Cap 1
Cap 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
cutting tool. The first studies of chip formation were qualitative in nature and
investigated the material flow (deformation) in the chip formation. Rosehain and
Sturney [4] attempted to classify the process according to the type of chip produced.
These authors classified the chip as “shear”, “tear”, and “flow chips”. This
classification was used until 1938 when Ernes [5] presented his classical observation
of chip formation. They were:
Shown in Figure 1.2 is a continuous chip. As the name suggests, the chip is
formed as a continuous ribbon when machining ductile materials under ideal
cutting conditions. This chip is the result of continuous plastic deformation
leading to steady cutting forces and a smooth machined surface.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
V = cutting speed, d = depth of cut, w = chip width, t2 = chip thickness, t1 = feed/rev, N = spindle
speed, σ = side cutting edge, D1 = bar dia, D2 = machined dia.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Oblique machining is a complex machining process due to the shape of the cutting
edge. Attempts have been made to analyse the process Lin and Oxley [6], although
this results in a complex solution to analyse. Figure 1.5 shows a simplified metal
cutting process known as orthogonal machining. The orthogonal cutting process is
normally the analysis used by researchers as it eliminates a number of variables that
can affect the cutting theory. For this reason the orthogonal model is used for the
analysis of the machining process in this research.
In orthogonal machining the cutting edge of the tool is set perpendicular to the
direction of the cutting, and parallel to the surface being machined, as shown in
Figure 1.5 and 1.6. Also, the tool must overlap the cutting surface such that the metal
removal is only done on the primary surface. If the width of cut is very much larger
than the depth of cut shown in Figure 1.5 t1 < w, then the flow of the material
approximates to that of plane strain: that is the flow is in two directions only.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Under certain conditions on the lathe the machining processes can be considered as
approximately orthogonal. These conditions are that the feed must be small relative
to the depth of cut - making most of the cutting taking place in the direction of the
feed, and the cutting on the nose of the tool will be negligible (Mikell P. Groover
[7]). The special machining conditions that allow orthogonal analysis to be used were
employed in determining the set feed rate and depth of cut on the engine lathe.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
In order to overcome these difficulties and provide more reliable data, many
countries have set up Machining Data Banks [9] based on information on the
machining process collected from various sources. In conjunction with this available
machining data, it is apparent that appropriate tool life tests need to be carried out for
the material and tool tips used in this research. This will allow this research to
determine the effectiveness of air-cooling of the tool tip, by comparing air-cooling
test data against reliable tool life data.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The more heat in the primary cutting zone the easier the chip will separate. However,
with too much heat the tool tip material will also want to separate from the tool tip,
vastly reducing its tool life. Traditionally, the approach to prolong tool life is to
supply large amounts of liquid cutting fluid to the cutting zone to cool the tool tip.
The consequence of this is to add additional cost to the product, and appropriate
costly disposal preparations must be in place for the contaminated cutting fluid.
Therefore, exploiting the potential of dry machining is economical and
environmentally necessary for modern manufacturing.
As more attention is being focused on the role of cutting fluids in machining, there is
a new ISO 14000 international environmental management system standard to guide
manufacturers. The aim here is to help manufacturers reduce the environmental
burden produced by manufacturing. An environmental burden analysed by H. Narita
et al. [11] that considers all aspects of the machining process shows that liquid
coolant alone contributes to 0.98 kg-CO2/L equivalent CO2 emission intensities. This
is the amount of greenhouse gas that has been produced during the making of the
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
liquid coolant and from using it. So the machine tool energy efficiency and the
impact of the process waste have a negative effect on the environment D. Dudzinski
[12]. These CO2 emission values clearly show why dry machining is being
considered more and more for applicable machining processes.
(Picture from Seco web site on the 6th Dec. 2005) http://www.secotools.com/template/start
However, even with the improvements to tool tip materials, tool life will always be
reduced due to the higher working temperatures of dry machining K. Causton [13].
As previously outlined, the use of dry machining can be considered as a “green”
manufacturing process as there is no pollution generated waste with the cutting of the
material. The significance of using dry machining can be highlighted when we note
that, in Australia alone, millions of litres of liquid coolant are consumed each year.
This has been estimated to constitute about 7 to 17 percent of the total machining
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
costs. The equivalent CO2 emissions contributed by the disposal of the liquid coolant
can be evaluated as 0.192 kg-CO2/L. Research has shown that dry machining is
preferably carried out at high speed N.A. Abukhshim et al. [14]. Although cutting
metal at high speeds is associated with high temperatures, most of the additional heat
generated is removed by the chips.