Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basic Machine Tools
Basic Machine Tools
Turning machines
The engine lathe, as the horizontal metal-turning machine is
commonly called, is the most important of all the machine tools. It is
usually considered the father of all other machine tools because many
of its fundamental mechanical elements are incorporated into the
design of other machine tools.
latheMetal being cut on a lathe.© sima/Shutterstock.com
Boring involves enlarging and finishing a hole that has been cored or
drilled. Bored holes are more accurate in roundness, concentricity,
and parallelism than drilled holes. A hole is bored with a single-point
cutting tool that feeds along the inside of the workpiece. Boring mills
have circular horizontal tables that rotate about a vertical axis, and
they are designed for boring and turning operations on parts that are
too large to be mounted on a lathe.
Shapers and planers
Shaping and planing operations involve the machining of flat surfaces,
grooves, shoulders, T-slots, and angular surfaces with single-point
tools. The largest shapers have a 36-inch cutting stroke and can
machine parts up to 36 inches long. The cutting tool on
the shaper oscillates, cutting on the forward stroke, with the workpiece
feeding automatically toward the tool during each return stroke.
Drilling machines
Drilling machines, also called drill presses, cut holes in metal with
a twist drill. They also use a variety of other cutting tools to perform
the following basic hole-machining operations: (1) reaming, (2)
boring, (3) counterboring, (4) countersinking, and (5) tapping internal
threads with the use of a tapping attachment.
Milling machines
A milling machine cuts metal as the workpiece is fed against a rotating
cutting tool called a milling cutter. Cutters of many shapes and sizes
are available for a wide variety of milling operations. Milling machines
cut flat surfaces, grooves, shoulders, inclined surfaces, dovetails, and
T-slots. Various form-tooth cutters are used for cutting concave forms
and convex grooves, for rounding corners, and for cutting gear teeth.
Grinding machines
Grinding machines remove small chips from metal parts that are
brought into contact with a rotating abrasive wheel called a grinding
wheel or an abrasive belt. Grinding is the most accurate of all of the
basic machining processes. Modern grinding machines grind hard or
soft parts to tolerances of plus or minus 0.0001 inch (0.0025
millimetre).
Power saws
saw filerDescription of the career of a saw filer.© Forestry Works (A Britannica
Publishing Partner)See all videos for this article
Metal-cutting power saws are of three basic types: (1) power hacksaws,
(2) band saws, and (3) circular disk saws. Vertical band saws are used
for cutting shapes in metal plate, for internal and external contours,
and for angular cuts.
Presses
This large class of machines includes equipment used for forming
metal parts by applying the following processes: shearing, blanking,
forming, drawing, bending, forging, coining, upsetting, flanging,
squeezing, and hammering. All of these processes require presses with
a movable ram that can be pressed against an anvil or base. The
movable ram may be powered by gravity, mechanical linkages, or
hydraulic or pneumatic systems.
Appropriate die sets, with one part mounted on the movable ram and
the matching part mounted on the fixed bed or platen, are
an integral part of the machine. Punch presses stamp out metal parts
from sheet metal and form the parts to the desired shape. Dies with
cavities having a variety of shapes are used on forging presses that
form white-hot metal blanks to the desired shapes. Power presses are
also used for shearing, bending, flanging, and shaping sheet metal
parts of all sizes. Power presses are made in various sizes, ranging
from small presses that can be mounted on a workbench to machines
weighing more than 1,000,000 pounds (450,000 kilograms).
Advances in mass production could not be made without the development of the machine-
Turret lathes
Horizontal turret lathes have two features that distinguish them from
engine lathes. The first is a multiple-sided main turret, which takes the
place of the tailstock on the engine lathe. A variety of turning, drilling,
boring, reaming, and thread-cutting tools can be fastened to the main
turret, which can be rotated intermittently about its vertical axis with a
hand wheel. Either a hand wheel or a power feed can be used to move
the turret longitudinally against the workpiece mounted on the
machine spindle.
Multiple-station machines
Several types of multiple-station vertical lathes have been developed.
These machines are essentially chucking-type turret lathes for
machining threaded cylindrical parts. The machine has 12 spindles,
each equipped with a chuck. Directly above each spindle, except one,
tooling is mounted on a ram. Parts are mounted in each chuck and
indexed for up to 11 machining operations. The finished part is
removed at the 12th station.
Gang drills
A gang-drilling machine consists of several individual columns,
drilling heads, and spindles mounted on a single base and utilizing a
common table. Various numbers of spindles may be used, but four or
six are common. These machines are designed for machining parts
requiring several hole-machining operations, such as drilling,
countersinking, counterboring, or tapping. The workpiece is moved
from one drilling spindle to the next, where sequential machining
operations are performed by one or more operators.
Production millers
Milling machines used for repet-itive-production milling operations
generally are classified as bed-type milling machines because of their
design. The sliding table is mounted directly onto the massive bed of
the machine and cannot be raised or moved transversely; table
movement is longitudinal only. The spindle head may be adjusted
vertically to establish the depth of cut. Some machines are equipped
with automatic controls that require only a semiskilled operator to
load parts in fixtures at each end of the table and start the machine.
One part can be unloaded and replaced while the other is being
machined.
Special-Purpose Machines
Special-purpose machine tools are designed to perform special
machining operations, usually for production purposes. Examples
include gear-cutting and gear-grinding machines, broaching
machines, lapping and honing machines, and boring machines.
Gear-cutting machines
Three basic cutting methods are used for machining gears: (1) form
cutting, (2) template cutting, and (3) generating. The form-cutting
method uses a cutting tool that has the same form as the space
between two adjacent teeth on a gear. This method is used for cutting
gear teeth on a milling machine. The template-cutting method uses a
template to guide a single-point cutter on large bevel-gear cutting
machines.
Most cut gears produced in large lots are made on machines that
utilize the gear-generating method. This method is based on the
principle that two involute gears, or a gear and rack, with the same
diametral pitch will mesh together properly. Therefore, a cutting tool
with the shape of a gear or rack may be used to cut gear teeth in a gear
or rack blank. This principle is applied in the design of a number of
widely used gear-cutting machines of the generating type. Gear-
generating machines that cut with reciprocating strokes are called gear
shapers.
Broaching machines
In general, broaching is classified as a planing or shaping art because
the action of a broaching tool resembles the action
of planer and shaper tools. Broaching tools of various designs are
available. The teeth on broaching tools are equally spaced, with each
successive tooth designed to feed deeper into the workpiece, thus
completing the broaching operation in a single stroke. Examples of
internal broaching applications include cutting keyways in the hubs of
gears or pulleys, cutting square or hexagonal holes, and cutting gear
teeth. External grooves can be cut in a shaft with an external
broaching tool. Some broaching machines pull or push broaching tools
through or over the workpiece.
Boring machines
Boring can be done on any type of machine that is equipped to hold a
boring tool and a workpiece and that is also equipped to rotate either
the tool or the workpiece in the proper relationship. Special boring
machines of various designs are used for boring workpieces that are
too large to be mounted on a lathe, drill press, or milling machine.
Boring and turning operations are also performed on large vertical
turret lathes or on larger boring mills. Standard boring machines are
able to bore or turn work of up to 12 feet (3.6 metres) in diameter.
Automatic Control
To be truly automatic, a machine tool must be capable of producing
parts repetitively without operator assistance in loading parts, starting
the machine, and unloading parts. In this sense, some bar-turning
machines are automatic. In practice, however, some machine tools
designated as automatic are actually semi-automatic, since they
require an operator to load the workpiece into the machine, press the
start button, and unload the part when the operation is completed.
The tooling for automatic machines is more complex than for hand-
controlled machines and usually requires a skilled worker to make the
setup. After the setup, however, a less skilled operator can operate one
or more machines simultaneously. Tracer lathes and numerically
controlled machine tools are examples of machines that use varying
degrees of automatic and semi-automatic control.
Tracer techniques
The tool slide on a tracer lathe is guided by a sensitive, hydraulically
actuated stylus that follows an accurate template. The template may be
an accurate profile on a thin plate or a finish-turned part. Although
tracing mechanisms generally are accessory units attached to engine
lathes, some lathes are especially designed as automatic tracing lathes.
Optional accessories for use on tracing lathes include automatic-
indexing toolheads and one or more cross slides for operations such as
facing, grooving, and chamfering.
Computer-Aided Machining
Computer numerical control (CNC)
Altering the operating procedures of early NC systems required
changing the hardware of the machine tool itself. In the 1970s CNC
systems, controlled by dedicated mini- or microcomputers, were
developed to enable machine tools to be readily adapted to different
jobs by altering the control program, or software. Consequently, CNC
machine tools are easier to operate and more versatile than their NC
counterparts, and their programming is simpler and can be rapidly
tested. Since they have less control hardware, they are cheaper to
maintain and are generally more accurate. CNC systems can be used
with a wide range of machine tools such as milling machines and
lathes. Many are equipped with graphic displays that plot the shapes
of the components being machined. Some simulate tool movements,
while others produce three-dimensional views of components.
computer numerical controlRows of computer numerical control (CNC)
milling machines at the Taylor Guitars factory in El Cajon, California, U.S. ©
Marcin Wichary (CC BY 2.0)
Adaptive control
Machining centres
Robots
The utilization of CNC machine tools has been stimulated by the
introduction of robots—devices designed to move components, tools,
and materials by specific motions and through defined paths. Robots
can have memories (stored sets of instructions) and may be equipped
with mechanisms that automatically perform many tasks such as the
loading and unloading of parts, assembly, inspection, welding,
painting, and machining. Its arm and wrist move like those of humans,
each axis of motion being driven by an electric or hydraulic motor. The
wrist is usually fitted with an “end effector,” an element to which
devices are added to help perform specific required operations. These
devices can include a two- or three-finger gripper for material
handling, a power tool for drilling, or an arc-welding gun. “Intelligent”
robots are also available. These have end effectors fitted with tactile or
visual sensing devices that can determine the proximity of the object
to be manipulated or machined.
Computer-integrated manufacturing
Computers have come to be used in all stages of manufacture: design,
scheduling, management, manufacturing, and testing.
The integration of these phases of computer involvement is
called computer-integrated manufacturing. For further information
about robots, see the article automation.
Electrical methods of machining
Some machining methods rely on electrical phenomena—rather than
mechanical means—for cutting and machining workpieces.
The EBM technique is used for cutting fine holes and slots in any
material. In a vacuum chamber, a beam of high-velocity electrons is
focused on a workpiece. The kinetic energy of the electrons, upon
striking the workpiece, changes to heat, which vaporizes minute
amounts of the material. The vacuum prevents the electrons from
scattering, due to collisions with gas molecules. EBM is used for
cutting holes as small as 0.001 inch (0.025 millimetre) in diameter or
slots as narrow as 0.001 inch in materials up to 0.250 inch (6.25
millimetres) in thickness. EBM is also used as an alternative to light
optics manufacturing methods in the semiconductor industry. Because
electrons have a shorter wavelength than light and can be easily
focused, electron-beam methods are particularly useful for high-
resolution lithography and for the manufacture of complex integrated
circuits. Welding can also be done with an electron beam, notably in
the manufacture of aircraft engine parts.
Electrical-discharge machining (EDM)
Electrochemical machining (ECM)
Laser machining (LM)
Water-jet machining
Advances in mass production could not be made without the development of the machine-
tool industry—that is, the fabrication of machinery that could make machines. Though some
basic devices such as the woodworking lathe had existed for centuries, their evolution into…
automation: Manufacturing applications of automation and robotics
…the largest single consumer of machine tools. Moreover, the special requirements of
automotive mass production have had a profound influence on the design and development of
highly specialized machine tools and have stimulated technological advances in petroleum
refining, steelmaking, paint and plate-glass manufacturing, and other industrial processes.…
Planer
METAL-CUTTING MACHINE
ARTICLE
INFOPRINTCITE
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this
article (requires login).
Select feedback type:
Select a type (Required)
Submit Feedback
SHARE
SHARE
HOME TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
Planer
metal-cutting machine
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they
have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by
working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Planing machines perform the same operations as shapers but can machine longer
Planing machines perform the same operations as shapers but can machine longer
workpieces. Some planers can machine parts up to 50 feet long. The workpiece is
mounted on a reciprocating table that moves the workpiece beneath a cutting tool.
This tool, which remains stationary during…
Machine tool
Machine tool, any stationary power-driven machine that is used to shape or form
parts made of metal or other materials. The shaping is accomplished in four general
ways: (1) by cutting excess material in the form of chips from the part; (2) by shearing
the material; (3) by squeezing metallic parts…
Tool
Planer
QUICK FACTS
RELATED TOPICS
Machine tool
Grinding machine
ARTICLE MEDIA
INFOPRINTCITE
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this
article (requires login).
Select feedback type:
Select a type (Required)
Submit Feedback
SHARE
SHARE
HOME TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
Grinding machine
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they
have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by
working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Alternative Title: grinder
All of the many types of grinding machines use a grinding wheel made
from one of the manufactured abrasives, silicon carbide or aluminum
oxide. The wheel is manufactured by mixing selected sizes of abrasive
granules with a bonding agent (such as clay, resin, rubber, shellac, or
silicate of soda) and fusing them together by baking or firing. The
grade (hardness) of a wheel is determined by the ratio of bond to
abrasive. Properly, a grinding wheel is self-sharpening because as it is
worked, the dull grains break off, exposing fresh, sharp grains. The
harder the grade, the more slowly the wheel releases the grains.
workpiece by enlarging existing holes with a bore, which may bear a single cutting tip of
steel, cemented carbide, or diamond or may be a small grinding wheel. Single-point
tools, gripped in a boring head attached to a rotating spindle, are moved circularly
against the sides of the existing holes. The diameter of the hole swept out by the tool is
controlled by adjustment of the boring head.
boring machine
https://www.britannica.com/technology/boring-machine