order System
The impulse response of the second order system can be obtained by using any one of these two
methods.
Follow the procedure involved while deriving step response by considering the value of R(s) as
1 instead of 1s.
Do the differentiation of the step response.
The following table shows the impulse response of the second order system for 4 cases of the
damping ratio.
Condition of Impulse response for t ≥ 0
Damping ratio
δ=0 ωnsin(ωnt)
δ=1 ω2nte−ωnt
0<δ<1 (ωne−δωnt√1−δ2)sin(ωdt)
δ>1 (ωn2√δ2−1)(e−(δωn−ωn√δ2−1)t−e−(δωn+ωn√δ2−1)t)
Time Domain Specifications
In this chapter, let us discuss the time domain specifications of the second order system. The
step response of the second order system for the underdamped case is shown in the following
figure.
52
All the time domain specifications are represented in this figure. The response up to the settling
time is known as transient response and the response after the settling time is known as steady
state response.
Delay Time
It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero instant. It is
denoted by td.
Consider the step response of the second order system for t ≥ 0, when ‘δ’ lies between zero and
one.
c(t)=1−(e−δωnt√1−δ2)sin(ωdt+θ)
The final value of the step response is one.
Therefore, at t=td, the value of the step response will be 0.5. Substitute, these values in the
above equation.
c(td)=0.5=1−(e−δωntd√1−δ2)sin(ωdtd+θ)
⇒(e−δωntd√1−δ2)sin(ωdtd+θ)=0.5
By using linear approximation, you will get the delay time td as
td=1+0.7δωn
Rise Time
It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This is
applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped systems, consider the duration
from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by tr.
53
At t = t1 = 0, c(t) = 0.
We know that the final value of the step response is one.
Therefore, at t=t2, the value of step response is one. Substitute, these values in the following
equation.
c(t2)=1=1−(e−δωnt2√1−δ2)sin(ωdt2+θ)
⇒(e−δωnt2√1−δ2)sin(ωdt2+θ)=0
⇒sin(ωdt2+θ)=0
⇒ωdt2+θ=π
⇒t2=π−θωd
Substitute t1 and t2 values in the following equation of rise time,
tr=t2−t1
∴tr=π−θωd
From above equation, we can conclude that the rise time tr and the damped frequency ωd are
inversely proportional to each other.
Peak Time
It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is denoted
by tp. At t=tp, the first derivate of the response is zero.
We know the step response of second order system for under-damped case is
Differentiate c(t) with respect to ‘t’.
dc(t)dt=−(e−δωnt√1−δ2)ωdcos(ωdt+θ)−(−δωne−δωnt√1−δ2)sin(ωdt+θ)
Substitute, t=tp and dc(t)dt=0 in the above equation.
0=−(e−δωntp√1−δ2)[ωdcos(ωdtp+θ)−δωnsin(ωdtp+θ)]
⇒ωn√1−δ2cos(ωdtp+θ)−δωnsin(ωdtp+θ)=0
⇒√1−δ2cos(ωdtp+θ)−δsin(ωdtp+θ)=0
⇒sin(θ)cos(ωdtp+θ)−cos(θ)sin(ωdtp+θ)=0
⇒sin(θ−ωdtp−θ)=0
⇒sin(−ωdtp)=0⇒−sin(ωdtp)=0⇒sin(ωdtp)=0
⇒ωdtp=π
⇒tp=πωd
From the above equation, we can conclude that the peak time tp and the damped
frequency ωd are inversely proportional to each other.
Peak Overshoot
54
Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the final value
of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.
Mathematically, we can write it as
Mp=c(tp)−c(∞)
Where,
c(tp) is the peak value of the response.
c(∞) is the final (steady state) value of the response.
At t=tp, the response c(t) is -
c(tp)=1−(e−δωntp√1−δ2)sin(ωdtp+θ)
Substitute, tp=πωd in the right hand side of the above equation.
c(tP)=1−(e−δωn(πωd)√1−δ2)sin(ωd(πωd)+θ)
⇒c(tp)=1−(e−(δπ√1−δ2)√1−δ2)(−sin(θ))
We know that
sin(θ)=√1−δ2
So, we will get c(tp) as
c(tp)=1+e−(δπ√1−δ2)
Substitute the values of c(tp) and c(∞) in the peak overshoot equation.
Mp=1+e−(δπ√1−δ2)−1
⇒Mp=e−(δπ√1−δ2)
Percentage of peak overshoot % Mp can be calculated by using this formula.
%Mp=Mpc(∞)×100%
By substituting the values of Mp and c(∞) in above formula, we will get the Percentage of the
peak overshoot %Mp as
%Mp=(e−(δπ√1−δ2))×100%
From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak overshoot %Mp will
decrease if the damping ratio δ increases.
Settling time
It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the specified
tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%. The
settling time is denoted by ts.
The settling time for 5% tolerance band is -
ts=3δωn=3τ
The settling time for 2% tolerance band is -
ts=4δωn=4τ
55
Where, τ is the time constant and is equal to 1δωn.

Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are inversely proportional to the damping
ratio δ.
Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are independent of the system gain. That means
even the system gain changes, the settling time ts and time constant τ will never change.
Example
Let us now find the time domain specifications of a control system having the closed loop
transfer function 4s2+2s+4 when the unit step signal is applied as an input to this control
system.
We know that the standard form of the transfer function of the second order closed loop control
system as
ω2ns2+2δωns+ω2n
By equating these two transfer functions, we will get the un-damped natural frequency ωn as 2
rad/sec and the damping ratio δ as 0.5.
We know the formula for damped frequency ωd as
ωd=ωn√1−δ2
Substitute, ωn and δ values in the above formula.
⇒ωd=2√1−(0.5)2
⇒ωd=1.732rad/sec
Substitute, δ value in following relation
θ=cos−1δ
⇒θ=cos−1(0.5)=π3rad
Substitute the above necessary values in the formula of each time domain specification and
simplify in order to get the values of time domain specifications for given transfer function.
The following table shows the formulae of time domain specifications, substitution of necessary
values and the final values.
Time Formula Substitution of values in Formula Final value
domain
specificatio
n
Delay time td=1+0.7δωn td=1+0.7(0.5)2 td=0.675 sec
Rise time tr=π−θωd tr=π−(π3)1.732 tr=1.207 sec
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Peak time tp=πωd tp=π1.732 tp=1.813 sec
% Peak %Mp=(e−(δπ√1−δ2))×100 %Mp=(e−(0.5π√1−(0.5)2))×100 %Mp=16.32

overshoot % % %
Settling ts=4δωn tS=4(0.5)(2) ts=4 sec

time for 2%
tolerance
band
Control Systems - Steady State Errors

The deviation of the output of control system from desired response during steady state is
known as steady state error. It is represented as ess. We can find steady state error using the
final value theorem as follows.
ess=limt→∞e(t)=lims→0sE(s)
Where,
E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal, e(t)
Let us discuss how to find steady state errors for unity feedback and non-unity feedback control
systems one by one.
Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback Systems
Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is having unity
negative feedback.
Where,
R(s) is the Laplace transform of the reference Input signal r(t)
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t)
We know the transfer function of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system as
C(s)R(s)=G(s)1+G(s)
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⇒C(s)=R(s)G(s)1+G(s)
The output of the summing point is -
E(s)=R(s)−C(s)
Substitute C(s) value in the above equation.
E(s)=R(s)−R(s)G(s)1+G(s)
⇒E(s)=R(s)+R(s)G(s)−R(s)G(s)1+G(s)
⇒E(s)=R(s)1+G(s)
Substitute E(s) value in the steady state error formula
ess=lims→0sR(s)1+G(s)
The following table shows the steady state errors and the error constants for standard input
signals like unit step, unit ramp & unit parabolic signals.
Input signal Steady state error ess Error constant
unit step signal 11+kp Kp=lims→0G(s)
unit ramp signal 1Kv Kv=lims→0sG(s)
unit parabolic signal 1Ka Ka=lims→0s2G(s)

Where, Kp, Kv and Ka are position error constant, velocity error constant and acceleration error
constant respectively.
Note − If any of the above input signals has the amplitude other than unity, then multiply
corresponding steady state error with that amplitude.
Note − We can’t define the steady state error for the unit impulse signal because, it exists only
at origin. So, we can’t compare the impulse response with the unit impulse input as t denotes
infinity.
Example
Let us find the steady state error for an input signal r(t)=(5+2t+t22)u(t) of unity negative
feedback control system with G(s)=5(s+4)s2(s+1)(s+20)
The given input signal is a combination of three signals step, ramp and parabolic. The following
table shows the error constants and steady state error values for these three signals.
Input signal Error constant Steady state error
r1(t)=5u(t) Kp=lims→0G(s)=∞ ess1=51+kp=0
58
r2(t)=2tu(t) Kv=lims→0sG(s)=∞ ess2=2Kv=0
r3(t)=t22u(t) Ka=lims→0s2G(s)=1 ess3=1ka=1

We will get the overall steady state error, by adding the above three steady state errors.
ess=ess1+ess2+ess3
⇒ess=0+0+1=1
Therefore, we got the steady state error ess as 1 for this example.
Steady State Errors for Non-Unity Feedback Systems
Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is having nonunity
negative feedback.
We can find the steady state errors only for the unity feedback systems. So, we have to convert
the non-unity feedback system into unity feedback system. For this, include one unity positive
feedback path and one unity negative feedback path in the above block diagram. The new block
diagram looks like as shown below.
59
Simplify the above block diagram by keeping the unity negative feedback as it is. The following
is the simplified block diagram.
This block diagram resembles the block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop
control system. Here, the single block is having the transfer
function G(s)1+G(s)H(s)−G(s) instead of G(s). You can now calculate the steady state errors by
using steady state error formula given for the unity negative feedback systems.
Note − It is meaningless to find the steady state errors for unstable closed loop systems. So, we
have to calculate the steady state errors only for closed loop stable systems. This means we need
to check whether the control system is stable or not before finding the steady state errors. In the
next chapter, we will discuss the concepts-related stability.
Control Systems - Stability

Stability is an important concept. In this chapter, let us discuss the stability of system and types
of systems based on stability.
What is Stability?
A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input.
The following figure shows the response of a stable system.
60
This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has the
values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has the
value of one for all positive values of tincluding zero. So, it is bounded input. Therefore, the
first order control system is stable since both the input and the output are bounded.
Types of Systems based on Stability
We can classify the systems based on stability as follows.
Absolutely stable system
Conditionally stable system
Marginally stable system
Absolutely Stable System
If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is known as
the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of
the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the closed loop control
system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function present in the left
half of the ‘s’ plane.
Conditionally Stable System

If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values, then it is known
as conditionally stable system.
Marginally Stable System

If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and constant
frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known as marginally stable system. The
61
open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop transfer function
is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop control system is marginally stable if
any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis.
Control Systems - Stability Analysis

In this chapter, let us discuss the stability analysis in the ‘s’ domain using the RouthHurwitz
stability criterion. In this criterion, we require the characteristic equation to find the stability of
the closed loop control systems.
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary condition and one sufficient condition
for stability. If any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition, then we can say that
the control system is unstable. But, if the control system satisfies the necessary condition, then
it may or may not be stable. So, the sufficient condition is helpful for knowing whether the
control system is stable or not.
Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability
The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should be
positive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have negative real
parts.
Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is -
a0sn+a1sn−1+a2sn−2+...+an−1s1+ans0=0
Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order characteristic equation. This
means that the nth order characteristic equation should not have any coefficient that is of zero
value.
Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability
The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array should
have the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array
should be either positive or negative.
Routh Array Method
If all the roots of the characteristic equation exist to the left half of the ‘s’ plane, then the control
system is stable. If at least one root of the characteristic equation exists to the right half of the
‘s’ plane, then the control system is unstable. So, we have to find the roots of the characteristic
equation to know whether the control system is stable or unstable. But, it is difficult to find the
roots of the characteristic equation as order increases.
62
So, to overcome this problem there we have the Routh array method. In this method, there is no
need to calculate the roots of the characteristic equation. First formulate the Routh table and
find the number of the sign changes in the first column of the Routh table. The number of sign
changes in the first column of the Routh table gives the number of roots of characteristic
equation that exist in the right half of the ‘s’ plane and the control system is unstable.
Follow this procedure for forming the Routh table.
Fill the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial
as mentioned in the table below. Start with the coefficient of sn and continue up to the
coefficient of s0.
Fill the remaining rows of the Routh array with the elements as mentioned in the table below.
Continue this process till you get the first column element of row s0 is an. Here, an is the
coefficient of s0 in the characteristic polynomial.
Note − If any row elements of the Routh table have some common factor, then you can divide
the row elements with that factor for the simplification will be easy.
The following table shows the Routh array of the nth order characteristic polynomial.
a0sn+a1sn−1+a2sn−2+...+an−1s1+ans0
sn a0 a2 a4 a6 ... ...
sn−1 a1 a3 a5 a7 ... ...
sn−2 b1=a1a2−a3a0a1 b2=a1a4−a5a0a1 b3=a1a6−a7a0a1 ... ... ...
sn−3 c1=b1a3−b2a1b1 c2=b1a55−b3a1b1 ⋮
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
s1 ⋮ ⋮
s0 an
Example
Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,
s4+3s3+3s2+2s+1=0
Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.
All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, s4+3s3+3s2+2s+1 are positive. So, the
control system satisfies the necessary condition.
63
Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.
s4 1 3 1
s3 3 2
s2 (3×3)−(2×1)3=73 (3×1)−(0×1)3=33=1
s1 (73×2)−(1×3)73=57
s0 1
Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.
All the elements of the first column of the Routh array are positive. There is no sign change in
the first column of the Routh array. So, the control system is stable.
Special Cases of Routh Array
We may come across two types of situations, while forming the Routh table. It is difficult to
complete the Routh table from these two situations.
The two special cases are −
The first element of any row of the Routh array is zero.
All the elements of any row of the Routh array are zero.
Let us now discuss how to overcome the difficulty in these two cases, one by one.
First Element of any row of the Routh array is zero
If any row of the Routh array contains only the first element as zero and at least one of the
remaining elements have non-zero value, then replace the first element with a small positive
integer, ϵ. And then continue the process of completing the Routh table. Now, find the number
of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table by substituting ϵ tends to zero.
Example
s4+2s3+s2+2s+1=0
All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, s4+2s3+s2+2s+1 are positive. So, the
control system satisfied the necessary condition.
s4 1 1 1
s3 21 21
64
s2 (1×1)−(1×1)1=0 (1×1)−(0×1)1=1
s1
s0
The row s3 elements have 2 as the common factor. So, all these elements are divided by 2.
Special case (i) − Only the first element of row s2 is zero. So, replace it by ϵand continue the
process of completing the Routh table.
s4 1 1 1
s3 1 1
s2 ϵ 1
s1 (ϵ×1)−(1×1)ϵ=ϵ−1ϵ
s0 1
As ϵ tends to zero, the Routh table becomes like this.
s4 1 1 1
s3 1 1
s2 0 1
s1 -∞
s0 1
There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system is
unstable.
All the Elements of any row of the Routh array are zero
In this case, follow these two steps −
Write the auxilary equation, A(s) of the row, which is just above the row of zeros.
Differentiate the auxiliary equation, A(s) with respect to s. Fill the row of zeros with these
coefficients.
65
Example
s5+3s4+s3+3s2+s+3=0
All the coefficients of the given characteristic polynomial are positive. So, the control system
satisfied the necessary condition.
s5 1 1 1
s4 31 31 31
s3 (1×1)−(1×1)1=0 (1×1)−(1×1)1=0
s2
s1
s0
The row s4 elements have the common factor of 3. So, all these elements are divided by 3.
Special case (ii) − All the elements of row s3 are zero. So, write the auxiliary equation, A(s) of
the row s4.
A(s)=s4+s2+1
Differentiate the above equation with respect to s.
dA(s)ds=4s3+2s
Place these coefficients in row s3.
s5 1 1 1
s4 1 1 1
s3 42 21
s2 (2×1)−(1×1)2=0.5 (2×1)−(0×1)2=1
s1 (0.5×1)−(1×2)0.5=−1.50.5=−3
s0 1
66

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system is
unstable.
In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed loop poles are in on
left half of the ‘s’ plane or on the right half of the ‘s’ plane or on an imaginary axis. So, we
can’t find the nature of the control system. To overcome this limitation, there is a technique
known as the root locus. We will discuss this technique in the next two chapters.
Control Systems - Root Locus

In the root locus diagram, we can observe the path of the closed loop poles. Hence, we can
identify the nature of the control system. In this technique, we will use an open loop transfer
function to know the stability of the closed loop control system.
Basics of Root Locus
The Root locus is the locus of the roots of the characteristic equation by varying system gain K
from zero to infinity.
We know that, the characteristic equation of the closed loop control system is
1+G(s)H(s)=0
We can represent G(s)H(s) as
G(s)H(s)=KN(s)D(s)
Where,
K represents the multiplying factor
N(s) represents the numerator term having (factored) nth order polynomial of ‘s’.
D(s) represents the denominator term having (factored) mth order polynomial of ‘s’.
Substitute, G(s)H(s) value in the characteristic equation.
1+kN(s)D(s)=0
⇒D(s)+KN(s)=0
Case 1 − K = 0
If K=0, then D(s)=0.
That means, the closed loop poles are equal to open loop poles when K is zero.
Case 2 − K = ∞
Re-write the above characteristic equation as
K(1K+N(s)D(s))=0⇒1K+N(s)D(s)=0
Substitute, K=∞ in the above equation.
67
1∞+N(s)D(s)=0⇒N(s)D(s)=0⇒N(s)=0
If K=∞, then N(s)=0. It means the closed loop poles are equal to the open loop zeros when K is
infinity.
From above two cases, we can conclude that the root locus branches start at open loop poles and
end at open loop zeros.
Angle Condition and Magnitude Condition

The points on the root locus branches satisfy the angle condition. So, the angle condition is used
to know whether the point exist on root locus branch or not. We can find the value of K for the
points on the root locus branches by using magnitude condition. So, we can use the magnitude
condition for the points, and this satisfies the angle condition.
Characteristic equation of closed loop control system is
1+G(s)H(s)=0
⇒G(s)H(s)=−1+j0
The phase angle of G(s)H(s) is
∠G(s)H(s)=tan−1(0−1)=(2n+1)π
The angle condition is the point at which the angle of the open loop transfer function is an odd
multiple of 1800.
Magnitude of G(s)H(s) is -
|G(s)H(s)|=√(−1)2+02=1
The magnitude condition is that the point (which satisfied the angle condition) at which the
magnitude of the open loop transfer function is one.
Construction of Root Locus

The root locus is a graphical representation in s-domain and it is symmetrical about the real
axis. Because the open loop poles and zeros exist in the s-domain having the values either as
real or as complex conjugate pairs. In this chapter, let us discuss how to construct (draw) the
root locus.
Rules for Construction of Root Locus:
Follow these rules for constructing a root locus.
Rule 1 − Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the ‘s’ plane.
Rule 2 − Find the number of root locus branches.
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We know that the root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at open loop zeros.
So, the number of root locus branches N is equal to the number of finite open loop poles P or
the number of finite open loop zeros Z, whichever is greater.
Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches N as
N=P if P≥Z
N=Z if P<Z
Rule 3 − Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches.
If the angle of the open loop transfer function at a point is an odd multiple of 180 0, then that
point is on the root locus. If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the left side of
a point on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore, the branch of
points which satisfies this condition is the real axis of the root locus branch.
Rule 4 − Find the centroid and the angle of asymptotes.
If P=Z, then all the root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open loop
zeros.
If P>Z , then Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite
open loop zeros and P−Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end
at infinite open loop zeros.
If P<Z , then P number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite
open loop zeros and Z−P number of root locus branches start at infinite open loop poles and end
at finite open loop zeros.
So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when P≠Z. Asymptotes give the direction
of these root locus branches. The intersection point of asymptotes on the real axis is known
as centroid.
We can calculate the centroid α by using this formula,
α=∑Realpartoffiniteopenlooppoles−∑RealpartoffiniteopenloopzerosP−Z
The formula for the angle of asymptotes θ is
θ=(2q+1)1800P−Z
Where,
q=0,1,2,....,(P−Z)−1
Rule 5 − Find the intersection points of root locus branches with an imaginary axis.
We can calculate the point at which the root locus branch intersects the imaginary axis and the
value of K at that point by using the Routh array method and special case (ii).
If all elements of any row of the Routh array are zero, then the root locus branch intersects the
imaginary axis and vice-versa.
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Identify the row in such a way that if we make the first element as zero, then the elements of the
entire row are zero. Find the value of Kfor this combination.
Substitute this K value in the auxiliary equation. You will get the intersection point of the root
locus branch with an imaginary axis.
Rule 6 − Find Break-away and Break-in points.
If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop poles, then there will be
a break-away point in between these two open loop poles.
If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop zeros, then there will be
a break-in point in between these two open loop zeros.
Note − Break-away and break-in points exist only on the real axis root locus branches.
Follow these steps to find break-away and break-in points.
Write K in terms of s from the characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0.
Differentiate K with respect to s and make it equal to zero. Substitute these values of s in the
above equation.
The values of s for which the K value is positive are the break points.
Rule 7 − Find the angle of departure and the angle of arrival.
The Angle of departure and the angle of arrival can be calculated at complex conjugate open
loop poles and complex conjugate open loop zeros respectively.
The formula for the angle of departure ϕd is
ϕd=1800−ϕ
The formula for the angle of arrival ϕa is
ϕa=1800+ϕ
Where,
ϕ=∑ϕP−∑ϕZ
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Example
Let us now draw the root locus of the control system having open loop transfer
function, G(s)H(s)=Ks(s+1)(s+5)
Step 1 − The given open loop transfer function has three poles at s=0,s=−1and s=−5. It doesn’t
have any zero. Therefore, the number of root locus branches is equal to the number of poles of
the open loop transfer function.
N=P=3
The three poles are located are shown in the above figure. The line segment
between s=−1 and s=0 is one branch of root locus on real axis. And the other branch of the root
locus on the real axis is the line segment to the left of s=−5.
Step 2 − We will get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by using the given
formulae.
Centroid α=−2
The angle of asymptotes are θ=600,1800 and 3000.
The centroid and three asymptotes are shown in the following figure.
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Step 3 − Since two asymptotes have the angles of 600 and 3000, two root locus branches
intersect the imaginary axis. By using the Routh array method and special case(ii), the root
locus branches intersects the imaginary axis at j√5 and −j√5.
There will be one break-away point on the real axis root locus branch between the
poles s=−1 and s=0. By following the procedure given for the calculation of break-away point,
we will get it as s=−0.473.
The root locus diagram for the given control system is shown in the following figure.
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In this way, you can draw the root locus diagram of any control system and observe the
movement of poles of the closed loop transfer function.
From the root locus diagrams, we can know the range of K values for different types of
damping.
Effects of Adding Open Loop Poles and Zeros on Root Locus
The root locus can be shifted in ‘s’ plane by adding the open loop poles and the open loop
zeros.
If we include a pole in the open loop transfer function, then some of root locus branches will
move towards right half of ‘s’ plane. Because of this, the damping ratio δ decreases. Which
implies, damped frequency ωd increases and the time domain specifications like delay time td,
rise time tr and peak time tp decrease. But, it effects the system stability.
If we include a zero in the open loop transfer function, then some of root locus branches will
move towards left half of ‘s’ plane. So, it will increase the control system stability. In this case,
the damping ratio δincreases. Which implies, damped frequency ωd decreases and the time
domain specifications like delay time td, rise time tr and peak time tp increase.
So, based on the requirement, we can include (add) the open loop poles or zeros to the transfer
function.
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Frequency Response Analysis

We have already discussed time response analysis of the control systems and the time domain
specifications of the second order control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the frequency
response analysis of the control systems and the frequency domain specifications of the second
order control systems.
What is Frequency Response?
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady state
response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The steady state
response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency response. In this
chapter, we will focus only on the steady state response.
If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it
produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output
sinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles.
Let the input signal be −
r(t)=Asin(ω0t)
The open loop transfer function will be −
G(s)=G(jω)
We can represent G(jω) in terms of magnitude and phase as shown below.
G(jω)=|G(jω)|∠G(jω)
Substitute, ω=ω0 in the above equation.
G(jω0)=|G(jω0)|∠G(jω0)
The output signal is
c(t)=A|G(jω0)|sin(ω0t+∠G(jω0))
The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by multiplying the amplitude of the
input sinusoidal signal and the magnitude of G(jω) at ω=ω0.
The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by adding the phase of the input sinusoidal
signal and the phase of G(jω) at ω=ω0.
Where,
A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.
ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.
We can write, angular frequency ω0 as shown below.
ω0=2πf0
Here, f0 is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal. Similarly, you can follow the same
procedure for closed loop control system.
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Frequency Domain Specifications

The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth.
Consider the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system as,
T(s)=C(s)R(s)=ω2ns2+2δωns+ω2n
Substitute, s=jω in the above equation.
T(jω)=ω2n(jω)2+2δωn(jω)+ω2n
⇒T(jω)=ω2n−ω2+2jδωωn+ω2n=ω2nω2n(1−ω2ω2n+2jδωωn)
⇒T(jω)=1(1−ω2ω2n)+j(2δωωn)
Let, ωωn=u Substitute this value in the above equation.
T(jω)=1(1−u2)+j(2δu)
Magnitude of T(jω) is -
M=|T(jω)|=1√(1−u2)2+(2δu)2
Phase of T(jω) is -
∠T(jω)=−tan−1(2δu1−u2)
Resonant Frequency
It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response has peak value for the first
time. It is denoted by ωr. At ω=ωr, the first derivate of the magnitude of T(jω) is zero.
Differentiate M with respect to u.
dMdu=−12[(1−u2)2+(2δu)2]−32[2(1−u2)(−2u)+2(2δu)(2δ)]
⇒dMdu=−12[(1−u2)2+(2δu)2]−32[4u(u2−1+2δ2)]
Substitute, u=ur and dMdu==0 in the above equation.
0=−12[(1−u2r)2+(2δur)2]−32[4ur(u2r−1+2δ2)]
⇒4ur(u2r−1+2δ2)=0
⇒u2r−1+2δ2=0
⇒u2r=1−2δ2
⇒ur=√1−2δ2
Substitute, ur=ωrωn in the above equation.
ωrωn=√1−2δ2
⇒ωr=ωn√1−2δ2
Resonant Peak
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T(jω). It is denoted by Mr.
At u=ur, the Magnitude of T(jω) is -
Mr=1√(1−u2r)2+(2δur)2
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Substitute, ur=√1−2δ2 and 1−u2r=2δ2 in the above equation.
Mr=1√(2δ2)2+(2δ√1−2δ2)2
⇒Mr=12δ√1−δ2
Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to the peak overshoot in the time domain
transient response for certain values of damping ratio δ. So, the resonant peak and peak
overshoot are correlated to each other.
Bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of T(jω) drops to 70.7% from its zero
frequency value.
At ω=0, the value of u will be zero.
Substitute, u=0 in M.
M=1√(1−02)2+(2δ(0))2=1
Therefore, the magnitude of T(jω) is one at ω=0.
At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of T(jω) will be 70.7% of magnitude of T(jω)at ω=0.
i.e., at ω=ωB,M=0.707(1)=1√2
⇒M=1√2=1√(1−u2b)2+(2δub)2
⇒2=(1−u2b)2+(2δ)2u2b
Let, u2b=x
⇒2=(1−x)2+(2δ)2x
⇒x2+(4δ2−2)x−1=0
⇒x=−(4δ2−2)±√(4δ2−2)2+42
Consider only the positive value of x.
x=1−2δ2+√(2δ2−1)2+1
⇒x=1−2δ2+√(2−4δ2+4δ4)
Substitute, x=u2b=ω2bω2n
ω2bω2n=1−2δ2+√(2−4δ2+4δ4)
⇒ωb=ωn√1−2δ2+√(2−4δ2+4δ4)
Bandwidth ωb in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the rise time tr in the time
domain transient response.
Control Systems - Bode Plots

The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots −
Magnitude plot
Phase plot
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In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, yaxis
represents the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot and
the phase angle (linear scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot.
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -
M=20log|G(jω)H(jω)|
The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -
ϕ=∠G(jω)H(jω)
Note − The base of logarithm is 10.
Basic of Bode Plots
The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms present
in the open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode plots.
Type of term G(jω)H(jω) Slope(dB/dec) Magnitude (dB) Phase angle(degrees)
Constant K 0 20logK 0
Zero at origin jω 20 20logω 90
‘n’ zeros at origin (jω)n 20n 20nlogω 90n
Pole at origin 1jω −20 −20logω −90or270
‘n’ poles at origin 1(jω)n −20n −20nlogω −90nor270n
Simple zero 1+jωr 20 0forω<1r 0forω<1r

20logωrforω>1r 90forω>1r
Simple pole 11+jωr −20 0forω<1r 0forω<1r

−20logωrforω>1r −90or270forω>1r
Second order ω2n(1−ω2ω2n+ 40 40logωnforω<ωn 0forω<ωn

derivative term 2jδωωn) 20log(2δω2n)forω=ωn 90forω=ωn
40logωforω>ωn 180forω>ωn
Second order 1ω2n(1−ω2ω2n −40 −40logωnforω<ωn −0forω<ωn

integral term +2jδωωn) −20log(2δω2n)forω=ωn −90forω=ωn
−40logωforω>ωn −180forω>ωn
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=K.

Magnitude M=20logK dB
Phase angle ϕ=0 degrees
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If K=1, then magnitude is 0 dB.
If K>1, then magnitude will be positive.
If K<1, then magnitude will be negative.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.
The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line itself
is the magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the horizontal
line will shift 20logK dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K, the horizontal line
will shift 20logK dB below the 0 dB line. The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all
the positive values of K.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=s.
Magnitude M=20logω dB
Phase angle ϕ=900
At ω=0.1 rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.
At ω=1 rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.
At ω=10 rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.
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The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. This line started
at ω=0.1 rad/sec having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It is touching
0 dB line at ω=1 rad/sec. In this case, the phase plot is 900 line.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=1+sτ.
Magnitude M=20log√1+ω2τ2 dB
Phase angle ϕ=tan−1ωτ degrees
For ω<1τ , the magnitude is 0 dB and phase angle is 0 degrees.
For ω>1τ , the magnitude is 20logωτ dB and phase angle is 900.
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The magnitude plot is having magnitude of 0 dB upto ω=1τ rad/sec. From ω=1τ rad/sec, it is
having a slope of 20 dB/dec. In this case, the phase plot is having phase angle of 0 degrees up
to ω=1τ rad/sec and from here, it is having phase angle of 900. This Bode plot is called
the asymptotic Bode plot.
As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines, the Exact Bode plots
resemble the asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact Bode plots will have
simple curves instead of straight lines.
Similarly, you can draw the Bode plots for other terms of the open loop transfer function which
are given in the table.
Control Systems - Construction of Bode Plots
In this chapter, let us understand in detail how to construct (draw) Bode plots.
Rules for Construction of Bode Plots
Follow these rules while constructing a Bode plot.
Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant form.
Substitute, s=jω in the above equation.
Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.
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th
Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10 of the minimum corner frequency or
0.1 rad/sec whichever is smaller value and draw the Bode plot up to 10 times maximum corner
frequency.
Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
Note − The corner frequency is the frequency at which there is a change in the slope of the
magnitude plot.
Example: Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system
G(s)H(s)=10s(s+2)(s+5)
Let us convert this open loop transfer function into standard time constant form.
G(s)H(s)=10s2(s2+1)5(s5+1)
⇒G(s)H(s)=s(1+s2)(1+s5)
So, we can draw the Bode plot in semi log sheet using the rules mentioned earlier.
Stability Analysis using Bode Plots
From the Bode plots, we can say whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or
unstable based on the values of these parameters.
Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the phase plot is having the phase of -1800 is known as phase cross over
frequency. It is denoted by ωpc. The unit of phase cross over frequency is rad/sec.
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the magnitude plot is having the magnitude of zero dB is known as gain
cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc. The unit of gain cross over frequency is rad/sec.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross over frequency
and the gain cross over frequency is listed below.
If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then
the control system is stable.
If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then the
control system is marginally stable.
If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then the
control system is unstable.
Gain Margin=== Gain margin GM is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at phase cross
over frequency.
GM=20log(1Mpc)=20logMpc
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Where, Mpc is the magnitude at phase cross over frequency. The unit of gain margin (GM)
is dB.
Phase Margin The formula for phase margin PM is
PM=1800+ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency. The unit of phase margin is degrees.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between gain margin and phase margin
is listed below.If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are positive, then the
control system is stable. If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are equal to zero,
then the control system is marginally stable.
If the gain margin GM and / or the phase margin PM are/is negative, then the control system
is unstable.
Control Systems - Polar Plots

In the previous chapters, we discussed the Bode plots. There, we have two separate plots for
both magnitude and phase as the function of frequency. Let us now discuss about polar plots.
Polar plot is a plot which can be drawn between magnitude and phase. Here, the magnitudes are
represented by normal values only.
The polar form of G(jω)H(jω) is
G(jω)H(jω)=|G(jω)H(jω)|∠G(jω)H(jω)
The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the magnitude and the phase angle
of G(jω)H(jω) by varying ω from zero to ∞. The polar graph sheet is shown in the following
figure.
This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles and
the radial lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These angles are
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represented by positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, we can represent angles
with negative values in clockwise direction. For example, the angle 2700 in anti-clock wise
direction is equal to the angle −900 in clockwise direction.
Rules for Drawing Polar Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.
Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.
Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω).
Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=0. So, the polar plot
starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=∞. So, the polar plot
ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary term
of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term
of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of G(jω)H(jω) by
considering the other value(s) of ω.
Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.
G(s)H(s)=5s(s+1)(s+2)
Let us draw the polar plot for this control system using the above rules.
Step 1 − Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.
G(jω)H(jω)=5jω(jω+1)(jω+2)
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function is
M=5ω(√ω2+1)(√ω2+4)
The phase angle of the open loop transfer function is
ϕ=−900−tan−1ω−tan−1ω2
Step 2 − The following table shows the magnitude and the phase angle of the open loop transfer
function at ω=0 rad/sec and ω=∞ rad/sec.
Frequency (rad/sec) Magnitude Phase angle(degrees)
0 ∞ -90 or 270
∞ 0 -270 or 90
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0 0
So, the polar plot starts at (∞,−90 ) and ends at (0,−270 ). The first and the second terms within
the brackets indicate the magnitude and phase angle respectively.
Step 3 − Based on the starting and the ending polar co-ordinates, this polar plot will intersect
the negative real axis. The phase angle corresponding to the negative real axis is −180 0 or 1800.
So, by equating the phase angle of the open loop transfer function to either −180 0 or 1800, we
will get the ω value as √2.
By substituting ω=√2 in the magnitude of the open loop transfer function, we will get M=0.83.
Therefore, the polar plot intersects the negative real axis when ω=√2 and the polar coordinate is
(0.83,−1800).
So, we can draw the polar plot with the above information on the polar graph sheet.
Control Systems - Nyquist Plots
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop
control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the
complete frequency response of the open loop transfer function.
Nyquist Stability Criterion
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P
poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the
corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−Z times. So, we can write the number
of encirclements N as,
N=P−Z
If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the encirclement
in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’
plane.
If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the encirclement
in the G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’
plane.
Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the ‘s’ plane by selecting it
as a closed path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer
function are in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop transfer function are
nothing but the roots of the characteristic equation. As the order of the characteristic equation
increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the characteristic
equation as follows.
The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open loop transfer
function.
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The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed loop transfer
function.
We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the the right
i.e.,P=0⇒N=−Z
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the right
i.e.,Z=0⇒N=P
Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point (1+j0)
must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the poles of the open
loop transfer function in the right half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the
characteristic equation plane.
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.
Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.
Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0, then
varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to zero (0− if any
pole or zero present at s=0).
The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros at origin.
The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of the polar plot
ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the polar plot starts.
After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system using
the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the encirclement, then the
closed loop control system is absolutely stable.
Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally stable
or unstable based on the values of these parameters.
Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is 180 0) is
known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc.
Gain Cross over Frequency
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The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as the gain
cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over frequency
and gain cross over frequency is listed below.
If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then
the control system is stable.
If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then the
control system is marginally stable.
If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgc, then the control
system is unstable.
Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at the phase
cross over frequency.
GM=1Mpc
Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.
Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain cross over
frequency.
PM=1800+ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain margin and the phase
margin is listed below.
If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is positive, then the control
system is stable.
If the gain margin GM is equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero degrees, then the control
system is marginally stable.
If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is negative, then the
control system is unstable.
Control Systems - Compensators
There are three types of compensators — lag, lead and lag-lead compensators. These are most
commonly used.
Lag Compensator
The Lag Compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having the
phase lag when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lag compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is
shown in the following figure.
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Here, the capacitor is in series with the resistor R2 and the output is measured across this
combination.
The transfer function of this lag compensator is -
Vo(s)Vi(s)=1α(s+1τs+1ατ)
Where,
τ=R2C
α=R1+R2R2
From the above equation, α is always greater than one.
From the transfer function, we can conclude that the lag compensator has one pole
at s=−1ατ and one zero at s=−1τ . This means, the pole will be nearer to origin in the pole-zero
configuration of the lag compensator.
Substitute, s=jω in the transfer function.
Vo(jω)Vi(jω)=1α(jω+1τjω+1ατ)
Phase angle ϕ=tan−1ωτ−tan−1αωτ
We know that, the phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles
of input sinusoidal signal and the transfer function.
So, in order to produce the phase lag at the output of this compensator, the phase angle of the
transfer function should be negative. This will happen when α>1.
Lead Compensator
The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having phase
lead when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is shown
in the following figure.
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Here, the capacitor is parallel to the resistor R1 and the output is measured across resistor $R_2.
The transfer function of this lead compensator is -
Vo(s)Vi(s)=β(sτ+1βsτ+1)
Where,
τ=R1C
β=R2R1+R2
From the transfer function, we can conclude that the lead compensator has pole at s=−1β and
zero at s=−1βτ.
Substitute, s=jω in the transfer function.
Vo(jω)Vi(jω)=β(jωτ+1βjωτ+1)
Phase angle ϕ=tan−1ωτ−tan−1βωτ
We know that, the phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles
of input sinusoidal signal and the transfer function.
So, in order to produce the phase lead at the output of this compensator, the phase angle of the
transfer function should be positive. This will happen when 0<β<1. Therefore, zero will be
nearer to origin in pole-zero configuration of the lead compensator.
Lag-Lead Compensator
Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one frequency
region and phase lead at other frequency region. It is a combination of both the lag and the lead
compensators. The lag-lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is shown in the following
figure.
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This circuit looks like both the compensators are cascaded. So, the transfer function of this
circuit will be the product of transfer functions of the lead and the lag compensators.
Vo(s)Vi(s)=β(sτ1+1βsτ1+1)1α(s+1τ2s+1ατ2)
We know αβ=1.
⇒Vo(s)Vi(s)=(s+1τ1s+1βτ1)(s+1τ2s+1ατ2)
Where,
τ1=R1C1
τ2=R2C2
Control Systems - Controllers
The various types of controllers are used to improve the performance of control systems. In this
chapter, we will discuss the basic controllers such as the proportional, the derivative and the
integral controllers.
Proportional Controller
The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to error signal.
u(t)∝e(t)
⇒u(t)=KPe(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides -
U(s)=KPE(s)
U(s)E(s)=KP
Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is KP.
Where,
U(s) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u(t)
89
E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t)
KP is the proportionality constant
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
proportional controller is shown in the following figure.
The proportional controller is used to change the transient response as per the requirement.
Derivative Controller
The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of the error signal.
u(t)=KDde(t)dt
Apply Laplace transform on both sides.
U(s)=KDsE(s)
U(s)E(s)=KDs
Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is KDs.
Where, KD is the derivative constant.
derivative controller is shown in the following figure.
The derivative controller is used to make the unstable control system into a stable one.
Integral Controller
The integral controller produces an output, which is integral of the error signal.
u(t)=KI∫e(t)dt
90
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides -
U(s)=KIE(s)s
U(s)E(s)=KIs
Therefore, the transfer function of the integral controller is KIs.
Where, KI is the integral constant.
integral controller is shown in the following figure.
The integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error.

Let us now discuss about the combination of basic controllers.
Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller
The proportional derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of the
outputs of proportional and derivative controllers.
u(t)=KPe(t)+KDde(t)/dt
Apply Laplace transform on both sides -
U(s)=(KP+KDs)E(s)
U(s)E(s)=KP+KDs
Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is KP+KDs.
proportional derivative controller is shown in the following figure.
91
The proportional derivative controller is used to improve the stability of control system without
affecting the steady state error.
Proportional Integral (PI) Controller
The proportional integral controller produces an output, which is the combination of outputs of
the proportional and integral controllers.
u(t)=KPe(t)+KI∫e(t)dt
U(s)=(KP+KIs)E(s)
U(s)E(s)=KP+KIs
Therefore, the transfer function of proportional integral controller is KP+KIs.
proportional integral controller is shown in the following figure.
The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without affecting
the stability of the control system.
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller
The proportional integral derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of
the outputs of proportional, integral and derivative controllers.
u(t)=KPe(t)+KI∫e(t)dt+KDde(t)/dt
U(s)=(KP+KIs+KDs)E(s)
U(s)E(s)=KP+KIs+KDs
Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional integral derivative controller
is KP+KIs+KDs.
proportional integral derivative controller is shown in the following figure.
92
The proportional integral derivative controller is used to improve the stability of the control
system and to decrease steady state error.
Control Systems - State Space Model
The state space model of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system can be represented as,
˙X=AX+BU
Y=CX+DU
The first and the second equations are known as state equation and output equation respectively.
Where,
X and ˙X are the state vector and the differential state vector respectively.
U and Y are input vector and output vector respectively.
A is the system matrix.
B and C are the input and the output matrices.
D is the feed-forward matrix.
Basic Concepts of State Space Model
The following basic terminology involved in this chapter.
State
It is a group of variables, which summarizes the history of the system in order to predict the
future values (outputs).
State Variable
The number of the state variables required is equal to the number of the storage elements
present in the system.
Examples − current flowing through inductor, voltage across capacitor
State Vector
It is a vector, which contains the state variables as elements.
In the earlier chapters, we have discussed two mathematical models of the control systems.
Those are the differential equation model and the transfer function model. The state space
93
model can be obtained from any one of these two mathematical models. Let us now discuss
these two methods one by one.
State Space Model from Differential Equation
Consider the following series of the RLC circuit. It is having an input voltage, vi(t) and the
current flowing through the circuit is i(t).
There are two storage elements (inductor and capacitor) in this circuit. So, the number of the
state variables is equal to two and these state variables are the current flowing through the
inductor, i(t) and the voltage across capacitor, vc(t).
From the circuit, the output voltage, v0(t) is equal to the voltage across capacitor, vc(t).
v0(t)=vc(t)
Apply KVL around the loop.
vi(t)=Ri(t)+Ldi(t)/dt+vc(t)
⇒di(t)/dt=−Ri(t)L−vc(t)L+vi(t)L
The voltage across the capacitor is -
vc(t)=1C∫i(t)dt
Differentiate the above equation with respect to time.
dvc(t)/dt=i(t)C
State vector, X=[i(t)vc(t)]
Differential state vector, ˙X=[di(t)/dt dvc(t)dt]
We can arrange the differential equations and output equation into the standard form of state
space model as,
˙X=[di(t)/dt dvc(t)/dt]=[−RL−1L1C0][i(t)vc(t)]+[1L0][vi(t)]
Y=[01][i(t)vc(t)]
Where,
A=[−RL−1L1C0],B=[1L0],C=[01]and D=[0]
State Space Model from Transfer Function
94
Consider the two types of transfer functions based on the type of terms present in the
numerator.
Transfer function having constant term in Numerator.
Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in Numerator.
Transfer function having constant term in Numerator
Consider the following transfer function of a system
Y(s)U(s)=b0sn+an−1sn−1+...+a1s+a0
Rearrange, the above equation as
(sn+an−1sn−1+...+a0)Y(s)=b0U(s)
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.
dny(t)dtn+an−1dn−1y(t)dtn−1+...+a1dy(t)dt+a0y(t)=b0u(t)
Let
y(t)=x1
dy(t)dt=x2=˙x1
d2y(t)dt2=x3=˙x2
.
.
.
dn−1y(t)dtn−1=xn=˙xn−1
dny(t)dtn=˙xn
and u(t)=u
Then,
˙xn+an−1xn+...+a1x2+a0x1=b0u
From the above equation, we can write the following state equation.
˙xn=−a0x1−a1x2−...−an−1xn+b0u
The output equation is -
y(t)=y=x1
The state space model is -
˙X=[˙x1˙x2⋮˙xn−1˙xn]
=[010…00001…00⋮⋮⋮…⋮⋮000…01−a0−a1−a2…−an−2−an−1][x1x2⋮xn−1xn]+[00⋮0b0][u]
Y=[10…00][x1x2⋮xn−1xn]
Here, D=[0].
Example
Find the state space model for the system having transfer function.
95
Y(s)U(s)=1s2+s+1
Rearrange, the above equation as,
(s2+s+1)Y(s)=U(s)
d2y(t)dt2+dy(t)dt+y(t)=u(t)
Let
y(t)=x1
dy(t)dt=x2=˙x1
and u(t)=u
Then, the state equation is
˙x2=−x1−x2+u
The output equation is
y(t)=y=x1
The state space model is
˙X=[˙x1˙x2]=[01−1−1][x1x2]+[01][u]
Y=[10][x1x2]
Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in Numerator
Consider the following transfer function of a system
Y(s)U(s)=bnsn+bn−1sn−1+...+b1s+b0sn+an−1sn−1+...+a1s+a0
⇒Y(s)U(s)=(1sn+an−1sn−1+...+a1s+a0)(bnsn+bn−1sn−1+...+b1s+b0)
The above equation is in the form of product of transfer functions of two blocks, which are
cascaded.
Y(s)U(s)=(V(s)U(s))(Y(s)V(s))
Here,
V(s)U(s)=1sn+an−1sn−1+...+a1s+a0
(sn+an−1sn−1+...+a0)V(s)=U(s)
dnv(t)/dtn+an−1dn−1v(t)dtn−1+...+a1dv(t)dt+a0v(t)=u(t)
Let
v(t)=x1
dv((t)dt=x2=˙x1
d2v(t)dt2=x3=˙x2
.
.
96
.
dn−1v(t)dtn−1=xn=˙xn−1
dnv(t)dtn=˙xn
and u(t)=u
Then, the state equation is
˙xn=−a0x1−a1x2−...−an−1xn+u
Consider,
Y(s)V(s)=bnsn+bn−1sn−1+...+b1s+b0
Y(s)=(bnsn+bn−1sn−1+...+b1s+b0)V(s)
y(t)=bndnv(t)dtn+bn−1dn−1v(t)dtn−1+...+b1dv(t)dt+b0v(t)
By substituting the state variables and y(t)=y in the above equation, will get the output equation
as,
y=bn˙xn+bn−1xn+...+b1x2+b0x1
Substitute, ˙xn value in the above equation.
y=bn(−a0x1−a1x2−...−an−1xn+u)+bn−1xn+...+b1x2+b0x1
y=(b0−bna0)x1+(b1−bna1)x2+...+(bn−1−bnan−1)xn+bnu
The state space model is
˙X=[˙x1˙x2⋮˙xn−1˙xn]
=[010…00001…00⋮⋮⋮…⋮⋮000…01−a0−a1−a2…−an−2−an−1][x1x2⋮xn−1xn]+[00⋮0b0][u]
Y=[b0−bna0b1−bna1...bn−2−bnan−2bn−1−bnan−1][x1x2⋮xn−1xn]
If bn=0, then,
Y=[b0b1...bn−2bn−1][x1x2⋮xn−1xn]
Control Systems - State Space Analysis
In the previous chapter, we learnt how to obtain the state space model from differential equation
and transfer function. In this chapter, let us discuss how to obtain transfer function from the
state space model.
Transfer Function from State Space Model
We know the state space model of a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system is -
˙X=AX+BU
Y=CX+DU
Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the state equation.
sX(s)=AX(s)+BU(s)
⇒(sI−A)X(s)=BU(s)
97
⇒X(s)=(sI−A)−1BU(s)
Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the output equation.
Y(s)=CX(s)+DU(s)
Substitute, X(s) value in the above equation.
⇒Y(s)=C(sI−A)−1BU(s)+DU(s)
⇒Y(s)=[C(sI−A)−1B+D]U(s)
⇒Y(s)U(s)=C(sI−A)−1B+D
The above equation represents the transfer function of the system. So, we can calculate the
transfer function of the system by using this formula for the system represented in the state
space model.
Note − When D=[0], the transfer function will be
Y(s)U(s)=C(sI−A)−1B
Example
Let us calculate the transfer function of the system represented in the state space model as,
˙X=[˙x1˙x2]=[−1−110][x1x2]+[10][u]
Y=[01][x1x2]
Here,
A=[−1−110],B=[10],C=[01]and D=[0]
The formula for the transfer function when D=[0] is -
Y(s)U(s)=C(sI−A)−1B
Substitute, A, B & C matrices in the above equation.
Y(s)U(s)=[01][s+11−1s]−1[10]
⇒Y(s)U(s)=[01][s−11s+1](s+1)s−1(−1)[10]
⇒Y(s)U(s)=[01][s1]s2+s+1=1s2+s+1
Therefore, the transfer function of the system for the given state space model is
Y(s)U(s)=1s2+s+1
State Transition Matrix and its Properties
If the system is having initial conditions, then it will produce an output. Since, this output is
present even in the absence of input, it is called zero input response x ZI R(t). Mathematically,
we can write it as,
xZIR(t)=eAtX(0)=L−1{[sI−A]−1X(0)}
From the above relation, we can write the state transition matrix ϕ(t) as
ϕ(t)=eAt=L−1[sI−A]−1
98
So, the zero input response can be obtained by multiplying the state transition matrix ϕ(t) with
the initial conditions matrix.
Following are the properties of the state transition matrix.
If t=0, then state transition matrix will be equal to an Identity matrix.
ϕ(0)=I
Inverse of state transition matrix will be same as that of state transition matrix just by replcing
‘t’ by ‘-t’.
ϕ−1(t)=ϕ(−t)
If t=t1+t2 , then the corresponding state transition matrix is equal to the multiplication of the
two state transition matrices at t=t1 and t=t2.
ϕ(t1+t2)=ϕ(t1)ϕ(t2)
Controllability and Observability
Let us now discuss controllability and observability of control system one by one.
Controllability
A control system is said to be controllable if the initial states of the control system are
transferred (changed) to some other desired states by a controlled input in finite duration of
time.
We can check the controllability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.
Write the matrix Qc in the following form.
Qc=[BABA2B...An−1B]
Find the determinant of matrix Qc and if it is not equal to zero, then the control system is
controllable.
Observability
A control system is said to be observable if it is able to determine the initial states of the control
system by observing the outputs in finite duration of time.
We can check the observability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.
Write the matrix Qo in following form.
Qo=[CTATCT(AT)2CT...(AT)n−1CT]
Find the determinant of matrix Qo and if it is not equal to zero, then the control system is
observable.
Example
99
Let us verify the controllability and observability of a control system which is represented in the
state space model as,
˙x=[˙x1˙x2]=[−1−110][x1x2]+[10][u]
Y=[01][x1x2]
Here,
A=[−1−110],B=[10],[01],D=[0] and n=2
For n=2, the matrix Qc will be
Qc=[BAB]
We will get the product of matrices A and B as,
AB=[−11]
⇒Qc=[1−101]
|Qc|=1≠0
Since the determinant of matrix Qc is not equal to zero, the given control system is controllable.
For n=2, the matrix Qo will be -
Qo=[CTATCT]
Here,
AT=[−11−10] and CT=[01]
We will get the product of matrices AT and CT as
ATCT=[10]
⇒Qo=[0110]
⇒|Qo|=−1≠0
Since, the determinant of matrix Qo is not equal to zero, the given control system is observable.
Therefore, the given control system is both controllable and observable.
100

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‫ زياد سعيد دمحم السليم‬.

No. of week hours

Department: Medical 30 Weeks Th. App. Unit

Fourth Year Subject: Control System (Theoretical)

1st Introduction to control system, open and closed loop system.

Mathematical modeling of physical systems and transfer functions,

9th ,10th , 11th Time domain analysis, steady–state transient analysis.

12th , 13th, 14th Stability analysis and Routh stability criteria.

15th, 16th Root Locus Technique.

19th , 20th Frequency domain synthesis, phase lead.

21st, 22nd, Compensation, phase–lag compensation lag–lead compensation.

28th , 29th Control system design using root locus method.

30th Definitions of Nonlinear System.

Instructor name: Dr. Ziad Saeed.Mohammed

Course Instructor Dr. Ziad Saeed Mohammed

Title Control System

Term Test Laboratory Quizzes Project Final Exam

General Notes Type here general notes regarding the course

Control Systems – Introduction:

Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Control Systems – Feedback:

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

Effect of Feedback on Stability

Effect of Feedback on Noise:

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

Control Systems - Mathematical Models:

Differential Equation Model

Mesh equation for this circuit is

Modeling of Mechanical Systems:

Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems:

Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

The force balanced equation for this system is

Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)

The nodal equation is

Control Systems - Block Diagrams

Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems

From the above circuit, we can write

Control Systems - Block Diagram Algebra

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

The output of the summing point is -

Output of the block G(s) is G(s)R(s).

Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

Output of this block diagram is -

Output of this block diagram is -

Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

Here, X(s)=R(s) and Y(s)=G(s)R(s)

Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

Control Systems - Block Diagram Reduction

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

Control Systems - Signal Flow Graphs

Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Number of forward paths, N = 2.