UNIT – III

SUBSTATIONS
Topics: Selection of site for substation, Classification of substations: Air insulated
substations -Indoor & Outdoor substations: Substation layout showing the location of all
the substation equipment. Bus bar arrangements in the Sub-Stations: Simple
arrangements like single bus bar, sectionalized single bus bar, main and transfer bus bar
system with relevant diagrams. Introduction to Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) and its
advantages.
Distribution Substations - Location of Substations: Rating of distribution substation,
service area within primary feeders. Benefits derived through optimal location of
substations.

INTRODUCTION:
Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of
several other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer,
electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A
substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high
transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two
different transmission voltages.
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the
distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity
consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power,
so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or
sub-transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is
common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are
typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV, depending on the size of the area
served and the practices of the local utility. The feeders run along streets overhead (or
underground, in some cases) and power the distribution transformers at or near the
customer premises.
In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in
either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations are typically
the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (of several
miles/kilometers), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.

Selection of site for Substations

The Following points are considered while making site selection for a substation.
1) Substation type :
The type of substation is important for selecting its location. Consider an example of
step up substation where voltage from various generating stations is to be stepped up
for long distance transmission. It should be located near to generating station to
minimize the transmission losses. For better reliability of supply, reduce cost of
distribution and to reduce losses, the step down substations are located near the load
centre or at the centre of gravity of load.

2) Availability of suitable and sufficient land :

The land selected for substation should be levelled one and open from all sides.
There should not be water logging problem in rainy season. There should be enough
land available for substation wherein incoming and outgoing lines have easy access
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without any obstruction. It should provide safe and reliable arrangement. Proper
consideration is given to maintenance of regulation clearances, facilities for carrying out
repairs, abnormal conditions such as fire etc. Good design and construction is essential
for reliability.
The land required for various types of substations is given below.
Type of substation Area required
i) 400 kV 50 acres
ii) 220 kV 25 acres
iii) 132 kV 10 acres
The places nearer to aerodrome, shooting practice grounds etc. should be
avoided. It should have minimum capital cost involved.

3) Facility for communication :

The site selected should provide suitable facility for communication both during
and after its construction. It is better to have site along side of existing road for easier
and cheaper transportation.

4) Atmosphere pollution :
Atmosphere near factories can produce metal corroding gases, air fumes or dust.
Similarly nearer to coastal areas the air is humid and may be salt loaded which is not
suitable for proper operation of power system. Hence substations are not located near
factories or sea coasts.

5) Easy operation and maintenance :

It should provide easy operation and maintenance. The operating staff should be
provided with essential amenities such as drinking water, housing, hospital and
school.

6) Drainage facility :
The site proposed for substation should have proper drainage arrangement to
avoid pollution of air and growth of micro organism hazardous to equipment and
health.

LOCATION OF SUBSTATIONS
The location of a substation is dictated by the voltage levels, voltage regulation
considerations, sub-transmission costs, substation costs, and the costs of primary
feeders, mains, and distribution transformers.
However, to select an ideal location for a substation, the following rules should
be observed:
1. Locate the substation as much as feasible close to the load center of its service area,
so that the addition of load times distance from the substation is a minimum.
2. Locate the substation such that proper voltage regulation can be obtained without
taking extensive measures.
3. Select the substation location such that it provides proper access for incoming
subtransmission lines and outgoing primary feeders.
4. The selected substation location should provide enough space for the future
substation expansion.
5. The selected substation location should not be opposed by land-use regulations, local
ordinances, and neighbours.

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6. The selected substation location should help minimize the number of customers
affected by any service discontinuity.
7. Other considerations, such as adaptability and emergency.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS
Substations are classified based on the service, location, function and type of
apparatus they use.
 According to Service :
Substations are classified according to voltage levels, switching operations,
power factor correction, and change in frequency and conversion of AC to DC as follows:
a) Transformer Substations: These substations transform power from one voltage
to another as per requirement. These are:
1. Transmission or primary substations: These substations receive power
from local generating stations (11 kV or 33 kV) and step up the voltage (220 kV or
400 kV) for primary transmission so that huge amounts of power can be transmitted
over long distances to the load centres economically.
2. Subtransmission or secondary substation: These substations receive
the power from primary transmission substations at high voltages (above 132 kV)
and step down the voltage to 33 kV or 11 kV for secondary transmission or primary
distribution.
3. Step down or distribution substations: These substations receive the
power from sub-transmission substations or directly from power stations and step
down the voltage for secondary distribution, i.e. 400 V for three phases or 230 V for
single phase for household consumers.

b) Industrial Substations: Some industrial consumers require huge amounts of

power, it is advisable for such consumers to install individual substations. These
substations are called industrial substations.

c) Switching Substations: These substations are used for switching operations

of power lines without the transformation of voltage. In this substation, different
connections are made between different transmission lines.

d) Synchronous Substations: At these substations, synchronous phase modifiers

are installed for the improvement of the power factor of the system.

e) Frequency Change Substations: These substations are used for converting

normal frequency to other useful frequency and are supplied to industries which
require high or low frequency.

f) Converting Substations: These substations are used for converting AC into DC.
This is useful for special purposes such as electric traction, electric welding, battery
charging, etc.

 According to Design
The main components of substation equipment are insulators, bus bars, circuit
breakers, transformers, switches, relays, etc., which are properly protected for
continuity and quality of supply.
According to design, the substations are classified as indoor and outdoor
substations.
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a) Indoor Substations:
Indoor substations are those whose apparatus are installed
within a building. These substations are generally used up to 11 kV voltages only.
Generally these types of substations are installed where the atmosphere is
contaminated with impurities such as metal-corroding gases and fumes, conductive dust, etc.

b) Outdoor Substations: Outdoor substations are of two types. They are:

1. Pole-mounted substations: These are used for distribution purposes only and
are usually mounted on double or four-pole structures with suitable platforms.
2. Foundation-mounted substations: These are also called plinth-mounted
substations. These are used for high-rating transformers due to the heavy weight of
the transformer.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF INDOOR AND OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS

Outdoor substations have the following merits over indoor substations:
i. All the equipment is visible. So the identification of fault is easier.
ii. Expansion of the substation is easier.
iii. Takes less erection tin :.
iv. There is no necessity of building. So it requires less building material.
v. The construction work required is comparatively smaller, and hence, the cost of the
switchgear installation is low.
vi. The spacing between the apparatus is more, so less damage occurs due to faults.

The demerits of outdoor substations over indoor substations are:

i. Switching operations, the supervision and maintenance of apparatus are to be
performed in the open air during all kinds of weather.
ii. Requires more space for arranging apparatus in the substation.
iii. The apparatus is exposed to the sun. It requires special design, therefore, for
withstanding high temperatures.
iv. The apparatus requires more maintenance due to dust and dirt deposition on the
outdoor substation equipment.
v. These are prone to lightning strokes.
The choice of the particular arrangement depends upon the relative importance
of safety, reliability, flexibility of operation, initial cost, easy maintenance, availability of
good area, location of connecting lines and provision for expansions and appearance.

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Substation layout showing the location of all the substation equipment

A substation essentially consists of

1. The incoming feeders or sources
2. Disconnecting switches or isolators
3. Surge protection or over voltage protection devices (Surge diverters or lightning
arresters)
4. Fuses or circuit breakers
5. Bus bars (where power is received and distributed)
6. Transformers
7. Metering equipment
8. Outgoing feeders
9. Axially power supply (battery source) for operation of isolators, CBs etc.
10. Control room from where all required operations are done
Typical substation layouts (single line diagram) of a 11kV / 415-V, 3-phase LT
substation is shown in the following Fig.

Most of the LT substation i.e., 400 - 440 V, 3-phase substations up to 250 kVA are
pole-mounted or platform mounted. The gang operated (GO) isolator switch is meant
for no-load operation and fuse is put for protection on HV side. The low voltage side of
the transformer is connected to the distribution network through a LT main switch and
fuses.
Larger capacity (> 500 kVA) LT substations will have on the LT (400 V) side, a
busbar, distribution box with circuit breakers, disconnecting switches and fuses.
Industrial substations may have generators (stand by) connected to the substation LT
side through suitable switch gear and protection equipment. The primary distribution
substation usually will have a capacity more than 1 MVA and can be up to 20 MVA are
more.

The purpose of a few important components are as follows.

i. Gang operated(G.O) or other isolator switches are meant for closing or opening the
circuit under no-load. A few switches are designed to be closed on load also.

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ii. Fuses: These are for protecting the transformer on over loads and faults. Once a fuse
blows off, the supply is disconnected. The circuit cannot be closed automatically after
the fault.

iii. Circuit breakers: These are switches which will operate automatically under heavy
over loads or faults. They can be closed or opened on load as well as under fault
conditions.

iv. Bus bars: These are heavy duty conductors which can carry both the entire load
current corresponding to the capacity of the substation and also fault current for few
seconds. They are designed to withstand heavy mechanical forces that develop under
fault conditions since the force between two parallel conductors is proportional to
square of the current. They are arranged as parallel bars mounted on insulators. Supply
to transformers is given from busbars through isolator switches or CBS.

v. Transformers: These are used to step down the supply voltage. Distribution
transformers operate from no-load or light load conditions to full load condition with
varying power factors. Their impedance usually ranges from 4 to 6% (0.04 to 0.06 pu)
and no load losses are a minimum. Power transformers in primary distribution
substation are usually loaded from 50% to full load and operated at p.f of 0.8 to 0.9 lag
with suitable power factor correction capacitor banks. Their impedance may be 0.06 to
0.1 so that current under faults is limited by their impedance.

vi. Metering equipment: It is necessary at the substation to know the electrical

quantities pertaining to the supply, i.e., voltage, current, power. p.f. KVA of the incoming
supply and outgoing supply. The difference gives the power loss and the energy loss.
Hence the substations will have potential transformers (PTs) and current transformers
(CTs) connected to the incoming and outgoing feeders. The output of the CTs and PTs is
fed to voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters which measure the above quantities. In
addition a separate set of PTs and CTs are installed to feed to the relays for switch gear
operation. The standard ratings adopted on the secondary side of the PTs is 110/120 V
and for CTs ( 0- 5A) or (0- 1A).

vii. Auxiliary power supply/battery room: Usually for independent operation of CBS,
remote controlled isolator (Gang operated) switches and other equipment, a battery
supply of' 110 V or 220 V with adequate ampere hour capacity is maintained. The
batteries are charged from the substation supply itself.

viii. Control room: A central room is located in primary substations where all the
metering equipment, relays and auxiliary controls are installed. All the electrical
quantities are fed to recording equipment for continuous record when the substation is
remote controlled using 'SCADA' or such other means. The data is fed to the controlling
centre from this point.

ix. Surge diverters or lightning arresters: These are installed at the incoming point of
the feeders as well as the outgoing feeder points to protect the substation from over
voltages due to lightning as well as switching surges. In addition, spark gaps such as rod
gaps are installed across the hushing of transformers, switch gear etc. for the same
purpose. Rod gaps are much cheaper compared to surge diverters but the risk factor for
protection is high.
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1) SINGLE BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT:
It consists of a single bus bar and all the incoming and outgoing lines are
connected to the same bus bar as shown in Fig. Here the 11 kV incoming lines are
connected to the bus bar through isolators and circuit breakers. Three-phase, 400 V and
single-phase, 230 V outgoing lines are connected through isolator, circuit breaker, and
step-down transformer from the bus bar. This type of arrangement is suitable for DC
stations and small AC stations.
The major drawback of this system is that, if the fault occurs on any section of
the bus bar, the entire bus bar is to be de-energized for carrying out the repair work. So,
this results in a loss of continuity of service of all feeders. Similarly, the periodical
maintenance work on bus bars can also be carried out only by disconnecting the whole
supply.

The equipment connections are very simple, and hence, the system is very
convenient to operate. This arrangement is not popular for voltages above 33 kV. The
indoor 11 kV substations often use single bus bar arrangements.

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Merits:
• Each of the outgoing circuits requires a single-circuit breaker. So, this type of
arrangement is the cheapest one.
• The relaying system is simple.
• The maintenance cost is low.
• The bus bar potential can he used for the line relays.
Demerits:
• Maintenance without interruption of supply is not possible.
• Expansion of the substation without shutdown is not possible.

2) SINGLE-BUS BAR SYSTEM WITH SECTIONALIZATION:

The sectionalisation of the bus bar ensures continuity of supply on the other
feeders, during the time of maintenance or repair of one side of the bus bar. The whole
of the supply need not be shut down. The number of sections of a bus bar is usually 2 or
3 as shown in Fig., but actually it is limited by the short-circuit current to be handled.
Another advantage of sectionalisation is that the circuit breaks of low breaking capacity
can he used on the sections as compared to the previous case. In case of duplicate
feeders, they are connected to different sections of the bus bars so that in the event of a
fault on one of the bus bar sections. The feeders connected to it are immediately
transferred to the healthy-bus bar section and the faulty section is isolated.
An important point to note is that the sections should be synchronized before the
bus coupled is closed for sharing the load.

Advantages:
• The operation of this system is simple as in case of the single bus bar.
• The maintenance cost of this system is comparable with the single bus bar.
• For maintenance or repair of the bus bar, only one half of the bus bar is required to be
de-energized. So complete shutdown of the bus bar is avoided.
• It is possible to utilize the bus bar potential for line relays.

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Disadvantages:
• In case of a fault on the bus bar, one half of the section will be switched off.
• For regular maintenance also, one of the bus bars is required to be de-energized.
• For maintaining or repairing a circuit breaker, it is required to be isolated from the
bus bar.

3) MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS BAR :

The schematic diagram of this commonly used arrangement is shown in Fig. This
arrangement is an alternative to the double bus bar scheme. In this arrangement any
line circuit breaker can be taken out for maintenance and repair without affecting the
supply. This is done by closed transfer circuit breaker and changing the load to transfer
bus bar and then removing the line breaker from service. Only one breaker at a time can
be removed from service and the transfer breaker takes its place when it is out of
service.

In a substation, to work on a bus bar, it is often necessary to remove it from

service. This is possible only by transferring the load to the other bus bar. This is not
possible in this scheme. Hence, the absence of this facility to remove any bus bar from
service is the only drawback.
Advantages:
• It ensures supply in case of bus fault. In case of any fault in a bus, the circuit can be
transferred to the transformer bus.
• It is easy to connect the circuit from any bus.
• The maintenance cost of substation decreases.
• The bus potential can be used for relays.
Disadvantages:
• Requires one extra breaker for the bus bar.
• Switching is somewhat complicated while maintaining a breaker.
• Failure of bus or any circuit breaker results in shutdown of entire substation.

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GAS INSULATED SUBSTATIONS
Gas Insulated Substation uses sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas which has a
superior dielectric properties used at moderate pressure for phase to phase and phase
to ground insulation. In Gas Insulated Substation the high-voltage conductors, circuit
breaker interrupters, switches, current transformers, voltage transformers and
lightning arresters are encapsulated in SF6 gas inside grounded metal enclosures.
Gas Insulated Substations are used where there is space for providing the
substation is expensive in large cities and towns. In normal substation the clearances
between the phase to phase and phase to ground is very large. Due to this, large space is
required for the normal or Air Insulated Substation (AIS). But the dielectric strength of
SF6 gas is higher compared to the air, the clearances required for phase to phase and
phase to ground for all equipments are quite lower. Hence, the overall size of each
equipment and the complete substation is reduced to about 10% of the conventional air
insulated substation.

Merits of Gas Insulated Substation:

i) Safe:
Gases insulated Substations are very safe and operating personnel are protected
by the earthed metal enclosures. While the Substation in operating conditions the
Operating personnel can touch the compartment.
ii) Reliable:
The complete enclosure of all live parts guards against any impairment of the
insulation system.
iii) Space Saving:
SF6 switchgear installations take up only 10% of the space required for the
conventional installations.
iv) Economical:
Initial high investment is required for installation but the cost can be comparable
for the less maintenance, reliable, safe operation against conventional substation.
v) Maintenance Free:
An extremely careful selection of materials, an expedient design and a high
standard of manufacturing quality assure long service life with practically no
maintenance requirement.

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 vi) Low Weight:
Low weight due to aluminium enclosure, corresponds to low cost foundations
and buildings.
vii) Shop assembled:
Quick site assembly ensured by extensive pre assembly and testing of complete
feeders or large units in the factory.
viii) Long life and freedom from frequent maintenance.
ix) It can be upgraded in vertical direction very easily.

Demerits Of Gas Insulated Substation:

i) Cost is higher compared to Air Insulated Substation or conventional substation.
ii) Procurement of SF6 gas and supply of gas to the site is problematic
iii) Normally this type of substations are indoor type and requires separate building
iv) Maintaining Cleanliness is very important. Dust or moisture inside the compartment
causes the flashover.
v) When fault occurs internally, the outage period will be very long. The damage effect
will also be severe.

Differences between AIS & GIS

S.NO Air Insulated Substation Gas Insulated Substation

1 Air is used as insulation SF6 is used as insulation
The clearance between phase to phase The clearance between phase to phase &
2
& phase to ground is high. phase to ground is low.
3 Size of each equipment is high Size of each equipment is low.
4 Size of substation is high. Size of substation is low.
5 The dielectric strength is low The dielectric strength is high.
6 The density is low The density is high.
7 It is not a electro negative gas It is a electro negative gas
8 It is not a green house gas It is a green house gas
9 It can’t contribute for global warming It can contribute for global warming
10 Cost is low Cost is high
11 It requires more maintenance It requires less maintenance

RATING OF DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION

The additional capacity requirements of a system with increasing load density
can be met by
1. Either holding the service area of a given substation constant and increasing its
capacity
2. Or developing new substations and thereby holding the rating of the given substation
constant.
It is helpful to assume that the system changes
(i) at constant load density for short-term distribution planning and
(ii) at increasing load density for long-term planning.
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 Consider a square-shaped service area representing a part of, or the entire
service area of, a distribution substation. It is assumed that the square area is served by
four primary feeders from a central feed point, as shown in Figure. Each feeder and its
laterals are of three phase. Dots represent balanced three-phase loads lumped at that
location and fed by distribution transformers.
Here, the percent voltage drop from the feed point a to the end of the last lateral
at c is

The voltage-drop calculation can be simplified by introducing a constant K that

can be defined as percent voltage drop per kilovolt-ampere-mile. The following Figure
gives the K constant for various voltages and copper conductor sizes. This Figure is
developed for three-phase overhead lines with an equivalent spacing of 37 in. between
phase conductors.

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From Square shape area, each feeder serves a total load of

The above equation can be written as

Where,

Substituting S4 in the above equation

In the above Equations, it is assumed that the total or lumped-sum load is located
at a point on the main feeder at a distance of (2/3) × l4 from the feed point a.

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 Consider a hexagonally shaped service area supplied by six feeders from the feed
point that is located at the centre, as shown in the following Figure. Assume that each
feeder service area is equal to one-sixth of the hexagonally shaped total area, or

Substituting A6 in the above equation

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 Substituting S6 in the above equation

SUBSTATION SERVICE AREA WITH ‘n’ PRIMARY FEEDERS

In general, the distribution substation service area is served by ‘n’ primary
feeders emanating from the point, as shown in the following Figure. Assume that the
load in the service area is uniformly distributed and each feeder serves an area of
triangular shape. The differential load served by the feeder in a differential area of dA is

From the figure,

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 Substituting Sn in the above equation,

We know,

Hence the above equation can be written as

The above Equations are only applicable when n ≥ 3.

To compute the percent voltage drop in uniformly loaded lateral, lump and
locate its total load at a point halfway along its length and multiply the kilovolt-ampere-
mile product for that line length and loading by the appropriate K constant.

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Advantages / benefits delivered through optimal location of substation:

Optimal location of substation is necessary to reduce the cost and service

interruptions. The fallowing benefits are obtained from the optimal location of
substations.

1. Design of substation becomes cheap, simple and feasible.

2. The substation is very close to the load center of its service area.

3. Capital cost is low.

4. The product of KVA and the distance is minimum.

5. Voltage regulation is improved.

6. When future loads are added the access for the incoming and outgoing feeders

is good.

7. Voltage regulation requirement at the farthest load point are satisfied.

8. The number of customers effected by the service outage is less due to the

possibility of alternate supply arrangements.

9. Enough space for the future substation expansion is allotted. i.e., extension of

substation is possible.

10. The cost of feeders and the power loses are reduced.

11. There is no objection or opposition by legal administration laws for the right

way for the feeders and approach roads to substation.

12. Time required for the erection of substation is reduced.

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